1.00 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. Chemistry of Vegetable Physiology and Agriculture. The Soluble Ferment of Urea. By P. MIQUEL (Compt. rend., 111, 397-;599) .-The soluble urea ferment described by Musculus has not been isolated by subsequent observers. It can, however, readily be obtained in the following way :-Peptone solution mixed with 2 to 3 grams of ammonium carbonate per litre is sterilised byVEQETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AQRIOULTURE. 101 filtration through porcelain, and is then inocnlnted with one of the active bacillian ferments of urea, which the author has previously described (Ann. Micro., 1 and 2). After some days, the liquid becomes turbid, and contains the diastase in question. It is necessary that t h e cultivations of bacilli be quite pure, for other organisms may develop to the exclusion of the microbes, or may destroy the diastase as fast as i t is formed.The quantity of soluble ferment obtained in this way per litre of peptone solution is sufficient to convert 60 to 80 grams of urelb into ammonium carbonate in less than an hour. The temperature at which this change takes place most rapidly is 50" to 55", but even at 30" in contact with air, the diastase undergoes profound alteration, and it is completely destroyed after three or four hours. At st tem- perdure near 0", however, the solutions of the diastase in the peptone solution can be kept for several weeks without alteration. At 75", the ferment is conipletiely destroyed in a few minutes, and at 80", in a few seconds. On the other hand, the organisms which secrete the ferment often resist a moist temperature of 95" for two or three hours. The author has caltivated 14 species of micro-organisms, exclusive of Mucedince, which are capable of producing ammoniacal fermenhtion of urea, and which present perfectly distinct morphological characters, and different degrees of activity.All these microbes secrete the soluble ferment when they are grown in proteid cultivation fluids free from urea, and the author concludes that the destruction of urea a t the ordinary temperature in the absence of chemical reagents is due to the action of this soluble ferment. Urea itself has very little nutritive power for lower organisms, and it would seem that the ammonirtcrtl fermentation of urea is not due directly to an act of nutrition, but that the microbes secrete the soluble ferment, and the latter acts on the urea.C. H. B. Nitrification and Denitrification in Soils. By T. LEONE (Gazzetta, 20, 149-151). The author has previously shown (Abstr., 1890, 1453) that the plienomena of nitrificat?ion and denitrification in waters are due to the activity of bacteria and occur in alternation, according to the amount of nutriment present; thus, when an abund- ance of nutritive matter is at hand, the rapid development of the germs is accompanied by the oxidation of tho proteids, partly at the expense of the oxygen in the nitrates present, ammonia and nitrites being formed. On the other hand, nitrificstion commences as soon as the decomposable azotised products are either assimilated or con- verted into ammonium compounds. If ilitrification and denitrifi- cation are determined by similar conditions in soils, the effect of manuring would be in the first iiistance to susQend the ordinary process of nitrification, and to convert part, of the nitrates present into nitrites, nitrification only recommencing when the organic matter was decomposed, and the formation of ammonia had attained a maxi- mum.The following experiments show that, this is actually the case. Two samples, A and B, of 10 kilos. each, of garden mould were placed in cylinders through which air could freely circulate ; with one of these, B, 300 grams of fresh manure (fowl's dung) was mixed. The mould contained 250 milligrams of N2O6 per kilo., and102 ABSTRACTS OF UHFXICAL PAPEXS. an appreciable quantity of nitrous acid, but no trace of ammonia.It was, therefore, in the last stage of nitrification when ammonia had disappeared, but small quantities of nitrites still remained. The sample A (not manured) showed a gradual increase in the quaDtity of nitric acid up to 282 milligrams of nitric anhydride per kilo., when the whole of the nitrous acid had disappeared. In the manured sample, B, the nitric acid decreased in two days to 230 milligrams of nitric anhydr- ide per kilo., in four days to 190 milligrams, and so on. In the initial period, nitrous acid was formed, but subsequently disappeared ; after 15 days, no trace of either nitric or nitrous acid remained ; the quantity of ammonia, on the other hand, increased regularl_~- and attained a maximum on the 29th day, after which it remained constant, for five or six days.On the 35th day, nitrification