1234 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. Chemistry of Vegetable Physiology and Agriculture. Presence of Ammonia and Nitrous Acid in Potable Water. By J. E. ENKLAAR (Rec. Truv. Chim., 8, 327--328).-The anthor made a number of experiments in order to ascertain the origin of the nitrous acid which is formed in potable water, whilst the quantity of ammonia gradually becomes less. The conclusions at which he arrived are as follows :-No oxidation takes place when the water is boiled before the experiment; it occurs to a far less extent in distilled water. The nitrous acid is formed by the oxidation of ammonia under the influence of microbes probably identical with the bacteria which play such au important part in nitrification. These microbes do not seem t o develop in distilled water, but they multiply rapidly in water con- taining calcium carbonate and organic matter; they are killed or paralysed by free acids.The nitrous acid does not appear in the water until some days after the introduction of the oxidising microbes. I?. s. K. Relation between the Intensity of Radiation and the Decomposition of Carbonic Anhydride by Plants. By C. TIMIRIAZEFF (Compt. rend., 109, 379-382).--8 beam of sunlight directed by a heliostat was allowed to fall on plants in such a way that they received radiation of varyirg intensities, full exposure to sunlight being taken as the unit. The gas evolved was measured and analy sed. The rate of decomposition at first increases rapidly with the inten- sity of the radiation, then increases more slowly, and becomes con- stant at a point cotisiderably below insclation, the curve being parallel with the axis of‘the abscissae which represent the intensity of the ra- diation.These results confirm Kreusler’s earlier experiments ; the cha- racter of the curve is probably due to a relation between the propor- tion of the radiation absorbed by the chlorophyll (20 to 25 per cent. of that incident on the leaves) and the proportion (not more thanVEGETABLE PHYSIOl OQY AND AORICULTURE. 1235 5 per cent.), which is actually converted into chemical work in the lep ves. C. H. B. Carbohydrates as Oxydation-products of Vegetable Albumin. By W. PALLADTN (Ohem. Centr., 1889, i, 811, from Ber. deut. hot. GeseZI., 7, 126--130).--The author holds that the transitory formation of starch, during the germination of seed,s, occurs at the expense of the albumin, asparagine being formed at the same time.After this state is perfected arid the starch has disappeared, d<irk plants accumulate asparagine, whilst in light plants the asparagine is reconverted into albumin. The author has already (this vol., p. 642) shown that the formation of ssparngine is accompanied by an assimilation of oxygen, and in consequence of the oxidation of albumin. The author has also pre- viously shown that the ratio GO2 : O2 during the respiration of growing organs is less than unity, and that therefore the cell formation is accompanied by an absorption of oxygen, and he concludes from these facts that the carbohydrates are products of the incomplete oxidation of albumin. I f the transitory formation of starch is accompanied by an absorption of oxygen, then the ratio GO, : O2 must be less in the caqe of the respiration of the germinating leguminosa: than in that of the cereals.J. W. L, Lignin. By G. LANGE (Zed. physiol. Chem., 14, 15--SO)-Payen (Compt. rend., 8, 51) first showed that wood contained 10 per cent. more carbon than cellulose ; the substance which thickens the walls of cells and vessels he termed “incrusting material,” and found it was removable by nitric acid. F. Schulze (Chern. Centr., 1887, 321), called this substance lignin, and gave it the empirical formula C,H,,O,. Other observers since then (Fremy, Hoppe Seyler, and others) have considered that the substance in question is a mixture. Thomsen (Annalen, 138, 1) found that by the use of sodium hydroxide of sp.gr. 1.1 he was able to separate one of the con- stituents of lignin, which he called wood-gum: this is an isomeride of cellulose. Wood-gum, however, does not exist as such in the wood; it is soluble in water; but water will not extract any wood-gum from wood ; therefore it must be formed by the action of the alkali. In the present research, lignin was prepared both from beech and ash wood. The method closely followed that of Thomsen; great care being taken to thoroughly wash the substances dealt with with a large number of reagents in which they were insoluble. The product was finally fused with alkali, and the products examined. The results may be briefly stated :-The products obtained are (1) Cel- lalose ; (2) two kinds of lignic acid from each kind of lignin ; these differ in elementary composition and in certain reactions ; their chemical constitution has still to be worked out.(3) Formic acid, acetic acid, and traces of higher organic acids. (4) Protocatechuic acid, catechol, ammonia, and traces of higher bases. (5) A crystnl- line substance in very small quantities which has yet to be inves- t igat ed . W. D. H.I236 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. Oleo-gum-resin secreted by Araucarias. By E. HFCKEL and Ti'. SGHLAGDENHAUFFEN (Compt. rend., 109, 382--3d5).--Arancarias differ from other coniferae in that they secrete an oleo-gum-resin con- taining a large proportion of arabin. The secreting glands are a t first normal and secrete oleo-resin, but a t a certain time the celIs bordering upon the glands elongate into papillae, which converge to the centre of the glands, and completely obstruct the passage.From this time the neighbouring cells cease to secrete oleo-resin, become gelatinous, and are couverted into liquid gum or arabin, which mixes with the oleo-resin previously secreted. At a particular time the glands are filled with a limpid liquid, which becomes white and opaque when exposed to air, and in which gum or oleo-resin predomi- nates according to the species and time of year. Araucaria Brasiliensis, A . Biduiilli, A. Cunninghami, A . excelsa, and A . Cooki were examined. The proportion of gum in the secretion from one and the same species varies from 86 to 50 per cent., and in different species, from 29 to 93 per cent.The secretion consists chiefly of gum, which usual1 y contains a small quantity of glucose. In the case of A. Bidwilli, the portion of the secretion which is soluble in alcohol consists of a crystalline suhstance which dissolves in water and seems to be identical with pinite, the sugar found by Berthelot in Pinus Zambertiana. All the oleo-resins and their essences are dextrogyrate in chloroform solution. The solutions in alcohol and in light petro- leum contain no inorganic substances, but the portion soluble in water leaves an ash consisting mainly of calcium chloride, with some alkaline sulphates, calcium sulphate and carbonate, and small quan- tities of iron and manganese. Protophyllin in Etiolated Plants. Py C. TIMIRIAZEFF (Compt. C. H. B. rend., 109, 414-416) .