VEOETdBLE PHYSIOLOGY AXD AGRICULTURE.Chemistry of Vegetable Physiology and Agriculture.181The Ammoniacal Ferment. By A. LADUREAU (Compf. rend.,99, 8'77-878) .-The ferment which converts carbamide into am-monium carbonate exists in considerable quantitty in the soil, in theair, in rain, and in many subterranean waters. It acts as readily in avacuum or under a pressure of 3 atmos. as under the normal pressure,and equally well in presence of air, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, car-bonic anhydride, or nitrous oxide. Anaesthetics, with the exception ofchloroform, which retards fermentation, exert little or no action on it,and fermentation is only prevented by somewhat high proportions ofthe ordinary antiseptics.This ferment converts all the carbamide produced by the animalkingdom into ammoniacal salts, and thus places many millions of kilo-grams of these salts daily a t the disposal of plants.C. H. B.Peptonic Fermentation. By V. MARCANO (Compt. rend., 99,811--813).-1f a few drops of the sap of the American aloe areallowed to fail on some chopped meat covered with water, and thewhole is kept at 3 5 4 0 " , active fermentation immediately com-mences, with evolution of inodorous gases, and after about 36 hourathe fibrin completely disappears, and is converted into peptone, to-gether wit,h some pepsin and small quantities of ethyl alcohol andlactic acid. This fermentation is also produced by many other sapsand by the juices of many fruits. It is due to a rnucor, which canbe submitted to several successive cultivations withcut losing itsactivity.C. H. B.Germination of Linseed and Sweet Almonds. By A.JORISSEN (Ann. Agronomipues, 10, 468475) .-The author hasstudied the influence of germination and growth on the develop-ment of hydrocyanic acid in the flax and sweet almond. 20 gramsof crushed flax seed do not yield more than 2 mgrms. of hydrocyanicacid, but after some days of germination 14 mgrms. are obtained fromthe same quantity. The young plants, however, yield only traces onplunging them suddenly into boiling water and distilling the whole,so that probably a glucoside similar to ampgdalin or laurocerasin isformed during germiuation, and splits up under suitable conditionsinto hydrocyanic acid, glucose, and benzaldehyde.Sweet almonds contain mere traces of amygdalin, but when theyare kept moist and allowed to germinate in darkness for some weeks,a well-marked odour of benzal dehyde is produced, and hydrocyanicacid can be obtained in recognisnble quantity (2 mgrms.) from asingle seedling.The amygdalin is concentrated in the radicle andgemmule, the cotyledons containing very little. By suitable treat-ment, the three substances, benzaldehyde, glucose, and hydrocpnicacid, were isolated from 15 germinated almonds. The author believe182 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS.amygda,lin and similar glucosides to be decomposition-products of thealbumino'ids of the seeds. J. M. H. M.Chlorophyll in the Living Cell and Assimilation of Carbon.By J. REINKE ( B e d . C'entr., 1884, 692--69tj).-The reduction of car-bonic anhydride in plants is a function of light and of the chloro-phyll, but to properly understand the process it must be studied inthe living plant.The author did so, using the leaves of Pltanerogama,and observing their absorption-spectra, he found that of the ordinarychlorophyll solution different from that obtained from the living leaves,the latter agreeing amongst themselves. He believes that chloro-phyll experiences some chemical change when it is dissolved. The solu-tion of the fresh leaves shows no fluorescence, but the ordinarysolution shows a fine red fluorescence, due probably to the disaggre-gation of the substance, which the author believes to exist in a fixedstate. The speclroscopic examination of light reflected from theleaves is of interest, the extreme red to line B being very brilliant,the space beiween C and E moderately so, the dark blue and greenbeing weak. The author agrees with Lommel that the maximum ofcarbon reduction coincides with the maximum of absorption of thechlorophjll spectrum, that the molecules have a vibratory motion, andwhen they meet a ray of light in unison with them they assimilate itslife-giving force, and chemical changes result.The author founds Rtheory on 1% observations that the atomic group on which dependsthe reduction have an oscillation rate of 440-450 billions per second,arid are set in motion by r a p of light of similar rate, whilst they remainunaffected by rays of higher or lower refrangibility.J. 3'.Presence of Amylase in Leaves. By L. BRASSE ( C m p t . rend.,99, 878--879).