recommenced, nitrous acid reappearing and the ammonia beginning to decrease ; the transforma- tion of the ammonia into nitrous acid and of the latter into nitric acid continued during three months, after which no trace of either ammonia or nitrous acid could be found, only nitric acid remaining in the soil. The manuring of mils, therefore, gives rise to a cycle of phenomena, nitrification being first arrested and the nitrates and nitrites reduced until a maximum formation of ammonia is attained, when nitrification again commences. The destruction of the nitrates and nitrites in the soil is complete or partial, according as the supply of manure is abundant or otherwise.S. B. A. A. Reducing Power of Micro-organisms. By T. LEONE (Gazzetta, 20, 152-154).-The author criticises the methods and results of De Blasi and Travali (Abstr., 1890, p. 1453), and maintains that nitrifica- tion is a biological phenomenon taking place under the conditions described (see preceding abstract and 1890, 1453). The reduction of nitrates in the presence of rapidly developing germs takes place simaltaneously with the oxidation of the organic compounds present, and is due to the abstraction of oxygen from the nitrates for that purpose. S. R. A. A. Biogenesis of Hydrogen Sulphide. By DEBRAPE and LEGRAIN (Compt. rend. SOC. Biol. [9], 11, 466-468).-1t is well known that certain bacteria produce hydrogen sulphide from albuminous materials. The number of microbes that act thus is by no means limited, and by appropriate means nearly all of them can be made to produce the gas in cultures in which the action is anagrobic.The formation of the gas appears to depend on the amount of the nascent hydrogen present. W. D. H. Chlorophyllic Assimilation by Trees with Red Leaves. By H. JIJMELLE (Compt. rend., 111, 380-382).-The relative activity of green and other leaves was compared by exposing theu to sunlight under comparable conditions in a closed atmosphere contaiuiag a known quantity of carbonic anhydride, and determining how much carbonic anhydride was decomposed ; the weights of the dried leaves being ascertained a t the end of the experiment. The results show that in t'rees with red or coppery leaves, the chlorophyllian assimilation is always lower than in the same trees with green leaves, a resultVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE. 103 which explains the well known fact t h a t trees of the former clam increase in size much more slowly than those of the latter.In some cases the differences are very great ; the assimilation of the green beech is about six times as great, as that of the copper beech, and there is the same difference between the ordinary and the purple sycamore. C. H. B. Sugars in Mushrooms. By E. BOURQUFLOT (Compt. rend., 111, 534-536 and 5i8-580).--Lactarius piperatus Scop., when exanlined immediately after i t is gathered, contains b considerable quantity of trehalose, but very little mannitol. If, however, it, is dried and then treated with water, no trehalose is obtained ; mannitol alone is present.The same phenomenon is observed if the mushrooms are merely kept for a few hours aftAer being gathered, and hence the disappearance of the trehalose is a result of the continuance of the vital processes of the mushroom. This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that if the mushrooms are kept in a vessel filled with chloroform vapour, the trehalose remains, although the mushrooms become dark-brown and exude a lai-ge quantity of liquid. Examiuation of various species of mnshrooms at different stages of growth shows that when young they contain trehalose and no mannitol, in the middle period they contain both, and when mature they contain mannitol only. Amanita mappa is an exception, since in all stages it contains mannitul and no trchalose.The conversion of trehalose into mannitol is a process of reduction, and is probably connected with the formation and maturation of the spores. I n many species the phenomena are complicated by an increase in the amount of glucose that they contain, and in others by the appearance of glucose which is not present in the earlier stages of their growth. Loss of Sugar in Beetroot. By G. MAREK (Bied. Centr., 19, 619-622 ; from Deut. Landw. Pre.cse, 17, 310--311).