-Protophyllin is obtained from chlorophyll free from xanthophyll (Abstr., 1886.626) ; it shows an absorption- spectrum consisting of bands 2 and 4 of the chlorophyll spectrum. Oxidation is a t once indicated by a reduction in the intensity of €hew bands, and the appearance of bands 1 and 3. Etiolated plants yield but very little protophyllin, and very deep layers of liquid must be used to observe the absorption spectrum. If 'vepy great care is taken to keep the plants completely in the dark, and to prevent oxidation of the protophyllin, its solution shows no trace of the chlorophyll band No. 1. Protophyllin remains unaltered in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride in the dark, but when exposed to light immediately becomes green. The author points out that he has never definitely asserted that the protophy llin reduces the carbonic anhydride.It is very difficult to ensure the absence of every trace of oxygen. ?'he decomposition of carbonic anhydride by the green parts of plants through the agency of chlorophyll must be attributed to the rays itbsorbed by the chlorophyll which is there from the beginning. and cannot fairly be ascribed to rays absorbed by protophyllin which is not present in the leaves and could only be formed by reduction of the chlorophyll. The strong absorption-band of protophyllin is in t h e orange, and these are also the r a p which are most active inVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AKD AGRlCULTUHE. i237 turning etiolated plants green (Reinke). The conversion of etiolated plants into green plants is due to the rays absorbed by the proto- phyllin, and the decomposition of carbonic anhydride is due to rays absorbed by the chlorophyll.Atmospheric Nitrogen and Vegetable Soils. By T. SCHLOESING (Compt. rend., 109, 210-4213) -Hellriegel and Wilfarth have shown that microbes play an essential part in the absorption of atmospheric nitrogen by soils on which crops are growing. The author has there- fore made experiments with eight soils taken from fields on wbich leguminosae were growing, the assumption being that these soils would be charged with microbes, and herice ang absorption of atmosphere nitrogen due t o their influence would be well marked. The soils were dried by exposure to air, sifted, and introduced into large closed flasks, which were kept in a slightly warm place during winter.The atmosphere in the flask was renewed every week. The experiments lasted from August, 1888, t o July, 1889, and the nitrogen was deter- mined at the beginning and the end of the experiment. In all cases there was a slight loss of ammoniacal nitrogen, and a distinct increase in nitric nitrogen ; but in almost all cases there was a slight loss of total nitrogen, and in no case was the gain of total nitrogen so much as 0.01 gram per kilo. The results agree with the author’s previous experiments, and he concludes that no soil which is not actually supporting vegetation can absorb nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. C. H. B. C . H. B. Absorption of Nitrogen by Clay Soils. By BERTHELOT (Compt. rend., 109, 277--280).-Three years ago the author obtained results similar t o those of Schloesing (preceding Abstract), aiid regarded them as proof that the absorption of nitrogen by soils was not simply a function of the soil but was conditioned by the presence of living microbes. He points out that Schloesing’s experiments were made under conditions which are well known to be unfavournble to the ab- sorption of nitrogen, and he alBo points out that many independent observers have contirmed his conclusion that soil which contains microbes amd is supporting vegetable life has the power of absorbing nitrogen directly from the atmosphere.The Relation of Atmospheric Nitrogen to Vegetable Soils. By T. SCHLOESING (Compt. rend., 109, 345-349).-A reply in detail to the criticisms of Berthelot (preceding Abstracb).Influence of Electrification on the Absorption of Nitrogen by Vegetable Soils. By BERTHELOT (Compt. rend., 109, 281-287). -The soil, either alone or with living leguminosae, was placed in an electric field, a constant difference of potential being maintained between the soil, which formed one surface of the field, arid the plate of metal which formed the opposite surface of the field. The soil was exposed in both deep and shallow layers, sometimes with free circulation of air, sometimes in hermetically sealed globes, the duration of each experiment being about two months. C. H. B. C. H. B. VOL. LVI. 4 01238 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMCAL PAPERS. With thin layers of soil, freely exposed, there was no increase of nitrogen either under ordinary conditions or in an electric field with a, difference of potential of 33 volts.I n globes with a difference of potential of 33 volts, the nitrogen increased by 4.4 per cent. of its original amount, and with a difference of 132 volts, b y 6.1 per cent. Deep layers, in pots, of a soil nearly satiirated with nitrogen gave an increase of 9 per cent. with free exposure to air without electrifi- cation, and 3.5 per cent. with free exposure in an electric field with a difference of potential of 33 volts. The same soil under similav conditions, but in globes, gained 2.7 and 4.0 per cent. respectively. The same soil growing legumes with free exposure, ga7e an increase of 4.5 per cent. without electrification and 6.4 per cent. in the electric field. When enclosed in globes, the corresponding increases were 7.0 and 6.0 per cent.respectively. In another set of experiments, the gain with free exposure was 6.6 per cent. with electri6cation and 4.9 per cent. without; in globes, 7.1 per cent. in the electric field and 2 per cent. under ordinary conditions. A soil comparatively poor in nitrogen and growing leguminosm gave an increase of 22.4 per cent. with free exposure in the electric field, and 16.6 per cent. when not electrified. These results show that the absorption of nitrogen is increased bg electrification, and it is highly probable that this result is due to some peculiar influence of electricity on the soil and its vegetation. C. H. B. Absorption of Atmospheric Nitrogen. By BERTHELOT (COW@. rend., lO9,417--419).