-l'he author has found amylase in all leaves whichhe has examined, including those of the potato, dahlia, maize, beet-root, tobacco, castor-oil plant, &c. The amylase can be extracted byDubrunfaut's method. The leaves are bruised in a mortar, digestedwith cold water for 24 hours, squeezed, and the solution mixed withone and a half times its volume of alcohol of 90-93", and filtered.The filtrate is again mixed with the same proportion of alcohol, andthe precipitate collected on a filter and washed two o r three timeswith a small quantity of alcohol of 63". This precipitate contains theamylase.To detect the amylase, 0.5 gram of starch, 20 C.C. of water, and10 C.C.of an aqueous solution of amylase of such strength that 10 C.C.corresponds with 10 grams of fresh leaves, are placed in a small flaskand kept a t 63" in a water-bath for some time. Similar flasks con-taining a solut8ion of amylase alone are treated in the same way, andthe reducing sugar is estimated by difference. Each flask is closedwith a cork, and contains from 8 to 10 drops of chloroform. I nevery case, the starch is converted into reducing sugar and dextrin,but no microbes are developed.Chemical Composition of Hazel Pollen. By A. v. PLANTA(Lmzdw. Versuchs-Xtat., 31, 97-114) .-Hazel pollen separated f r o uC. H. BJ'EGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AQRICULTURE. 183the dried catkins by means of a fine sieve is a very fine pale-yellowpowder, which keeps for any length of time when perfectly dry.Itconsists of very small uodules (from 0.026 to 0.0337 mm. in diameter),o€ triangular and oval shape, each nodule having three openings forthe pollen tubes, and being surrounded by two membranous coatsclosely united together. The contents of the nodules consist chiefly ofprotoplasm and oil with a lit,tle starch.Hazel pollen contains 9-19 per cent. of water, of which nearly half isgiven up on drying over sulphuric acid. The quantity of nitrogen wasfound to vary in two samples from 4-70 to 5.50 per cent., and the ashamounted to 3.81 per cent, By employing the usual factor for theconversion of nitrogen into proteilds, the nitrogen-free substances wereinferred to amount to about 64.3 per cent.of the dried pollen.The impossibility of mechanically breaking up the pollen nodules,and the difficulty of thorough extraction of their substance by liquidagents, rendered the estimation of the separate organic constituents noeaay task, and some of them couid only be determined qualitatively.Of nitrogenous bodies, globulins, peptones, hypoxanthine, and amido-compounds were definitely traced: the latter yielding about one-twelfthof the total nitrogen. Cane-sugar was found in Considerable quantity,amounting to about 14.7 per cent. of the dry pollen, and starch wasestimated at 5.26 per cent. A yellow colouring matter containing nonitrogen was found in quantity amounting to 2.06 per cent., and con-sisting probably of two distinct bodies.Cuticula was put down a t 3-02,and wax at 367 per cent., the latter consisting probably of myricylpalmitate. The presence ofcholesterin was also noted, and a resinous substance of bitter taste wasfound in quantity amounting to 8-4 per cent.By J. M. H. Mum0 (Clzem. News, 50,227).-Strawberries grown in a field in Kent contained-water 89.30per cent., organic matter 10.27, ash 0.43. The composition of the ashwas as follows :-Sand and insoluble matter 6.61 per cent., calcium phosphate 23.91,containing 11.70 per cent. of phosphoric anhydride ; magnesium phos-phate, trace ; potassium carbonate 60.77, containing 41.40 per cent. ofpotmzssium oxide ; magnesia 2-93, soda 1.29, sulphuric anhydride 3-88,uiidetermined 0.61.The figures seem to show that in the strawberry the whole of thepotash exists in combination with organic acid, and the whole of thephosphorus as calcium phosphate. Strawberry growers assert thatplants forced in pots with the aid of guano or very rich soil have manyblossoms, but they do not all set, or if they do the fruit is inferior i nsize and quality to the smaller quantity produced in poorer soil.Itseems probable that a special manure containing a fair proportion ofpotash would produce good results.Ensilage and Acidification of Green Fodder. By J. KONIGand others (Bied. C'entr., 1884, 677-680).-Green maize, previouslycut fine, was stored in a silo 5 metres deep, with cemented walls. Atthe time of storing, three casks were filled with the same fodder, andFatty acids amounted to 4.2 per cent.J.I(. C.Ash of Strawberries.J. T184 ABSTRACTS OF CHEXICAL PAPERS.they were compared a t intervals with samples drawn from the silo.Unfortunately one of the walls became damaged, and water leaked in,but the experiment was suficiently successful to convince the authorthat the loss of dry substance in green maize stored in silos whichare air and damp-proof does not exceed 10 per cent. E. Lecouteux re-cords experiments made to ascertain whether the maize should be cut(chopped) or stored whole. He recommends chopping, as by that meansthe portions lie closer together, and facilitate fermentation ; the fineand coarse portions of the fodder are more evenly mixed, so that cattJecannot pick out the choice morsels. Stutzer has tried the acidifica-tion of green clover.He found that the digestible alhumino'ids werediminished by one-half in the operation, the comparison being madehy artificial digestion. A feeding experiment was made with ensilage-grass by Insinger, in Holland. Out of a lot of 32 cows, 4 were fedon the ensilage; the others on hay. The period of lactation waslonger with the 4 cows ; the creamometer-indication lower ; butterpercentage higher, 54 litres of their milk producing 2.5 kilos. ofbutter, the same quantity of milk from the others giving 2 kilos. only.The colour of the butter was rather dark. J. F.Removal of the Bitter Principle from Lupines. By E. WILDT(Ried. Cerdr., 1884, 6i5-6T7) .