OUR NEW PRESIDENT Professor H. J. Emeleus C.B.E. F.R.S. Harry Julius Emelkus is a name known to every chemist. Born in London in 1903 he was educated at Hastings Grammar School and then studied succes-sively at Imperial College London; as an 1851 Exhibi-tioner at the Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe ; and as a Commonwealth Fund Fellow at the University of Princeton N. J. At the age of twenty-eight he returned to Imperial College as a member of the teaching staff, where he remained until 1945 becoming an Assistant Professor and reader in inorganic chemistry. His earliest series of papers (1924-34) dealt with such problems as the glow of phosphorus and the low-temperature combustion of non-metals and certain carbon compounds. Then followed work (1930-36) on the photochemistry and pyrolysis of amines and other research ( 1934-39) on deuterium oxide and deuter-ated amines together with physico-chemical and pre-parative studies on the hydrides of silicon and ger-manium.During the second world war he was associated with the late Professor Briscoe in conducting special chemical investigations on behalf of the Ministry of Supply. In 1944 however he was asked to join a group working at the newly established Oak Ridge Centre near Knox-ville Tennessee where he worked on the separation of uranium isotopes by the magnetic process. Soon afterwards he was appointed to the Cambridge chair of inorganic chemistry which he has occupied with great distinction since 1945. He has developed a research school whose main interests have been in pre-parative chemistry.A great deal of the effort has gone into fluorine chemistry particularly the chemistry of the interhalogen compounds and that of fluoroalkyls of metallic and non-metallic elements. There have how-ever been publications on a variety of other topics, including the chemistry of the boron hydrides the hydrides of silicon reactions in the electrical discharge and reactions in non-aqueous solvents. A considerable number of students both from British and from oversea Universities have passed through the school and now 99 hold teaching posts not only in this country but in many parts of the world. Latterly the inorganic group at Cambridge has also paid increasing attention to the applications of physical techniques to structural prob-lems arising from the preparative work.Professor EmelCus has received honorary degrees from the Universities of Kiel Ghent Lille and Paris. He has also received the Stock Medal from the Gesellschaft Deutsche Chemiker the Lavoisier Medal from the Sociktk Chimique de France and the Davy Medal from the Royal Society of which he became a Fellow in 1946. He is an honorary member of the SociCt6 Chimique de France the Suomalaisten Kemistien Seura (Finland), and a number of foreign academies including the Koninklg ke Vlaamse Aca-demie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van Belgii3 and the Leo-poldin.-Carolin. Deutsche Akademie der Naturfor-scher. At present he is also President of the Inorganic Section of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.He was ap-pointed C.B.E. in 1958. Professor EmelCus has been associated with the work of the Institute for many years being a Member of Council during his first three years at Cambridge and a Vice-president in 1960-62 after serving as President of the Chemical Society; he was also an Institute Examiner in 1951-55. He has shown an interest in the work of the Institute overseas and has visited certain Local Sections in countries as distant as Malaya and New Zealand. At this time his lively interest in education will be of special value to the Institute. One of the calmest and most patient sincere 2nd approachable of men his advice has been sought by countless bodies and individuals including many teachers to whom he has invariably replied helpfully and courteously sometimes going far beyond the original request when convinced of its justice and value.In 1931 he married Mary Catherine Horton and they have two sons and two daughters. When he has had leisure his favourite pursuit has been angling RUSSIAN FOR CHEMISTS By P. L. WYVILL, LESSON 16 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD The subjunctive mood is used in Russian as it is in English to express conditions wishes or situations which involve a certain unreality doubt or uncertainty. The Russian subjunctive is formed by adding the particle 6b1 to the past tense of the verb. The verb then loses its past meaning and acquires the subjunctive mood in which the same form may correspond to the past present or future tense e.g.B b I OTAbIXhnEI6b1 Cer6flHa You should be resting today B b I pa66~anu 6b1 &pa You should have worked yesterday I would go to the theatre tomorrow The particle 6 b 1 may be separated from the verb in the sentence but it always refers to the verb converting it from the past tense to the subjunctive. 