-The direct absorption of atmospheric nitrogen by soils under the influence of microbes and of vegetation may now be taken as definitely established. No such absorption occurs, how- ever, with soils which have been sterilised or which are already saturated with nitrogen.Evolution of Ammonia and Volatile Nitrogen Compounds from Vegetable Soils and from Plants. By BERTHELOT (Compt. rend., 109, 419--423).--Plants kept in moist closed spaces gradually perish, even in presence of suitable quantities of oxygen arid carbonic anhydride. I n the author’s experiments on the absorption of nitrogen by plants in closed vessels, it was found necessmy to change the atmosphere in the flasks frequently and completely, in order to ensure normal growth and development. Plants growing in soil which was kept constantly moist were enclosed in glass vessels in such a manner that the water, which was evolved from the plant and the soil and condensed on the sides of the vessel, trickled down into a reservoir below, without coming in con- tact with the soil.From time to time this condensed water was drawn off and slightly acidified, and when a sufficient quantity of liquid had been collected the ammonia was determined by boiling with magnesia, and the nitrogen in the residual liquid was determined by means of soda-lime, after slightly acidifying and evaporating to dryness. Vegetable soil supporting no plants gives off very small quantities of ammonia, and volatile nitrogen compounds. In one experiment C. H. B.VEQETABLE PHYSLULOGY AND AQRICULTURR. 1239 with vegetable soil on which vetches were grown, all the evolved ammonia was re-absorbed by the plant, but the condensed water con- tained a very small quantity of volatile nitrogen compounds.With other leguminostx+ the condensed liquid contained ammonia and other nitrogen compounds, the quantities being of the same order of magnitude as with the soil supporting no veqetation. It is obvious, however, that the quantities of ammonia and volatile nitrogen compounds found in the water do not represent the total quantiuties evolved, since a con- siderable proportion will be re-absorbed by both the plants and the soil. The fact, however, that the volatile nitrogen compounds exhaled by animals are highly poisonous to the same animals (this vol., p: 629) gives considerable importance to the recognition of the exhalation of similar products from plants.By T. SCHLOESING (Compt. rend., 109, 423--428).-The apparatus employed has been described in a previous paper. A definite quantity of an ammonium salt previously dissolved in water was carefully mixed with the soil, and the ammonia drawn from the flask while making it vacuous was absorbed in acid and estimated. The earth employed was rich in organic matter. Ammonium sulphate oxidises more rapidly than the chloride and carbonate ; in all cases the quantity of free nitrogen in excess of that originally present in the air was within the error of experiment. T be increase in nitric nitrogen was practically equivalent to the loss of ammoniacal nitrogen, although it might have beer: expected that the nitrogenous matter in the soil would have undergoiJe nitrifkatiori. It is known that in presence of nitrogenous organic matter the nitric ferment oxidises the carbon and bydrogen as well as the nitrogen, much more oxygen being utilised for the oxidation of the first two elements than for the nitrcgen. It would seem, however, that in presence of ammonium salts the energy of the ferment is greatly in- creased, and it oxidises the ammoiiium salt, taking from the organic matter in the soil only the carbon which is necessary for its own growth and reprodnction.The rates of oxidation observed in the case of ammonium chloride, sulphate, and carbonate correspond respectively with the oxidation of 62, 168, and 75 kilos. per hectare per day. The conditions of the ex- periments are not strictly comparable with the conditions in an open field, but it is evident that under favourable conditions the nitrification of ammonium sulphate is much more rapid than is generally supposed.Influence of Calcium Sulphate and of Clay on the Absorp- tion of Nitrogen by Soils. By P~~CHARD (Compt. rend., 109, 445--447).-Almost pure saxid was mixed with organic nitrogel1 in the form of oil-cake in the proportioil of about 1 gram per litre, in- oculated with the nitric ferment, and kept moist and free from vege- lation for 18 months. The loss of nitrogen amounted to 70 per cent. of the original quantity, and was greater the coarser the sand ; the ammoniacal and nitric nitrogen present in the sand at the end of the experiment were together less than 15 per cent.of the original quantity. Addition of 5 per cent. of calcium sulphate reduced the loss to 58 per C. H. B. Nitrification of Ammonia. C. H. B. $ 0 21240 ABSTRACTS OF CREMTCAL PAPRRS. cent., that which remained being mhinly in the form of nitric nitrogen, with some ammonia. The effect was most marked with fine sand, and when the mixture was kept moist. The organic nitrogen is con- verted into ammonia before any traces of nitrous or nitric acids are formed. When nitrification does not proceed regularly, ammonia and ammonium carbonate are given off, and finally nitrogen is evolved i n consequence of the interaction of ammonia and nitrous acid. The calcium sulphate partially converts the ammonia into ammonium sul- phate, which is one ot' the most readily oxidised of its salts, but the calcium sulphate probably also plays a direct part in nitrification by reason of the ease with which it is reduced and re-oxidised, like sodium and potassium sulphates, which exert a similar although less marked effect.There is no reason to suppose that any at,mospheric nitrogen was directly absorbed by the sand i n the course of the ex- periments. Sodium chloride in the proportion of 1 gram per kilo. does