-The loss of sugar in beetroot is closely connected with the amount originally contained. Roots were examined in December, 1888, and in March 1889, the sugar being determined by the polarisation of the juice and by extraction with alcohol. The loss in all cases was very considerable. The loss is greatest with roots containing most sugar ; the kind, soil, and manuring have less t o do with it, and everything which raises the amount of sugar in the roots increases the liability to lose sugar.It is also shown that the higher the temperature at which the roots are kept, the greater is the amount of sugar which is lost. When roots which originally contain equal amounts of sugar lose unequally, the greatest loss will be in those which contain the greatest amount of non-saccharine substances. This fact is of importance in the selec- tion of roots for seed. Comparative experiments were made with nitrogenous and phosphatic manures, the results of which show that phosphoric acid has no unfavourable effect on the durability of the roots, as is frequently stated.In the manufacture of sugar, those roots which contain most sugar should be used first. C. H. B. N. H. J. M.104 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAYERS. Behaviour of Tannin in Plants. By M. BUSGEN (E’orsch. Gebiete agrile. yhysik., 13, 305 ; from Jena. Zeit. Naturwiss., 24).--Experi- ments were made to determine whether a disappearance of tannin in any parts of plants can be shown to take place. Microchemical methods were employed. Kraus makes a distinction between ‘( primary ” tannin, which is produced with, and “ secondary ” tannin, which is formed without, the intervention of light. In certain cases both were found to disappear. Tannin was found to disappear from cells which were on the point of dying as well as from cells possess- ing more vitality.The author doubts whether the tannin is again used in building up. Direct proof of the production of tannin from sugar was obtained i n a manner similar to that of the formation of starch from sugar. Portions of shade-leaves of various plants were placed with the upper side on a 10 per cent. solution of grape-sugar, the chief veins having been cut to facilitate the entry of the solution. Portions of the same leaves were similarly placed on water as a control experiment-a necessary precaution, as in many leaves the amount of tannin increases after they are cut o f and kept in tbe dark. After four to six days, the leaves showed a considerable increase in the amount of tannin. It has still to be shown what intermediate compounds are formed, and also whether other substances besides grape-sugar will produce tannin.N. H. J. M. Cultivation of Wheat in a Sterile Siliceous Sand. BS PAGNOUL (C‘ompt. rend., 111, 507-509) .-Calcium sulphate and natural phosphates were mixed with the sand; soluble salts were added by watering the experimental pots with solutions of definite strengths. Phosphates are indispensable ; a yield of 46 quintals per hectare with a complete manure fell to 12 quintals in absence oi soluble phosphate, and to ‘2 quintals when no phosphate was added at all. The ratio of grain to straw also depends oa the mpply of phos- phate, and the suppression of phosphoric acid retards the maturing of the wheat by 10 days. Presence or absence of nitrogen is not of such vital importance, probably because the wbeat can obtain a certain quant.ity from the air.Absence of nitrogen reduced the yield from 46 to 11 quintals per hectare. In a complete manure, nitric nitrogeii has only a slightly greater efficiency than ammoniacal nitrogen, but in absence of potassium, the yield with the former is double the yield with the latter. It follows that the presence of potassium is essential when ammoniacal manures are used. The proportion of nitrogenous compounds in the grain increases with the quantity of nitrogen placed at the disposal of the plant. It fell to 8-9 per cent. with a non-nitrogenous manure, but rose to 20 per cent., which is higher than the ordinary maximum, when the quantity of nitrogen supplied was greater than that existing in the most fertile soils. Nitric nitrogen was never found in appreciable quantity in plants stinted of nitrogen, but rises to 0.2 per cent., especially in February and Marcb, in those plants which had received nitrogen either in the form of ammonia or nitrates.In absence of potassium, the quantityVEQETABLE PHYSIOLOQY AND AGRICULTURE. 105 of nitric nitrogen is very small, and traces of ammoniacal nitrogen are present. C . H. B. Examination of Potato-Spirit Liquor. By M. K ~ H N (Bied. Centr., 19, 628 ; from Milchzeit., 18, 926).--The followirig numbers show the percentages in the sample of the liquor which was used as cattle food :- Non-nitrogenous Sand in Fat. Protein. Pure ash. Crude fibre. extractives. pure ash. 0.13 2-61 1.20 0.43 3.50 0.44 The Behaviour of Sandy Soil towards Superphosphate. By A. THOMSON ( B i d Centr., 19, 585--588).