-Experience has shown that exposureto the atmosphere sweetens lupines, and removes their poisonousqualities.As this cannot be done even by strong heat, the authorthought that the change was caused by a process of oxidation, and thatit, could be greatly accelerated. He placed the seeds in dilute hydro-chloric acid, and then treated them with a solution of calciumchloride ; they were then well washed with clean water. By this pro-cess t.he bitterness was quite removed, and probably also their poisonousqualities (but this has yet to be proved on a large scale) ; the loss ofnutritive matter was small. The author thinks that lupines preparedin this way will be found to be a,good and cheap fodder. Cattle,sheep, and swine eat thern with more or less readiness, but the reportsby cattle-feeders as to the results are not unanimous: some say theyare not H fattening food, and that draught oxen and horses grow leanon them, owing probably to the excess of nitrogenous constituents.J.F.Ensilage of Frozen Potatoes. By J. FITTBOGEK and 0. FOERSTER(RiedCentr., 1884, 681-683).-1n the autumn of 1881, a sudden andsevere frost damaged large quantities of potatoes throughout Ger-many. The quantity was so large that the distilleries were not ableto use them, and they had to be stored in silos. The authorsembraced the opportunity of examining them a t different times-attime of storage and after 50, 76, and 140 days. At the last examination,the loss of crude protei'n was 33.7, and of crude fat 83.3 per cent.Cattle and swine eat freely of them, but sheep did not, take them.The authors do not recommend the proceeding unless nothing elsecan be done with the tubers.J. F.Cultivation of Sugar Beet. By P. P. DEHBRAIN (Compt. rend.,99, 920-92Q-It has been observed in many cases that the use oVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE. 185a manure rich in nitrogen increases the proportion of this element inthe beet, but diminislies the proportion of sugar. The author finds,however, that by using .properly selected seed, e.g., the cultivatedvariety of Messrs. Vilmorin, the proportion of sugar is not diminishedby even a highly nitrogenous farmyard manure, whilst the totalyield of roots per hectare is considerably increased, especially if themanure is mixed with sodium nitrate.One of the causes which diminish the proportion of sugar in thebeet is the late sprouting of young leaves, the development of whichuses up the sugar previously formed in the root.If, however, thelast month of vegetation is dry, this growth of new leaves does nottake place, and the value of the roots is increased.Hop Culture in Peat Soils. By M. FLE~SCHER (Bied. C'entr.,1884, $-lQ.-The author gives analyses of the soil of a hop plantationin East Prussia, established in a boggy situation. The constituentsindicate great suitability for the culture in question, but owing to thelightness and porosity of the soil, the frost penetrates it easily inwinter, and injures the roots of the plants.C. H. B.J. F.On Rotations. By P. P. DEHSRATN (Ann. Agronomigues, 10, 433-457) .-The author reviews the leading systems of rotation practisedin the north of France and in Germany, and suggests a modificationof the prevailing Prench rotation, fonnded on the experiments whichhave been for some years carried on at the Agricultural Station ofGrignon (Paris).The increasing importance of stock-raising, and the development ofbeet sugar refineries and spirit distilleries, have brought about the sub-stitution of a crop of sugar beet for the bare fallow formerly customarythroughout large districts of France and Germany.This beet croptakes the place of the English turnip crop at the head of therotation, which runs thus:-beet, corn, seeds, corn. All the farm-yard manure intended for the rotation is given to the beet crop, andthis has the effect of producing a heavy crop of large roots poorin sugar.The French refiners pay for the roots according to the grossweight, and not on the percentage of sugar ; hence the farmers havegone on applying larger and larger dressings of dung, and supple-menting these by applications of nitrate of soda and sulphate ofammonia, with the view of getting heavier and heavier crops. Thenatural result has followed, that the French sugar industry is in alanguishing and critical state. In Germany, on the other hand,where the refiners pay for the roots according to their richness insugar, the industry has