not interfere with the action of the calcium sulphate, and, in fact, assists nitrification by keeping the mixture slightly moist. The addition of 10 per cent. of pure clay reduces the loss of nitrogen, but an increase in nitric nitrogen is observed only with coarse sand ; with fine sand the quantity is even slightly reduced. In both cases the quantity of ammonia is greater in consequence of the well-known absorptive power of d a y for this substance.With a mixture of 0.5 per cent. of calcium sulphate and 10 to 40 per cent. of clay, there is still less loss, especially in the case of fine sand, which even absorbs nitrogen directly from the atmosphere to the extent of 28-53 per cent. of the nitrogen originslly present. In the case of coarse sand, the quantity of nitric nitrogen formed remains practically constant, but in other cases the quantity of nitric nitrogen, and also, thoiigh less rapidly, the quantity of ammonia, in- creases with the proportion of clay. I n the absence of calcium sulphate the clay soon becomes saturated with ammonia, but the rapid nitrifica- tion which takes place in presence of the sulphate keeps the proportion of ammonia below the saturation point.A soil composed of sand and clay, with some oalcium phosphate, absorbed nitrogen directly from the atmosphere in amount eqnal to 26.8 per cent. of the organic nitrogen originally present. Calciiim sulphate in calcareous soils prevents the loss of ammonia in the form of ammonium carbonate ; it is preferable to the oxide or to chalk as an addition to non-calcareous soils. 'Its effect is most marked in moist soils. The well-known beneficial influence of calcium sulphate, and of superphosphate which contains sulphate, on crops of leguminose is probably mainly due to the influence of the sulphate on nitrification. C. H. B. Formation of Ammonia in Arable Soil. By A. HEBERT (AM. Agron., 15, 355--369).-Moist earth sterilised by beitig heated for borne time to 110" was found to have developed a certain quantity of ammonia; still mcjre ammonia is formed at 130" and at 150°, so that the action of ferments is out of the question.The ammonia formed increases with the time of heating, but the greater part is formed in the first two Lours; for example, 100 grams of soil containing origin-VEGETABLE PHTSIOLOQF AND AQRICULTURE. 1241 ally 1.60 milligram of ammonia, contained after two hours at 150", 15.17 milligrams ; after four hours, 17.47 milligrams ; after six hours, 18.63 milligrams ; and after eight hours, 22.80 milligrams. The addi- tion of ammonium sulphate to the soil before heating reduces the quantity of ammonia formed in a regular manner ; thus, whilst in 100 grams of soil without addition, 10.04 milligrams of ammonia were formed during the heating, the addition of 10 milligrams of ammonium sulphate reduced the quantity formed to 9-24! milligrams, 20 milligrams of the salt to 8.92 milligrams, 50 milligrams of the salt to 8.23 milligrams, 100 milligrams of the salt to 3.47 milligrams, 150 milligrams of the salt to 2.19 milligrams, and 200 milligrams of the saltl to -0.81 milligram.These facts seem to imply the formation of ammonia by purely chemical action, and a, progressive dissociation, according t o the quantity of ammonium salt present. The formation of ammonia still takes place with soil free from calcium carbonate 01' deprived of it by treatment with dilute acid and subsequent washing. With dry soil, however, little or no ammonia is produced, and the author believes that the source of the ammonia is the decomposition of complex amides cmtained in the soil by heating in contact with water.Sea Sludge and its Absorptive Power for Lime and Potash. By A. MULLER (Landw. Verszcchs-Xtnt., 36, 257-263).-The moors of Stensjiiholm in Smaaland, South Sweden, consist partly of dried-up Rea bottom. The present sea bottom is covered with an extremely fine sludge, which is almost black when wet and dark-grey when dry. 100 parts of the air-dry sludge contain :--7.88 parts of water; 20.72 parts of combustible matter (containing 0.737 part of nitrogen) ; 14.64 parts of ferric oxide, with Bome alumina; 0.34 part of phos- phoric acid ; 0.27 part of lime ; 0.19 part of magnesia ; and 0.19 part of potash.That portion of the sludge which is insoluble in hydro- chloric acid contains (in 100 parts of oiiginal air-dried sludge) :- soluble silicic acid, 33.23; alumina, with some ferric oxide, 4.11; lime, 0.72 ; magnesia, 0.63 ; alkalis, 0.77 ; and silica, 16.69 parts. 10.1 grams of air-dried sludge was digested several times with 0.14 per cent. lime-water until no more lime was taken up ; it was found that the sludge had absorbed 295 per cent. of lime and 0.60 per cent. of alkali salt. It was not possible to determine how much of this was taken up by the silicic acid and how much by the organic matter of the sludge. Similar experiments were made by digesting 10.1 grams of the sludge with 50 grams of a solntion of 0.3615 gram of potassium car- bonate for 14 days: the sludge absorbed 1.47 per cent.of potash, corresponding with 2.33 per cent. of potassium chloride or about 12 per cent. of kainite. It is probable that the sludge would also absorb large quantities o€ phosphoric acid from superphosphntes. Silicic acid seems to form the best means for retaining plant food in the soil until required by plants, and it is suggested that the large amounts of silica found in, for instance, gramineous plants (which can be got to grow normally in solutions free from silica) acts in a similar mmuer within the plants themselves when these are so J. M. H. M.1242 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. situated that they sometimes have an excess and sometimes an in- sufficient amount of food, N. H. M. Phosphates and Cereals.By G. RAULIN (Compt. rend., 109, 375--377).-Plots of land were treated with a manure containing nitrogen and potassium, and adjacent plots were treated with the same manure mixed with phosphates of various kinds. The crop grown was wheat, and in every case the soil treated with phosphates gave a heavier crop than the soil which had only received the non- phosphatic manure. The increase varied with the proportion of phos- phates added and with the assirnilability of the phosphorus. Insoluble phosphates produced a greater effect in the first year than in subse- quent years, a result probably due to the fact that they contained a small proportion of phosphoric acid more readily assimilated than the rest. This would be utilised at once, whilst the insoluble portion becomes available only very slowly.C. H. B.1234 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS.Chemistry of Vegetable Physiology and Agriculture.Presence of Ammonia and Nitrous Acid in Potable Water.By J. E. ENKLAAR (Rec. Truv. Chim., 8, 327--328).