-The absorptive power of pure sea-sand for phosphoric acid was determined as well as that of the same sand containing known amounts of orthoclase, of calcium carbonate, of ferric and aluminum hydroxides, of calcium carbonate and ort,hoclase, and of calcium carbonate and the mixed ferric and aluminium hydroxides.The effect of sodium chloride and potassium nitrate on the process of absorption was also studied. Pure sand offers no resistance to the extraccion of the phosphoric acid of superphosphate by pure water, or solutions of sodium chloride and potassium nitrate. The addition of orthoclase is without effect. Calcium carbonate combines quickly with the soluble phosphoric acid ; and the hydroxides of iron and aluminium are very active in retaining phosphoric acid, especially when used in conjunction with calcium carbonate.1 or 2 per cent. solutions of sodium chloride extract from snperphosphate rather less phosphoric acid than distilled water ; but in presence of calcium carbonate and ferric and aluminium hydroxides, the dilute salt solution extracts more phosphoric acid than water alone. Dilute potassium nitrate sohtions diminish the absorptive power of all the substances employed more than sodium chloride. The results point to the conclusion that the full benefit of manuring with superphosphate (in a sandy soil) will only be attained when large amounts of lime or smaller amounts of lime and ferric and aluminium hydroxides are well distributed in the soil, and when t h e soil does not contain too much nitrate.I n absence of these con- ditions, the application of superphosphate should be avoided. The methods of experimenting and the apparatus employed are described in detail in the original paper (Inaug. Diss. Dorpat, 1890). Composition of Bone-meal. By J. STOCKLASA (Chenz. Zeit., 14, 1-2, 21, 32-33).-The author has examined bone-meal obtained by different metiiods. Tn the first series of expeiimcnts, bones were digested for six hours in soft water, at 95", by which they yielded 2 3 per cent. of fat, and lost, 0.53 per cent. of nitrogen; they were then steamed, either under a pressure of 2.5 atrnospheres for 75 minutes (Itesults A), or under 1.5 atmospheres for 60 minutes (Results B), or under 0.5 atmosphere for an hour (Results C), dried at 40°, pulverisod, and the meal and grit analysed, with the results given in the table.In the second series of experiments, it was sought to N. H. J. M. pu'. H. J. M.106 ABSTRAOTS OF CHEMIOAL PAPERS. E. -- 31 -24 6 -42 48 -93 8.41 4 -36 extract the fat by means of light petroleum :-Results D were obtained from meal prepared from bone containing 9.2 per cent. of f a t ; the extraction was conducted under 1.2 atmospheres, the residual petroleum expelled with steam, the extracted bones dried at 45", and pulverised. For Results E, the bones containing 8.8 per cent. of fat were extracted without pressure, and treated like D, but dried at 36". Results F: Bones containing 8.7 per cent. of fat, extracted under 1.3 atmo- spheres, then steamed under 2 at,mospheres pressure for 20 minutes, &c.Results G: Bones containing 8.9 per cent. of fat, extracted under 1.2 atmospheres pressure, then steamed undcr 3 atmospheres for 30 minutes, &c. Organic non-fatty matter .... Fat ....................... Inorganic matter. ........... Water .................... Nitrogen .................. 26 -38 5 *51 56 -24 11 *8 3 -77 - B. 34.25 9.06 47.87 8'82 4.96 27 *82 9 -38 52.43 10 '37 4 -05 - 26-34 2-85 61-69 9-12 3.94 - C. - 29 *54 11 -32 50 -43 8 9 1 4 *25 - D. 33 -67 7 -84 49 *35 9 -14 4 *83 1 F. 1 G. .)-I- Steaming, when the pressure is sufficiently great to remove fat, also removes much nitrogen. By the second method of extraction, less nitrogen is lost, the coarse crushed bone makes it saperior granular charcoal, and the gelatin from the bone grit is excellent, whilst the fat contains less calcium and ammonium oleates, palmitates, and stearates.For agricultural purposes, the fat impedes decompo- sition, both of the nitrogenous matter and the phosphate. The frag- ments of bone containing most fat are more brittle ; hence the meal is found to contain more fat than the grit, and so on up the scale of coarseness. The author gives results showing this. He regards finely pulverisrd bone meal deprived of fat as an excellent manure, superior to basic slag, and not even second to precipitated phosphate in action, its apparent failure, hitherto being attributed to want of attention to the points now set forth in the present paper. D. A. L. Amount of Fat in Bone-meal. By J. MERZ (Chent. Zeit., 14, 95) .-Xeferring to Stocklasa's communication (preceding abstract), it is considered that justice is not done to the extraction method in the results quoted ; therefore the author of the present note calls attention to three experiments of his own, wherein the fat in bones was reduced to 0.32, 0.28, and 0.26 respectively, in from six to seven and a half hours, by extraction with petroleum without pressure, the latter not being regarded as a factor in the extraction of fat on a large scale any more than it is on a small scale in laboratory fat estimation. In fact the more the former operation is made to resemble the latter, the greater is the yield of fat, and the better the quality of the bone- meal. D.A. L.1.00 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS.Chemistry of Vegetable Physiology and Agriculture.The Soluble Ferment of Urea.By P. MIQUEL (Compt. rend.,111, 397-;599) .