2 IIOIIIeJI 661 B T e h T p 3hBTpa This subjunctive form of the verb may express : 1. The desirability of an action e.g. x XOT6JI 6b1 IIPOYHThTb BhUIY KHkirY I should like to read your book We would like to work in this laboratory M b I XOTkJIE 6b1 p a 6 6 T a T b B STOE n a 6 0 p a T 6 p H H This may imply a request or advice e.g. IIPOYEThJIH 6b1 BbI $TOT AOKJIhA You should read this report 2. Doubtful or unreal conditions e.g.E a I n h 61s xop6maz nor6,qa m r nepemn8 6151 96pe3 Had the weather been fine we should have crossed PbKY the river DEPENDENT CLAUSES IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE Dependent clauses in the subjunctive mood are introduced by the conjunction YTO and the particle 6b1 which are written as one word ~ ~ 6 6 b 1 e.g. H~XHO IIPOH3BOAkiTb pe6KQHI-0 ~ ~ 6 6 b 1 lTOJIy9kiJIC5i MaKCEM6JIbHbIE BdIXOa I t is necessary to carry out the reaction so that the maximum yield might be obtained II~HIIJIH er6 stand him YqhTeJIb 6yAeT I'OBOphTb M6BJleHH0 ~ ~ 6 6 ~ 3 1 MbI The teacher will speak slowly so that we may under-B.SC. PH.D. F.R.I.C. Do not confuse ~ ~ 6 6 b 1 with the pronoun YTO and the YTO 6b1 a n~chn O T Q ~ ? What should I write to my father? particle 6b1 written as two separate words e.g.COMPOUND WORDS CONTAINING -EVER The particle 6b1 is used with HEI to express the meaning -ever in whatever whoever wherever. In this context HM does not have a negative meaning e.g. YTO 6b1 MbI HE ~ 6 J I a J I H CK6POCTb paCII&aa hTOMOB Pa~HOaKThBHbIX 3JIeM6HTOB H e H3MeHheTC5I Whatever we do the velocity of disintegration of the radioactive elements does not change CONDITIONAL CLAUSES Conditional clauses expressing a real condition which can actually occur are often introduced by the conjunc-tion 6cnr;r. The verb of the clause may be in the present, past or future indicative e.g. ECnH BbI IIpIlAeTe K HaM MbI 6 y ~ e ~ paCCM&TpEBaTb BOIIp6C If you come to see us we shall consider the question Conditional clauses expressing an unreal condition, which cannot be true or is unlikely to occur are intro-duced by the conjunction 6cna 6b1 or KOrAii 6 ~ .In this case the verbs in both the subordinate and principal clauses are in the subjunctive e.g. x K6HYWl6bI STOT 6nbIT 6CnH 6b1 MOr I would have finished this experiment if I had been or I would finish this experiment if I were able able VERBS The verb x o T 6 T b is an important irregular verb, meaning to want desire or wish. The present tense provides a mixture of the two conjugations. Imperfective Perfective present future II XOYY saxosy TbI x6Yerrrb sax6iue111b OH x6iueT 3ax6qe~ BbI XOThTe 3axo~l;iTe Injnit ive XOT6Tb 3aXOT6Tb MbI XOTE~M 3aXOThM OHki X O T ~ T 3aXOThT past XOT62 XOT6JIa ~ ~ X O T & I ~ ~ X O T ~ J I ~ , XOTknO X O T h H 3aXOT6n0 3axoT6JIm I0 RUSSIAN FOR CHEMISTS 101 The reflexive form XOT6TbCX is frequently used e.g.1 want to go for a walk 1 am sleepy (I want to You are hungry He is thirsty MHe x6YeTcX ryJIhTb M H e x6YeTcX CIIaTb BaM X6YeTCX eCTb EM^ X6YeTCSI IIHTb sleep 102 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL EXERCISE XVI C Translate into Russian : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. We should like to see this experiment. They would build a house in the village if they lived Whoever may come I shall finish the experiment. I t is necessary that you should explain this pheno-menon to the students. Whenever we carried out this analysis we always obtained accurate results.In such a case we should determine the chlorine content of the product. The students would have seen this reaction if they had been in the laboratory. We should have used this method of analysis if we had the apparatus. I cannot go to Moscow however much I should want. He will not finish the experiment today however much he should want. In all their experiments the students should obtain accurate results. In such a case I would crystallize the product if I wished to obtain a pure sample. The mechanism of hydrolysis of esters can be studied with the aid of marked atoms. The reactivity of the saturated organic acids decreases according to the increase in the molecular weight. We should have our own library in the village if this house were used.there. Vocabulary aJIKBJl alkyl aHrHApBA anhydride AHJ-JIHS England 6CH36GHbIg benzoic ~irP[l;ro BdIfieJIHTb (2 p) F ~ I X O A yield rEflpOKCfiJIbHbI6 h ydroxy 1 n a B H 6 long ago long since JpiCCOqHBqHS dissociation rn'IMHTb (2) to smoke fume X H P fat Ei30T6II is0 tope 116H ion KaK& (adj. and pron.) Kap6OKChJIbHbIg carboxy 1 KOH& (gen. KOHU~L) end KOHCTaHTa constant MaKCHMhbHbIg maximum MhCJIO butter oil MeTlhIOBbIg methyl MeXaHh3M mechanism M6IeHbIE marked tagged (e.g. atoms) it is clear it can be seen to separate out evolve what what kind of which mineral to determine establish basic fundamental splitting off separation primary similar to like to visit to combine with add on, to cause produce carry out bring about take up radioactive disintegration decay reactive decision solution role synthesis to follow be necessary ester comparison in comparison with account expense at the expense of typical the same heavy carbon phosphorus phosphate acid chloride phosphorus pentachloride Kg to Exercises EXERCISE XVI A 1.What would you reply (have replied) to this question ? 