-The anthormade a number of experiments in order to ascertain the origin of thenitrous acid which is formed in potable water, whilst the quantity ofammonia gradually becomes less. The conclusions at which hearrived are as follows :-No oxidation takes place when the wateris boiled before the experiment; it occurs to a far less extent indistilled water.The nitrous acid is formed by the oxidation of ammonia under theinfluence of microbes probably identical with the bacteria which playsuch au important part in nitrification.These microbes do not seemt o develop in distilled water, but they multiply rapidly in water con-taining calcium carbonate and organic matter; they are killed orparalysed by free acids. The nitrous acid does not appear in thewater until some days after the introduction of the oxidisingmicrobes. I?. s. K.Relation between the Intensity of Radiation and theDecomposition of Carbonic Anhydride by Plants. By C.TIMIRIAZEFF (Compt. rend., 109, 379-382).--8 beam of sunlightdirected by a heliostat was allowed to fall on plants in such a waythat they received radiation of varyirg intensities, full exposure tosunlight being taken as the unit. The gas evolved was measured andanaly sed.The rate of decomposition at first increases rapidly with the inten-sity of the radiation, then increases more slowly, and becomes con-stant at a point cotisiderably below insclation, the curve being parallelwith the axis of‘the abscissae which represent the intensity of the ra-diation.These results confirm Kreusler’s earlier experiments ; the cha-racter of the curve is probably due to a relation between the propor-tion of the radiation absorbed by the chlorophyll (20 to 25 per cent.of that incident on the leaves) and the proportion (not more thaVEGETABLE PHYSIOl OQY AND AORICULTURE. 12355 per cent.), which is actually converted into chemical work in thelep ves. C. H. B.Carbohydrates as Oxydation-products of VegetableAlbumin. By W. PALLADTN (Ohem. Centr., 1889, i, 811, from Ber.deut. hot.GeseZI., 7, 126--130).--The author holds that the transitoryformation of starch, during the germination of seed,s, occurs at theexpense of the albumin, asparagine being formed at the same time.After this state is perfected arid the starch has disappeared, d<irkplants accumulate asparagine, whilst in light plants the asparagine isreconverted into albumin.The author has already (this vol., p. 642) shown that the formationof ssparngine is accompanied by an assimilation of oxygen, and inconsequence of the oxidation of albumin. The author has also pre-viously shown that the ratio GO2 : O2 during the respiration of growingorgans is less than unity, and that therefore the cell formation isaccompanied by an absorption of oxygen, and he concludes from thesefacts that the carbohydrates are products of the incomplete oxidationof albumin.I f the transitory formation of starch is accompanied byan absorption of oxygen, then the ratio GO, : O2 must be less in thecaqe of the respiration of the germinating leguminosa: than in that ofthe cereals. J. W. L,Lignin. By G. LANGE (Zed. physiol. Chem., 14, 15--SO)-Payen(Compt. rend., 8, 51) first showed that wood contained 10 per cent.more carbon than cellulose ; the substance which thickens the wallsof cells and vessels he termed “incrusting material,” and found itwas removable by nitric acid. F. Schulze (Chern. Centr., 1887, 321),called this substance lignin, and gave it the empirical formulaC,H,,O,. Other observers since then (Fremy, Hoppe Seyler, andothers) have considered that the substance in question is a mixture.Thomsen (Annalen, 138, 1) found that by the use of sodiumhydroxide of sp.gr. 1.1 he was able to separate one of the con-stituents of lignin, which he called wood-gum: this is an isomerideof cellulose.Wood-gum, however, does not exist as such in the wood; it issoluble in water; but water will not extract any wood-gum fromwood ; therefore it must be formed by the action of the alkali.In the present research, lignin was prepared both from beech andash wood. The method closely followed that of Thomsen; greatcare being taken to thoroughly wash the substances dealt with with alarge number of reagents in which they were insoluble. The productwas finally fused with alkali, and the products examined.Theresults may be briefly stated :-The products obtained are (1) Cel-lalose ; (2) two kinds of lignic acid from each kind of lignin ; thesediffer in elementary composition and in certain reactions ; theirchemical constitution has still to be worked out. (3) Formic acid,acetic acid, and traces of higher organic acids. (4) Protocatechuicacid, catechol, ammonia, and traces of higher bases. (5) A crystnl-line substance in very small quantities which has yet to be inves-t igat ed . W. D. HI236 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS.Oleo-gum-resin secreted by Araucarias. By E. HFCKEL andTi'. SGHLAGDENHAUFFEN (Compt. rend., 109, 382--3d5).--Arancariasdiffer from other coniferae in that they secrete an oleo-gum-resin con-taining a large proportion of arabin.The secreting glands are a tfirst normal and secrete oleo-resin, but a t a certain time the celIsbordering upon the glands elongate into papillae, which converge tothe centre of the glands, and completely obstruct the passage. Fromthis time the neighbouring cells cease to secrete oleo-resin, becomegelatinous, and are couverted into liquid gum or arabin, which mixeswith the oleo-resin previously secreted. At a particular time theglands are filled with a limpid liquid, which becomes white andopaque when exposed to air, and in which gum or oleo-resin predomi-nates according to the species and time of year. Araucaria Brasiliensis,A . Biduiilli, A. Cunninghami, A . excelsa, and A . Cooki were examined.The proportion of gum in the secretion from one and the samespecies varies from 86 to 50 per cent., and in different species,from 29 to 93 per cent.The secretion consists chiefly of gum,which usual1 y contains a small quantity of glucose. In the case ofA. Bidwilli, the portion of the secretion which is soluble in alcoholconsists of a crystalline suhstance which dissolves in water and seemsto be identical with pinite, the sugar found by Berthelot in PinusZambertiana. All the oleo-resins and their essences are dextrogyratein chloroform solution. The solutions in alcohol and in light petro-leum contain no inorganic substances, but the portion soluble inwater leaves an ash consisting mainly of calcium chloride, with somealkaline sulphates, calcium sulphate and carbonate, and small quan-tities of iron and manganese.Protophyllin in Etiolated Plants.Py C. TIMIRIAZEFF (Compt.C. H. B.rend., 109, 414-416) .