undergone an immense development. TheGerman farmers, in order to secure roots of good quality, commencethe rotation with a wheat crop manured with farmyard manure, aiidtake the sugar beet crop the year after.To do this successfully theyare obliged to grow a variety of wheat (Sheriff Square Head) arhichwill stand the heavy manuring without running t,oo much to Straw,and becoming laid. The Sheriff' Square Head wheat, however, pro-duces grain of inferior quality and low market value, and on thisground the author does not recommend the German system. Neithe186 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS.does he think well of putting potat'oes a t the head of the rotationinstead of sugar beet, because potatoes derive little or no benefit fromheavy dressings of farmyard manure, and it is a mistake to supposethat the subsequent crops of the rotation utilise anything like the fullvalne of the manure unused by the potato crop.From the results of' several years' experiments a t Grignon, it isinferred that maize cut green for fodder would do well to begin arotation over districts of similar soil and climate.During the earlyHtage of growtb, khe ground can easily be kept free from weeds, anddnring the later stages the growth is so luxuriant that weeds arestifled. Large applications of farmyard manure always produce avery heavy increase in the maize crop, and are more efficacious thanany othw manures which have been tried. The maize can be madeinto ensilage, which the author thinks the better plan, or can begrown in successive port'ions, and cut as reqnired for feeding. Veryheavy crops can be obtained (70,000-100,000 kilos.per hectare atGrignon, with 30,000 kilos. farmyard manure per hectare), and thesucceeding wheat crop is decidedly better t,han when i t followssugar beet. Moreover, the maize being cut in September, moretime is allowed for preparing the ground for the autumn sowing ofwheat than when beet is grown, which is pulled i n October. Thewheat, crop should receive 5,000--10,000 kilos. farmyard mannrc, and200 kilos. nitrate of soda. At Grignon, sulphate of ammonia cannotbe substituted for the nitrate of soda without injury, but on othersoils (Rothamsted, for example) it is found to answer well. Thesugar beet crop is to be taken after the wheat, and is to be manuredwith 20,000 kilos. farmyard manurk, 'LOO kilos. nitrate of soda, andalso superphosphate on soils where it is found to produce an increase,which is not the case at Grignon.In the fourth year, the groundcarries oats sown with seeds, and manured with 5,000-10,000 kilos.farmyard manure and 200 kilos. nitrate of soda; fifth year, clover ;sixth year, wheat or oats ; and seventh yeay, potatoes; all withoutmanure. If the oats in the fourth year are sown with sainfoininstead of clover, the ground may be left in sainfoin two or threeyears before taking the next wheat crop.Manuring Experiments. By G. DRECHSLER (Ried. Centr., 1884,664--670).-TThese experiments were made in Hanover in 1580, withvery careful precautions against error. Each manuring was repeatedat least three times, and each manured plot was surrounded by a tleast four unmanured.Those experiments alone were considered tobe quite successful in which the yields of the uiimanured plots werevery close to each other, and the results of the three trials of themanured plot were nearly concordant. Under such conditions, nnumber of landowners undertook to carry out experiments to ascer-tain how Chili saltpetre operates on potatoes as compared with thepotash salt, and to compare the action of kainite on potatoes, barley,and oats with a compound manure containing kainite, sulphate ofmagnesia. and common salt.The potash gave unexpectedly low results in all experiments, beinglower in heavy, well-tilled lands than on light soils ; the increase inJ. M. H. MVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE. 187almost all cases consisted in large tubers ; Chili saltpetre and phos-phat.es, with few exceptions, yielded very good results.In the trialswith the compound manure, some were unsuccessful, because of a dryseason, but in the completed experiments the results mere more infavour of potash than of kainite, whilst the compound manure cameout very badly. J. F.Notes on Manuring. By G. DRECHSCER, (Ried. Centr., 1884,658--664).-The author has made many experiments himself, and hasstudied the results of those made by others, witb a view of modifyin?the theories of Liebig, on which most of the modern pract'ices ofmanuring are founded, the rule being that manuring is to be regu-lated according to the requirements, or rather the constituents, of thecrop to follow, allowing for the disposable nutritious matters con-tained i n the soil ; and as the knowledge of this cannot generally beobtained in advance, experience on1 y must be relied on, namely, if theuse of a manure incrpases the yield, i t is concluded that there was adeficiency in the soil ; if the manure is inoperative, the soil is supposedto contain a surplus.From his experience, the author formulates new theories of manur-ing.