-The soluble urea ferment described by Musculushas not been isolated by subsequent observers. It can, however,readily be obtained in the following way :-Peptone solution mixedwith 2 to 3 grams of ammonium carbonate per litre is sterilised bVEQETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AQRIOULTURE. 101filtration through porcelain, and is then inocnlnted with one of theactive bacillian ferments of urea, which the author has previouslydescribed (Ann. Micro., 1 and 2). After some days, the liquid becomesturbid, and contains the diastase in question. It is necessary that t h ecultivations of bacilli be quite pure, for other organisms may developto the exclusion of the microbes, or may destroy the diastase as fast as i tis formed.The quantity of soluble ferment obtained in this way perlitre of peptone solution is sufficient to convert 60 to 80 grams of urelbinto ammonium carbonate in less than an hour. The temperature atwhich this change takes place most rapidly is 50" to 55", but even at30" in contact with air, the diastase undergoes profound alteration,and it is completely destroyed after three or four hours. At st tem-perdure near 0", however, the solutions of the diastase in the peptonesolution can be kept for several weeks without alteration. At 75", theferment is conipletiely destroyed in a few minutes, and at 80", in a fewseconds. On the other hand, the organisms which secrete the fermentoften resist a moist temperature of 95" for two or three hours.The author has caltivated 14 species of micro-organisms, exclusiveof Mucedince, which are capable of producing ammoniacal fermenhtionof urea, and which present perfectly distinct morphological characters,and different degrees of activity.All these microbes secrete thesoluble ferment when they are grown in proteid cultivation fluids freefrom urea, and the author concludes that the destruction of urea a tthe ordinary temperature in the absence of chemical reagents is due tothe action of this soluble ferment. Urea itself has very little nutritivepower for lower organisms, and it would seem that the ammonirtcrtlfermentation of urea is not due directly to an act of nutrition, but thatthe microbes secrete the soluble ferment, and the latter acts on theurea.C. H. B.Nitrification and Denitrification in Soils. By T. LEONE(Gazzetta, 20, 149-151). The author has previously shown (Abstr.,1890, 1453) that the plienomena of nitrificat?ion and denitrification inwaters are due to the activity of bacteria and occur in alternation,according to the amount of nutriment present; thus, when an abund-ance of nutritive matter is at hand, the rapid development of thegerms is accompanied by the oxidation of tho proteids, partly at theexpense of the oxygen in the nitrates present, ammonia and nitritesbeing formed. On the other hand, nitrificstion commences as soon asthe decomposable azotised products are either assimilated or con-verted into ammonium compounds.If ilitrification and denitrifi-cation are determined by similar conditions in soils, the effect ofmanuring would be in the first iiistance to susQend the ordinaryprocess of nitrification, and to convert part, of the nitrates presentinto nitrites, nitrification only recommencing when the organic matterwas decomposed, and the formation of ammonia had attained a maxi-mum. The following experiments show that, this is actually the case.Two samples, A and B, of 10 kilos. each, of garden mould wereplaced in cylinders through which air could freely circulate ; withone of these, B, 300 grams of fresh manure (fowl's dung) wasmixed. The mould contained 250 milligrams of N2O6 per kilo., an102 ABSTRACTS OF UHFXICAL PAPEXS.an appreciable quantity of nitrous acid, but no trace of ammonia.Itwas, therefore, in the last stage of nitrification when ammonia haddisappeared, but small quantities of nitrites still remained. Thesample A (not manured) showed a gradual increase in the quaDtity ofnitric acid up to 282 milligrams of nitric anhydride per kilo., when thewhole of the nitrous acid had disappeared. In the manured sample, B,the nitric acid decreased in two days to 230 milligrams of nitric anhydr-ide per kilo., in four days to 190 milligrams, and so on. In the initialperiod, nitrous acid was formed, but subsequently disappeared ; after15 days, no trace of either nitric or nitrous acid remained ; the quantityof ammonia, on the other hand, increased regularl_~- and attained amaximum