-Protophyllin is obtained from chlorophyllfree from xanthophyll (Abstr., 1886. 626) ; it shows an absorption-spectrum consisting of bands 2 and 4 of the chlorophyll spectrum.Oxidation is a t once indicated by a reduction in the intensity of €hewbands, and the appearance of bands 1 and 3. Etiolated plants yieldbut very little protophyllin, and very deep layers of liquid must beused to observe the absorption spectrum. If 'vepy great care is takento keep the plants completely in the dark, and to prevent oxidationof the protophyllin, its solution shows no trace of the chlorophyllband No.1.Protophyllin remains unaltered in an atmosphere of carbonicanhydride in the dark, but when exposed to light immediatelybecomes green. The author points out that he has never definitelyasserted that the protophy llin reduces the carbonic anhydride. It isvery difficult to ensure the absence of every trace of oxygen.?'he decomposition of carbonic anhydride by the green parts ofplants through the agency of chlorophyll must be attributed to therays itbsorbed by the chlorophyll which is there from the beginning.and cannot fairly be ascribed to rays absorbed by protophyllin which isnot present in the leaves and could only be formed by reduction ofthe chlorophyll. The strong absorption-band of protophyllin is int h e orange, and these are also the r a p which are most active iVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AKD AGRlCULTUHE.i237turning etiolated plants green (Reinke). The conversion of etiolatedplants into green plants is due to the rays absorbed by the proto-phyllin, and the decomposition of carbonic anhydride is due to raysabsorbed by the chlorophyll.Atmospheric Nitrogen and Vegetable Soils. By T. SCHLOESING(Compt. rend., 109, 210-4213) -Hellriegel and Wilfarth have shownthat microbes play an essential part in the absorption of atmosphericnitrogen by soils on which crops are growing. The author has there-fore made experiments with eight soils taken from fields on wbichleguminosae were growing, the assumption being that these soils wouldbe charged with microbes, and herice ang absorption of atmospherenitrogen due t o their influence would be well marked.The soilswere dried by exposure to air, sifted, and introduced into large closedflasks, which were kept in a slightly warm place during winter. Theatmosphere in the flask was renewed every week. The experimentslasted from August, 1888, t o July, 1889, and the nitrogen was deter-mined at the beginning and the end of the experiment. In all casesthere was a slight loss of ammoniacal nitrogen, and a distinct increasein nitric nitrogen ; but in almost all cases there was a slight loss oftotal nitrogen, and in no case was the gain of total nitrogen so muchas 0.01 gram per kilo.The results agree with the author’s previous experiments, and heconcludes that no soil which is not actually supporting vegetationcan absorb nitrogen directly from the atmosphere.C.H. B.C . H. B.Absorption of Nitrogen by Clay Soils. By BERTHELOT (Compt.rend., 109, 277--280).-Three years ago the author obtained resultssimilar t o those of Schloesing (preceding Abstract), aiid regardedthem as proof that the absorption of nitrogen by soils was not simplya function of the soil but was conditioned by the presence of livingmicrobes. He points out that Schloesing’s experiments were madeunder conditions which are well known to be unfavournble to the ab-sorption of nitrogen, and he alBo points out that many independentobservers have contirmed his conclusion that soil which containsmicrobes amd is supporting vegetable life has the power of absorbingnitrogen directly from the atmosphere.The Relation of Atmospheric Nitrogen to Vegetable Soils.By T.SCHLOESING (Compt. rend., 109, 345-349).-A reply in detailto the criticisms of Berthelot (preceding Abstracb).Influence of Electrification on the Absorption of Nitrogenby Vegetable Soils. By BERTHELOT (Compt. rend., 109, 281-287).-The soil, either alone or with living leguminosae, was placed in anelectric field, a constant difference of potential being maintainedbetween the soil, which formed one surface of the field, arid the plateof metal which formed the opposite surface of the field. The soilwas exposed in both deep and shallow layers, sometimes with freecirculation of air, sometimes in hermetically sealed globes, the durationof each experiment being about two months.C.H. B.C. H. B.VOL. LVI. 4 1238 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMCAL PAPERS.With thin layers of soil, freely exposed, there was no increase ofnitrogen either under ordinary conditions or in an electric field with a,difference of potential of 33 volts. I n globes with a difference ofpotential of 33 volts, the nitrogen increased by 4.4 per cent. of itsoriginal amount, and with a difference of 132 volts, b y 6.1 per cent.Deep layers, in pots, of a soil nearly satiirated with nitrogen gavean increase of 9 per cent. with free exposure to air without electrifi-cation, and 3.5 per cent. with free exposure in an electric field witha difference of potential of 33 volts. The same soil under similavconditions, but in globes, gained 2.7 and 4.0 per cent.respectively.The same soil growing legumes with free exposure, ga7e an increaseof 4.5 per cent. without electrification and 6.4 per cent. in the electricfield. When enclosed in globes, the corresponding increases were 7.0and 6.0 per cent. respectively. In another set of experiments, thegain with free exposure was 6.6 per cent. with electri6cation and 4.9per cent. without; in globes, 7.1 per cent. in the electric field and2 per cent. under ordinary conditions.A soil comparatively poor in nitrogen and growing leguminosm gavean increase of 22.4 per cent. with free exposure in the electric field,and 16.6 per cent. when not electrified.These results show that the absorption of nitrogen is increased bgelectrification, and it is highly probable that this result is due to somepeculiar influence of electricity on the soil and its vegetation.C.H. B.Absorption of Atmospheric Nitrogen. By BERTHELOT (COW@.rend., lO9,417--419).