(1.) The nutriment in the soil and that contained in manuresare of different natures, and by reason of the difference in their solu-bilities, combinations, &c., they operate differently on the plant.(2.) The power of different plants to assimilate nutriment frommanures varies, and differs sometimes in the same class of plants.(3.) He divides the process of manuring into two parts-the a1.t ofsupplying to the soil the matters deficient, which he calls fiel(1manuring; and that of supplying for the plant the nutriment it isknown to require; this he names plant manuring. These theoriesadmitted, the question of manuring becomes a consideration not ofthe soil, but of the plant, and the first t'hing to be learned is the re-quirements of the CI-op which must be supplied in the manure, whatmodification of such requirements is found on growing it in certainsoils, and what is the best and cheapest manner to supply the neces-sary matter in the manures.The author commends Wagner forcarrying out experiments in this direction so carefully by means of potculture, but recommends further field experiments. J.F.Manuring Experiments with Chili Saltpetre. By L. Roc11( R i e d . Cenfr., 2884, 673).-Experiments were made with plots ofwheat and rye 2s t o whether larger or smaller quantities of sodiumnitrate gave the best results. 1; kilos. to about one-fourth of a squaremetre pave a better crop t,han 24 kilos., but the summer was dry andhot, and the harvest time wet, so that the results of the experimentsare of little value. J. I?.Preservation of Ammonia in Stable Manure. By TROSCHKE(Ried. Centr., 1881, 670--672).--The addition of gypsum to stablemanure, particularly in warm stalls, is known to cause decompositionof the ammonia and evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. The autho158 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS.tried kainite as a substitute, with the following result for three month+’contact in warm weather :-Loss.With kainite. Gypsum.In dry substance ........ 20 per cent. 31 per cent.Nitrogen 10 ,, 38 9 , ................He therefore thinks the employment of gypsum unadvisable. Fur-ther experiments were made as to the power of Stassfurt salts to formcombinations with ammonia. 100 grams of each salt were mixed withdifferent percentages of ammonia, and the number of grams combinedwith the salt after 24 hours is given.80 per cent.100 grams. 20 per cent. 50 per cent. mixture.Magnesium chloride ...... 6.2 11.5 12.6Magnesium sulphate ...... 5.5 6.9 7.0Gypsum ................ 5.0 17.8 19.8Kainite .................. 3.2 6-4 7-3Carnallite ................4.5 9.0 9.4Krugite .................. 3.0 7.8 10.5Kieserite ................ 4.5 10.5 11.1In order to learn the power of the salts to absorb ammonia in thegaseous form, portions of each were exposed in large flasks to thevapour of ammonium carbonate for one, two, and three days, withthe following results :-Combined with grams NH, in-100 grams of 1 day. 2 days. 3 days.Magnesium chloride . . 6.1 11.3 12.0Gypsum. ............ 5.0 9.9 12.8Krugite. ............. 1 *9 3.7 4.5Magnesium sulphate . . 5.1 6.4 6.9Kainitu. ............. 2.9 4.2 6.2Carnallite ............ 4.1 5.5 9.0Kieserite ............ 4.1 8.2 10.5The substances should be used in a very fine state of division.Experiments on the Nitrogen of Peat. By P. REDER (TJied.CerLtr., 1884, 652, 655).-The author wished to ascertain the eft’ectproduced on the nitrogen contained in peat by the addition of certainmatters thereto. The original sample contained a total of 3.225 percent.,of which 0*109 mas in the formof ammonia, 0.0.53of nitric acid, and 3-154in inorganic combination. One portion of the peat was left with freeaccess of air, another without air ; to neither of them was any additionmade. To other seven samples were added calcium carbonate, freshlyburnt lime, gypsum, magnesia, potassium carbonate, sulphuric acid,quartz sand. The samples were left for 12 months and then examined.All showed a loss of nitrogen, with the exception of that treated withsulpliuric acid, and the author attributes the increase of nitrogen inthat sample to absorption from the air of the laboratory. A featureJ. FASALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. 189common to all was an increase in the amount of nitrogen existing asnitric acid, and a diminution of its other combinations. J. I?.Effects of Fresh Stable Manure on Potatoes. By GAGNAIRE(Ried. Centr., 1884, 700).-It has been found by the author as well asby other observers that the application of fresh manure a t the time ofplanting caused a conRiderablg increased yield of potatoes, but thatthe plants were more liable to disease. A field so manured comparedwith another which had received the manure the previous autumnshowed an increase of one-eighth in the yield, but when the tuberswere stored a great part of them became bad in a few weeks.J. I?