2. We should have visited London if we had gone to England or We would visit London if we should go to England. 3. It is necessary that we should cross the river. 4. I t is necessary that you should do the experiment in dry air. 5. He would have finished the experiment if he had been here today or He would finish the experiment if he were here today.6. We would not live (have lived) in Moscow if we did not have business there. 7. In such a case I should determine (have determined) the dissociation constant of the acid 19631 RUSSIAN FOR 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. If the mixture of acid and alcohol is heated in the presence of hydrochloric acid the ester is formed. I would use (have used) the method of marked atoms for the study of the mechanism of this reaction if I had a source of the heavy isotope. Phosphorus pentachloride which is formed by the action of chlorine on phosphorus reacts with acids and alcohols replacing the hydroxyl group by chlorine. If the temperature were not increased the reaction would not go to the end.(or in past tense) We should not want students to think that this mechanism always occurs in the hydrolysis of the alkyl chloride. I shall not go to the theatre today however much I should want to. I t is necessary to heat the mixture of alcohol and acid in the presence of hydrochloric acid as a catalyst so that a good yield of ester might be obtained. Organic reactions go slowly in comparison with reactions of ions. Whenever we determined sulphate by precipitation with barium chloride we always obtained a high degree of accuracy. Using this method of analysis we find that errors linked with the coprecipitation of ions from the solution disappear. According to their chemical properties the mono-basic saturated acids show the typical reactions of the carboxyl group.The primary alcohol is oxidized forming an acid with the same number of carbon atoms. An anhydride of acetic acid is known which is obtained by the action of a phosphate catalyst on the vapour of the acid. EXERCISE XVI B Organic Acids Monobasic saturated acids which the saturated hydrocarbons contain showing the typical reactions of this are derivatives of a carboxyl group group. Acids can be obtained by the oxidation of alcohok In this reaction the primary alcohols give acids with the same number of carbon atoms as the alcohol, The properties of the organic acids are determined by the presence of the carboxyl group. Like mineral acids, organic acids form hydrogen ions in aqueous solution in consequence of the dissociation.The dissociation constant of organic acids is usually small in comparison with the dissociation constant of mineral acids. When-ever atoms of hydrogen of the acid are exchanged for chlorine the dissociation constant increases. For example trichloracetic acid is a strong acid. In the presence of a catalyst organic acids easily react with alcohols forming esters. The method of marked atoms is used for the study of the mechanism CHEMISTS 103 of this reaction. At the present time this method is widely used so that we might investigate the mechanism of chemical processes. The question has long remained, from which carboxyl group is the water formed (from the acid or alcohol). The following experiment was carried out for the solution of this question benzoic acid was treated with methyl alcohol which contained heavy oxygen 180.As a result an ester was obtained which contained the heavy isotope of oxygen in its composition. The water obtained from this reaction contained only the isotope 160 From these results it can be seen that the hydroxyl group was separated from the acid and the hydrogen from the alcohol. The hydrolysis of esters usually goes easily in alkaline solution. This process finds application in industry for obtaining acids from fats oils and other sources. Phosphorus pentachloride acts on organic acids, forming the acid chlorides. The acid chlorides are liquids which fume in air. They react vigorously with water giving the acids. The anhydrides of organic acids can be obtained by the removal of water from two molecules of acid.These anhydrides easily add water and pass back into acids. From the few reactions described above it can be seen that organic acids are reactive compounds which should play an important role in synthesis. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15 CHEMISTS AND THE COMMON MARKET By E. P. GODDEN B.PHARM. F.P.s. F.R.I.C. Director European Market Group Beecham Toiletry Division Limited As I began this Mr Heath and his colleagues were oscillating between Brussels Paris and London making little or no progress on the vexed question of the imports into the European Economic Community of Common-wealth foodstuffs. Indeed the final uproar had just began on our application to join and therefore the question of whether or not we were to become a member of the so-called Common Market was still uncertain, I wrote at that time that in my view there was no doubt that Britain ought to join the Common Market and that the only real issues were consequently when and on what terms.Despite the fact that we have been voted out, I have not changed this view. I believe the ‘when’ will only now be a little longer and that the terms may be slightly different from those we envisaged a few months ago. What I am sure about is that an incentive has now been provided to push ahead with the construction of the Common Market in all its concepts with Britain in, and the probability is that we we will arrive in 1970 with a Common Market including Britain as far advanced as was foreseen when the Treaty of Rome was signed.Here I shall discuss the likely effect that Britain’s membership of this enlarged community might and will have on British chemists as individuals. It is of course extremely difficult to make any forecast of how individuals will be affected particularly indi-viduals collectively and no such forecast examination is possible without referring to the industries in which they are employed. Continuing the progression no forecasts for the chemical industry can properly be attempted without examining the possibilities for industry as a whole. The first essential fact to be understood is that Britain’s entry into the Common Market means admittedly over a period of some eight years (the time required to remove all tariff barriers) the gradual construction of a home market of something like 250 million people compared with the present 50 million.Such a size of market is an essential to sound economic growth in the world today. One of the consequences of this latest association when we become a member is that the best of our industry will be thrown into straight side-by-side competition with the best of Continental industry. This inevitably will mean two things: That the big will get bigger and with significant exceptions-namely those elucidated in the succeeding paragraph-the small will not survive. The Common Market will therefore probably lead to fewer bigger units. The development and progress of small- and medium-sized industries that have some highly 104 specialized product or service to offer and where the number of firms competing in the particular field is limited.There are a number of com-panies for example in the light engineering, machine-tool and electronics industries together with some small- or medium-sized chemical firms making highly specialized products who can view the Common Market with enthusiasm. The following lists are compiled from a wide variety of opinions expressed by various industrial and economic authorities and show how various industries may fare in the Common Market : Industries likely to bemjt Chemicals (but probably not Tractors Cement Commercial vehicles Wool textiles Man-made fibres Men’s clothing Industries like& to be in dzjiculties Cameras Watches and clocks Scientific instruments China Carpets Industries with a mixed outlook Passenger vehicles Metal manufactures Motorcycles and scooters Machine tools Heavy electrical engineering fertilizers) Industries unaffected Telephone and telegraphic Aircraft and aircraft engine equipment sales Sports cars Motor accessories Steel and tinplate Television and radio Other electronics (especially Electrical domestic appliances computers) Rayon weaving Cotton textiles Footwear Leather goods Toys Other general engineering Non-ferrous metals Paper Rubber Shipbuilding Drink tobacco and foods In general all the forecasts indicate that the outlook for the British chemical industry on entry into the Common Market is good.Certainly the Common Market would appear to have been good for the indi-vidual chemical industries of Italy France Belgium, Holland and Germany. In this connexion the following random selection of reports abstracts and comment is illuminating : Holland From the Annual Report (1960) of the Association for Chemical Industty ‘It is probable that in the future the year under review will be regarded as the year in which the chemical industry in Holland evolved from an important to a very important section of industry. in Hollan CHEMISTS AND THE COMMON MARKET 105 Very important from a national as well as international point of view. The 1960 turnover of f. 3-4 billion (E340 million) and export figures off. 1.7 billion (6170 million) rose by f.400 million (&40 million) and f. 164 million (E16.4 million) respectively over the 1959 figures.’ In the course of 1959 it became clear that the plans for a West European free trade zone-at least in the form existing at that time-would not be realized. With this came an end to the hesitation of many firms as to whether to establish and develop their businesses inside or outside the European Common Market. If the plans had been carried out the investments outside the European Common Market would in general have been more attractive whilst by rejecting them the scales were tipped in favour of investments within its boundaries. How can the sudden growth in 1960 be explained? Belgium The following figures for the entire Belgian chemical industry (expressed in milliards of Belgian Francs) are revealing : 1956 1958 1960 Export .. .. . . 