-The direct absorption of atmospheric nitrogenby soils under the influence of microbes and of vegetation may nowbe taken as definitely established. No such absorption occurs, how-ever, with soils which have been sterilised or which are alreadysaturated with nitrogen.Evolution of Ammonia and Volatile Nitrogen Compoundsfrom Vegetable Soils and from Plants. By BERTHELOT (Compt.rend., 109, 419--423).--Plants kept in moist closed spaces graduallyperish, even in presence of suitable quantities of oxygen arid carbonicanhydride. I n the author’s experiments on the absorption of nitrogenby plants in closed vessels, it was found necessmy to change theatmosphere in the flasks frequently and completely, in order toensure normal growth and development.Plants growing in soil which was kept constantly moist wereenclosed in glass vessels in such a manner that the water, which wasevolved from the plant and the soil and condensed on the sides of thevessel, trickled down into a reservoir below, without coming in con-tact with the soil.From time to time this condensed water wasdrawn off and slightly acidified, and when a sufficient quantity ofliquid had been collected the ammonia was determined by boilingwith magnesia, and the nitrogen in the residual liquid was determinedby means of soda-lime, after slightly acidifying and evaporating todryness.Vegetable soil supporting no plants gives off very small quantitiesof ammonia, and volatile nitrogen compounds.In one experimentC. H. BVEQETABLE PHYSLULOGY AND AQRICULTURR. 1239with vegetable soil on which vetches were grown, all the evolvedammonia was re-absorbed by the plant, but the condensed water con-tained a very small quantity of volatile nitrogen compounds. Withother leguminostx+ the condensed liquid contained ammonia and othernitrogen compounds, the quantities being of the same order of magnitudeas with the soil supporting no veqetation. It is obvious, however, thatthe quantities of ammonia and volatile nitrogen compounds found inthe water do not represent the total quantiuties evolved, since a con-siderable proportion will be re-absorbed by both the plants and thesoil.The fact, however, that the volatile nitrogen compounds exhaledby animals are highly poisonous to the same animals (this vol., p: 629)gives considerable importance to the recognition of the exhalation ofsimilar products from plants.By T. SCHLOESING (Compt. rend.,109, 423--428).-The apparatus employed has been described in aprevious paper. A definite quantity of an ammonium salt previouslydissolved in water was carefully mixed with the soil, and the ammoniadrawn from the flask while making it vacuous was absorbed in acidand estimated. The earth employed was rich in organic matter.Ammonium sulphate oxidises more rapidly than the chloride andcarbonate ; in all cases the quantity of free nitrogen in excess of thatoriginally present in the air was within the error of experiment.T be increase in nitric nitrogen was practically equivalent to the lossof ammoniacal nitrogen, although it might have beer: expected thatthe nitrogenous matter in the soil would have undergoiJe nitrifkatiori.It is known that in presence of nitrogenous organic matter the nitricferment oxidises the carbon and bydrogen as well as the nitrogen,much more oxygen being utilised for the oxidation of the first twoelements than for the nitrcgen. It would seem, however, that inpresence of ammonium salts the energy of the ferment is greatly in-creased, and it oxidises the ammoiiium salt, taking from the organicmatter in the soil only the carbon which is necessary for its owngrowth and reprodnction.The rates of oxidation observed in the case of ammonium chloride,sulphate, and carbonate correspond respectively with the oxidation of62, 168, and 75 kilos.per hectare per day. The conditions of the ex-periments are not strictly comparable with the conditions in an openfield, but it is evident that under favourable conditions the nitrificationof ammonium sulphate is much more rapid than is generally supposed.Influence of Calcium Sulphate and of Clay on the Absorp-tion of Nitrogen by Soils. By P~~CHARD (Compt. rend., 109,445--447).-Almost pure saxid was mixed with organic nitrogel1 inthe form of oil-cake in the proportioil of about 1 gram per litre, in-oculated with the nitric ferment, and kept moist and free from vege-lation for 18 months.The loss of nitrogen amounted to 70 per cent.of the original quantity, and was greater the coarser the sand ; theammoniacal and nitric nitrogen present in the sand at the end of theexperiment were together less than 15 per cent. of the original quantity.Addition of 5 per cent. of calcium sulphate reduced the loss to 58 perC. H. B.Nitrification of Ammonia.C. H. B.$ 0 1240 ABSTRACTS OF CREMTCAL PAPRRS.cent., that which remained being mhinly in the form of nitric nitrogen,with some ammonia. The effect was most marked with fine sand,and when the mixture was kept moist. The organic nitrogen is con-verted into ammonia before any traces of nitrous or nitric acids areformed.When nitrification does not proceed regularly, ammonia andammonium carbonate are given off, and finally nitrogen is evolved i nconsequence of the interaction of ammonia and nitrous acid. Thecalcium sulphate partially converts the ammonia into ammonium sul-phate, which is one ot' the most readily oxidised of its salts, but thecalcium sulphate probably also plays a direct part in nitrificationby reason of the ease with which it is reduced and re-oxidised, likesodium and potassium sulphates, which exert a similar although lessmarked effect. There is no reason to suppose that any at,mosphericnitrogen was directly absorbed by the sand i n the course of the ex-periments. Sodium chloride in the proportion of 1 gram per kilo.does not interfere with the action of the calcium sulphate, and, infact, assists nitrification by keeping the mixture slightly