on the 29th day, after which it remained constant, for fiveor six days.On the 35th day, nitrification recommenced, nitrous acidreappearing and the ammonia beginning to decrease ; the transforma-tion of the ammonia into nitrous acid and of the latter into nitric acidcontinued during three months, after which no trace of either ammoniaor nitrous acid could be found, only nitric acid remaining in the soil.The manuring of mils, therefore, gives rise to a cycle of phenomena,nitrification being first arrested and the nitrates and nitrites reduceduntil a maximum formation of ammonia is attained, when nitrificationagain commences. The destruction of the nitrates and nitrites inthe soil is complete or partial, according as the supply of manure isabundant or otherwise.S. B. A. A.Reducing Power of Micro-organisms. By T. LEONE (Gazzetta,20, 152-154).-The author criticises the methods and results of DeBlasi and Travali (Abstr., 1890, p. 1453), and maintains that nitrifica-tion is a biological phenomenon taking place under the conditionsdescribed (see preceding abstract and 1890, 1453). The reduction ofnitrates in the presence of rapidly developing germs takes placesimaltaneously with the oxidation of the organic compounds present,and is due to the abstraction of oxygen from the nitrates for thatpurpose. S. R. A. A.Biogenesis of Hydrogen Sulphide. By DEBRAPE and LEGRAIN(Compt. rend. SOC. Biol. [9], 11, 466-468).-1t is well known thatcertain bacteria produce hydrogen sulphide from albuminous materials.The number of microbes that act thus is by no means limited, and byappropriate means nearly all of them can be made to produce the gasin cultures in which the action is anagrobic.The formation of the gasappears to depend on the amount of the nascent hydrogen present.W. D. H.Chlorophyllic Assimilation by Trees with Red Leaves. ByH. JIJMELLE (Compt. rend., 111, 380-382).-The relative activity ofgreen and other leaves was compared by exposing theu to sunlightunder comparable conditions in a closed atmosphere contaiuiag a knownquantity of carbonic anhydride, and determining how much carbonicanhydride was decomposed ; the weights of the dried leaves beingascertained a t the end of the experiment. The results show that int'rees with red or coppery leaves, the chlorophyllian assimilation isalways lower than in the same trees with green leaves, a resulVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE.103which explains the well known fact t h a t trees of the former clamincrease in size much more slowly than those of the latter. In somecases the differences are very great ; the assimilation of the greenbeech is about six times as great, as that of the copper beech, andthere is the same difference between the ordinary and the purplesycamore. C. H. B.Sugars in Mushrooms. By E. BOURQUFLOT (Compt. rend., 111,534-536 and 5i8-580).--Lactarius piperatus Scop., when exanlinedimmediately after i t is gathered, contains b considerable quantity oftrehalose, but very little mannitol. If, however, it, is dried and thentreated with water, no trehalose is obtained ; mannitol alone is present.The same phenomenon is observed if the mushrooms are merely keptfor a few hours aftAer being gathered, and hence the disappearance ofthe trehalose is a result of the continuance of the vital processes ofthe mushroom.This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that if themushrooms are kept in a vessel filled with chloroform vapour, thetrehalose remains, although the mushrooms become dark-brown andexude a lai-ge quantity of liquid.Examiuation of various species of mnshrooms at different stages ofgrowth shows that when young they contain trehalose and nomannitol, in the middle period they contain both, and when maturethey contain mannitol only. Amanita mappa is an exception, sincein all stages it contains mannitul and no trchalose.The conversion of trehalose into mannitol is a process of reduction,and is probably connected with the formation and maturation of thespores. I n many species the phenomena are complicated by anincrease in the amount of glucose that they contain, and in othersby the appearance of glucose which is not present in the earlierstages of their growth.Loss of Sugar in Beetroot.By G. MAREK (Bied. Centr., 19,619-622 ; from Deut. Landw. Pre.cse, 17, 310--311).-The loss ofsugar in beetroot is closely connected with the amount originallycontained. Roots were examined in December, 1888, and in March1889, the sugar being determined by the polarisation of the juice andby extraction with alcohol.The loss in all cases was very considerable.The loss is greatest with roots containing most sugar ; the kind, soil,and manuring have less t o do with it, and everything which raisesthe amount of sugar in the roots increases the liability to lose sugar.It is also shown that the higher the temperature at which the rootsare kept, the greater is the amount of sugar which is lost. Whenroots which originally contain equal amounts of sugar lose unequally,the greatest loss will be in those which contain the greatest amountof non-saccharine substances. This fact is of importance in the selec-tion of roots for seed. Comparative experiments were made withnitrogenous and phosphatic manures, the results of which show thatphosphoric acid has no unfavourable effect on the durability of theroots, as is frequently stated.In the manufacture of sugar, those roots which contain most sugarshould be used first.C.H. B.N. H. J. M104 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAYERS.Behaviour of Tannin in Plants. By M. BUSGEN (E’orsch. Gebieteagrile. yhysik., 13, 305 ; from Jena. Zeit. Naturwiss., 24).--Experi-ments were made to determine whether a disappearance of tanninin any parts of plants can be shown to take place. Microchemicalmethods were employed. Kraus makes a distinction between‘( primary ” tannin, which is produced with, and “ secondary ” tannin,which is formed without, the intervention of light. In certain casesboth were found to disappear. Tannin was found to disappear fromcells which were on the point of dying as well as from cells possess-ing more vitality. The author doubts whether the tannin is againused in building up.Direct proof of the production of tannin fromsugar was obtained i n a manner similar to that of the formation ofstarch from sugar. Portions of shade-leaves of various plants wereplaced with the upper side on a 10 per cent. solution of grape-sugar,the chief veins having been cut to facilitate the entry of the solution.Portions of the same leaves were similarly placed on water as acontrol experiment-a necessary precaution, as in many leaves theamount of tannin increases after they are cut o f and kept in tbe dark.After four to six days, the leaves showed a considerable increase inthe amount of tannin.It has still to be shown what intermediatecompounds are formed, and also whether other substances besidesgrape-sugar will produce tannin. N. H. J. M.Cultivation of Wheat in a Sterile Siliceous Sand. BSPAGNOUL (C‘ompt. rend., 111, 507-509) .-Calcium sulphate andnatural phosphates were mixed with the sand; soluble salts wereadded by watering the experimental pots with solutions of definitestrengths. Phosphates are indispensable ; a yield of 46 quintalsper hectare with a complete manure fell to 12 quintals in absence oisoluble phosphate, and to ‘2 quintals when no phosphate was added atall. The ratio of grain to straw also depends oa the mpply of phos-phate, and the suppression of phosphoric acid retards the maturing ofthe wheat by 10 days.Presence or absence of nitrogen is not of suchvital importance, probably because the wbeat can obtain a certainquant.ity from the air. Absence of nitrogen reduced the yield from46 to 11 quintals per hectare. In a complete manure, nitric nitrogeiihas only a slightly greater efficiency than ammoniacal nitrogen, butin absence of potassium, the yield with the former is double theyield with the latter. It follows that the presence of potassium isessential when ammoniacal manures are used.The proportion of nitrogenous compounds in the grain increaseswith the quantity of nitrogen placed at the disposal of the plant. Itfell to 8-9 per cent. with a non-nitrogenous manure, but rose to20 per cent., which is higher than the ordinary maximum, when thequantity of nitrogen supplied was greater than that existing in themost fertile soils.Nitric nitrogen was never found in appreciable quantity in plantsstinted of nitrogen, but rises to 0.2 per cent., especially in Februaryand Marcb, in those plants which had received nitrogen either in theform of ammonia or nitrates.In absence of potassium, the quantitVEQETABLE PHYSIOLOQY AND AGRICULTURE. 105of nitric nitrogen is very small, and traces of ammoniacal nitrogenare present. C . H. B.Examination of Potato-Spirit Liquor. By M. K ~ H N (Bied.Centr., 19, 628 ; from Milchzeit., 18, 926).--The followirig numbersshow the percentages in the sample of the liquor which was used ascattle food :-Non-nitrogenous Sand inFat. Protein.Pure ash. Crude fibre. extractives. pure ash.0.13 2-61 1.20 0.43 3.50 0.44The Behaviour of Sandy Soil towards Superphosphate. ByA. THOMSON ( B i d Centr., 19, 585--588).