moist.The addition of 10 per cent.of pure clay reduces the loss of nitrogen,but an increase in nitric nitrogen is observed only with coarse sand ;with fine sand the quantity is even slightly reduced. In both casesthe quantity of ammonia is greater in consequence of the well-knownabsorptive power of d a y for this substance.With a mixture of 0.5 per cent. of calcium sulphate and 10 to 40per cent. of clay, there is still less loss, especially in the case of finesand, which even absorbs nitrogen directly from the atmosphere tothe extent of 28-53 per cent. of the nitrogen originslly present. Inthe case of coarse sand, the quantity of nitric nitrogen formedremains practically constant, but in other cases the quantity of nitricnitrogen, and also, thoiigh less rapidly, the quantity of ammonia, in-creases with the proportion of clay.I n the absence of calcium sulphatethe clay soon becomes saturated with ammonia, but the rapid nitrifica-tion which takes place in presence of the sulphate keeps the proportionof ammonia below the saturation point.A soil composed of sand and clay, with some oalcium phosphate,absorbed nitrogen directly from the atmosphere in amount eqnal to26.8 per cent. of the organic nitrogen originally present.Calciiim sulphate in calcareous soils prevents the loss of ammoniain the form of ammonium carbonate ; it is preferable to the oxide orto chalk as an addition to non-calcareous soils.'Its effect is mostmarked in moist soils. The well-known beneficial influence of calciumsulphate, and of superphosphate which contains sulphate, on crops ofleguminose is probably mainly due to the influence of the sulphate onnitrification. C. H. B.Formation of Ammonia in Arable Soil. By A. HEBERT (AM.Agron., 15, 355--369).-Moist earth sterilised by beitig heated forborne time to 110" was found to have developed a certain quantity ofammonia; still mcjre ammonia is formed at 130" and at 150°, so thatthe action of ferments is out of the question. The ammonia formedincreases with the time of heating, but the greater part is formed inthe first two Lours; for example, 100 grams of soil containing originVEGETABLE PHTSIOLOQF AND AQRICULTURE.1241ally 1.60 milligram of ammonia, contained after two hours at 150",15.17 milligrams ; after four hours, 17.47 milligrams ; after six hours,18.63 milligrams ; and after eight hours, 22.80 milligrams. The addi-tion of ammonium sulphate to the soil before heating reduces thequantity of ammonia formed in a regular manner ; thus, whilst in100 grams of soil without addition, 10.04 milligrams of ammoniawere formed during the heating, the addition of 10 milligrams ofammonium sulphate reduced the quantity formed to 9-24! milligrams,20 milligrams of the salt to 8.92 milligrams, 50 milligrams of the saltto 8.23 milligrams, 100 milligrams of the salt to 3.47 milligrams,150 milligrams of the salt to 2.19 milligrams, and 200 milligrams ofthe saltl to -0.81 milligram.These facts seem to imply the formationof ammonia by purely chemical action, and a, progressive dissociation,according t o the quantity of ammonium salt present. The formationof ammonia still takes place with soil free from calcium carbonate 01'deprived of it by treatment with dilute acid and subsequent washing.With dry soil, however, little or no ammonia is produced, and theauthor believes that the source of the ammonia is the decomposition ofcomplex amides cmtained in the soil by heating in contact with water.Sea Sludge and its Absorptive Power for Lime and Potash.By A. MULLER (Landw. Verszcchs-Xtnt., 36, 257-263).-The moorsof Stensjiiholm in Smaaland, South Sweden, consist partly of dried-upRea bottom.The present sea bottom is covered with an extremelyfine sludge, which is almost black when wet and dark-grey when dry.100 parts of the air-dry sludge contain :--7.88 parts of water;20.72 parts of combustible matter (containing 0.737 part of nitrogen) ;14.64 parts of ferric oxide, with Bome alumina; 0.34 part of phos-phoric acid ; 0.27 part of lime ; 0.19 part of magnesia ; and 0.19 partof potash. That portion of the sludge which is insoluble in hydro-chloric acid contains (in 100 parts of oiiginal air-dried sludge) :-soluble silicic acid, 33.23; alumina, with some ferric oxide, 4.11;lime, 0.72 ; magnesia, 0.63 ; alkalis, 0.77 ; and silica, 16.69 parts.10.1 grams of air-dried sludge was digested several times with0.14 per cent. lime-water until no more lime was taken up ; it wasfound that the sludge had absorbed 295 per cent. of lime and 0.60per cent. of alkali salt. It was not possible to determine how muchof this was taken up by the silicic acid and how much by the organicmatter of the sludge.Similar experiments were made by digesting 10.1 grams of thesludge with 50 grams of a solntion of 0.3615 gram of potassium car-bonate for 14 days: the sludge absorbed 1.47 per cent. of potash,corresponding with 2.33 per cent. of potassium chloride or about12 per cent. of kainite.It is probable that the sludge would also absorb large quantities o€phosphoric acid from superphosphntes.Silicic acid seems to form the best means for retaining plant foodin the soil until required by plants, and it is suggested that the largeamounts of silica found in, for instance, gramineous plants (whichcan be got to grow normally in solutions free from silica) acts in asimilar mmuer within the plants themselves when these are soJ. M. H. M1242 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS.situated that they sometimes have an excess and sometimes an in-sufficient amount of food, N. H. M.Phosphates and Cereals. By G. RAULIN (Compt. rend., 109,375--377).-Plots of land were treated with a manure containingnitrogen and potassium, and adjacent plots were treated with thesame manure mixed with phosphates of various kinds. The cropgrown was wheat, and in every case the soil treated with phosphatesgave a heavier crop than the soil which had only received the non-phosphatic manure. The increase varied with the proportion of phos-phates added and with the assirnilability of the phosphorus. Insolublephosphates produced a greater effect in the first year than in subse-quent years, a result probably due to the fact that they contained a smallproportion of phosphoric acid more readily assimilated than the rest.This would be utilised at once, whilst the insoluble portion becomesavailable only very slowly. C. H. B