-The absorptive power ofpure sea-sand for phosphoric acid was determined as well as that ofthe same sand containing known amounts of orthoclase, of calciumcarbonate, of ferric and aluminum hydroxides, of calcium carbonateand ort,hoclase, and of calcium carbonate and the mixed ferric andaluminium hydroxides. The effect of sodium chloride and potassiumnitrate on the process of absorption was also studied.Pure sand offers no resistance to the extraccion of the phosphoricacid of superphosphate by pure water, or solutions of sodium chlorideand potassium nitrate. The addition of orthoclase is without effect.Calcium carbonate combines quickly with the soluble phosphoricacid ; and the hydroxides of iron and aluminium are very active inretaining phosphoric acid, especially when used in conjunction withcalcium carbonate.1 or 2 per cent. solutions of sodium chlorideextract from snperphosphate rather less phosphoric acid than distilledwater ; but in presence of calcium carbonate and ferric and aluminiumhydroxides, the dilute salt solution extracts more phosphoric acidthan water alone. Dilute potassium nitrate sohtions diminish theabsorptive power of all the substances employed more than sodiumchloride.The results point to the conclusion that the full benefit of manuringwith superphosphate (in a sandy soil) will only be attained whenlarge amounts of lime or smaller amounts of lime and ferric andaluminium hydroxides are well distributed in the soil, and when t h esoil does not contain too much nitrate.I n absence of these con-ditions, the application of superphosphate should be avoided. Themethods of experimenting and the apparatus employed are describedin detail in the original paper (Inaug. Diss. Dorpat, 1890).Composition of Bone-meal. By J. STOCKLASA (Chenz. Zeit., 14,1-2, 21, 32-33).-The author has examined bone-meal obtained bydifferent metiiods. Tn the first series of expeiimcnts, bones weredigested for six hours in soft water, at 95", by which they yielded2 3 per cent. of fat, and lost, 0.53 per cent. of nitrogen; they werethen steamed, either under a pressure of 2.5 atrnospheres for75 minutes (Itesults A), or under 1.5 atmospheres for 60 minutes(Results B), or under 0.5 atmosphere for an hour (Results C), dried at40°, pulverisod, and the meal and grit analysed, with the results givenin the table.In the second series of experiments, it was sought toN. H. J. M.pu'. H. J. M106 ABSTRAOTS OF CHEMIOAL PAPERS.E.--31 -246 -4248 -938.414 -36extract the fat by means of light petroleum :-Results D were obtainedfrom meal prepared from bone containing 9.2 per cent. of f a t ; theextraction was conducted under 1.2 atmospheres, the residual petroleumexpelled with steam, the extracted bones dried at 45", and pulverised.For Results E, the bones containing 8.8 per cent. of fat were extractedwithout pressure, and treated like D, but dried at 36".Results F:Bones containing 8.7 per cent. of fat, extracted under 1.3 atmo-spheres, then steamed under 2 at,mospheres pressure for 20 minutes, &c.Results G: Bones containing 8.9 per cent. of fat, extracted under1.2 atmospheres pressure, then steamed undcr 3 atmospheres for30 minutes, &c.Organic non-fatty matter ....Fat .......................Inorganic matter. ...........Water ....................Nitrogen ..................26 -385 *5156 -2411 *83 -77-B.34.259.0647.878'824.9627 *829 -3852.4310 '374 -05 -26-342-8561-699-123.94-C. -29 *5411 -3250 -438 9 14 *25 -D.33 -677 -8449 *359 -144 *831 F. 1 G. .)-I-Steaming, when the pressure is sufficiently great to remove fat,also removes much nitrogen. By the second method of extraction,less nitrogen is lost, the coarse crushed bone makes it saperiorgranular charcoal, and the gelatin from the bone grit is excellent,whilst the fat contains less calcium and ammonium oleates, palmitates,and stearates. For agricultural purposes, the fat impedes decompo-sition, both of the nitrogenous matter and the phosphate. The frag-ments of bone containing most fat are more brittle ; hence the meal isfound to contain more fat than the grit, and so on up the scale ofcoarseness. The author gives results showing this. He regardsfinely pulverisrd bone meal deprived of fat as an excellent manure,superior to basic slag, and not even second to precipitated phosphatein action, its apparent failure, hitherto being attributed to want ofattention to the points now set forth in the present paper.D. A. L.Amount of Fat in Bone-meal. By J. MERZ (Chent. Zeit., 14,95) .-Xeferring to Stocklasa's communication (preceding abstract), itis considered that justice is not done to the extraction method in theresults quoted ; therefore the author of the present note calls attentionto three experiments of his own, wherein the fat in bones was reducedto 0.32, 0.28, and 0.26 respectively, in from six to seven and a halfhours, by extraction with petroleum without pressure, the latter notbeing regarded as a factor in the extraction of fat on a large scaleany more than it is on a small scale in laboratory fat estimation. Infact the more the former operation is made to resemble the latter, thegreater is the yield of fat, and the better the quality of the bone-meal. D. A. L