12.5 13.3 16.1 Import . . .. . . 9.8 9.9 12.8 The great increase in activity from 1958 will be noted. Italy A well-informed correspondent observes : ‘In recent years there has been an unprecedented expansion in all Italian industry and commerce. This expansion has been notable in the chemical industry itself and also in many industries in which chernistty jdajis an important part. Typical examples are to be found in the field of synthetic resins and artificial fibres.’ It seems clear from the general forecasts of how indi-vidual industries will fare that there is likely to be some change for industry as a whole and inevitably for the people employed therein.Even in those industries where prosperity is not forecast substantial numbers of chemists are employed and consequently some re-adjustment will be necessary. From the individual point of view it is important to appreciate however, that these changes are not going to be drastic or sudden. They will be gradual (and consequently largely healthy) over the next eight or 10 years as industry gears and adapts itself to meet the new conditions and changes. The movement of chemists within industry and from one industry to another will therefore be gradual and will be dictated by the usual laws of supply and demand. Those industries requiring more chemists and chemists of better calibre will inevitably because of their need, be offering the terms and conditions which will attract the right sort of men from the other industries whose terms and conditions because of their economic difficulties, will inevitably be less attractive.In addition to the movement generated by these pressures there is also the movement which will be inevitable by the creation of one European economic unit. I t will perhaps be helpful to reproduce here some comments on the appropriate articles of the Treaty of Rome covering the movement of personnel and social services which have a bearing on the movement of people and some comments on taxation which can have a bearing not only on the movement of people but also on the movement and location of industry. LABOUR MIGRATION Articles 48 to 51 cover this subject. These articles provide that by the end of the transitional period ‘the free movement of workers shall be ensured.’ They also provide that all discrimination based upon nationality shall be abolished.The principle is clearly established that a person may accept offers of employment migrate to the place of employment and after three to four years remain in that place after termination of employment. Whilst so employed he is entitIed to the pay and con-ditions normal in that place. The freedom of movement is to be achieved in three stages. During Stage 1 under regulations now in force, a vacancy which remains unfilled is notified to the labour exchanges of the other countries after a waiting period of three weeks. During Stage 2 (as from a date not yet fixed) this waiting period (and the resulting national preferential treatment) will be restricted to cases lvhere free movement might seriously endanger full employ-ment and standards of living.These final limitations must be removed during the third stage the starting date of \vhich is not yet fixed; the terminal date will tie 1 January 1970. I t is interesting to note that migrant employees for the purpose of qualifying for social security benefit\ may add together all the periods in different member states that would therein have given such qualifications. SOCIAL SERVICES Articles 11 7 to 128 cover this subject. The general aim is an upward harmonization within the Community. This applies to equal pay for men and women which is to be established by I January 1965. Other provisions, still to be worked out will include : (a) Social security.( b ) Collective bargaining and Trade Union law. ( c ) Industrial hygiene and protection. ( d ) Working conditions and labour legislation. A Social Fund has been established. Member states contribute a fixed percentage of its expenditure and claim from it 50 per cent of their outlay on (i) occupa-tional re-training and resettlement allowances and (ii) financial assistance to maintain wages to those temporarily unemployed as a result of plant conversion. During the two and a half years to mid-1960 the claims on this Fund were as follows (in 100,000 U.S. $’s) : Contribution :h Re-training Resettlement Assistance Total 7-2 Belgium 8.8 7.2 W. Germany 32.0 42.5 63.5 ___ 106.0 France 32-0 56- 1 6.0 - 62.1 Italy 20.0 46.7 9.7 __ 56.4 Netherlands 7.0 27-3 0.3 - 2 7.6 - __ Luxembourg 0.2 - - - -Total 100~o 179.8 79.5 - 259.106 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL It should be noted that the large West German claim embraces considerable outlay in regard to refugees from East Germany. Without including that figure their claim would be U.S. $2,600,000 and the total U.S. $17,930,000. I t is also highly significant to notice the absence of any claim in respect of assistance i.e. to maintain wages to temporarily unemployed during plant conversion. TAXATION In the U.K. indirect taxation by way of Purchase Tax represents 7 per cent of the tax revenue. In the E.E.C. countries it ranges from 17 per cent in Luxembourg to more than 40 per cent in West Germany and is generally applied usually at a single standard rate to all com-mercial transactions.In France it is charged on the ‘added value’ of each stage of production and distribu-tion and each ‘sale’ accounts for the tax charged thereon less the tax charged on the equivalent ‘purchase.’ In the other five states the tax is paid on each transaction, without rebate and the taxes paid enter into the taxable value on which the next tax is calculated. All six countries impose a compensating tax on im-ports which in theory is equal to the tax that would have been paid on goods of domestic origin. At the same time they remit the taxes on exports. (In the case of Germany this is at an ‘averaged’ rate-and on single export buyer transactions provides what is virtually an export subsidy of about 49 per cent).Exact calculations are impossible and ‘averaged’ rates are used. The Treaty of Rome subject to certain rules per-petuates this system. This is bound to leave at a dis-advantage those countries that rely more on direct taxation and less on turnover taxes for direct tax becomes in effect a factor in the cost of production. I t cannot be refunded in regard to exports. The higher the ratio of direct tax the less competitive will be the export price. Turnover taxes are charged on imported goods and remitted on exports. To this extent the cost involved is added to the price of imports and deducted from the price of exports. The French system of ‘added value’ tax could be adapted to apply fairly to inter-member trade taxing each stage of production and distribution in and for the benefit of the country where it takes place.This has been recommended as part of a common fiscal policy. Considerable variations in the rate o f tax might tend (other costs being equal) to divert stages o f production to the country charging the lowest rate and this could involve unemployment and move-ment o f personnel. The only perfect solution would be a harmonized taxation policy charging the same rate in the same method although even this would not achieve equality of taxation. Personal and profit taxes would then become the ‘make-weights’ and would vary according to national expenditure. There is really no ready method of measuring total tax incidence as between member states.The taxation methods and rates are so varied as to defy comparison except on the basis of taking illustrations and calculating the load of all taxes and fiscal charges in each state. As far as this has been done the results show that the U.K. is one of the least taxed countries in Europe! All such calculations must be imperfect and no real equality of fiscal charges is likely outside a single and highly unified State. The E.E.C. Commission and National Governments are to study or are studying (i) the harmonization of the bases on which direct taxation is calculated (ii) fiscal measures which affect foreigners who invest in Common Market countries and (iii) taxation on capital movement. It is evident that those desiring something more than a free trade area must contemplate sweeping changes in the matter of taxation.I t is these changes that constitute one of the fundamental causes of Britain’s own difficulties. Those who demand ‘equality of taxation’ are in fact asking for centralized government. Apart from the pressures on personnel movement that these various provisions of the Treaty of Rome will exert it is interesting to compare some of the details of the existing salary levels-bearing in mind the social benefits which exist in the different states. Germany The details provided from Germany are of interest for apart from the general level it will be seen that salary scales for newly-qualified chemists are much more rigidly laid down in respect of minima than is the case in this country.It is reasonable to expect that moves will take place within the Common Market to establish more generally basic minima for qualified people, including chemists. ‘For the first five years in his profession a tariff applies for the chemist with completed university training. The years in his profession are counted in this context as from the diploma chemist’s examination. The amounts shown in the tariff repre-sent a lower limit and are in general more or less exceeded in industry. During the later professional years salaries are to rise suitably and to correspond to the achievements of and demands made upon the chemist.’ Social allowances vary from area to area but are well defined. Bavaria. During the first five professional years married employees receive in addition to the scale of salaries a monthly allowance of DM.20-and if they have children a further allowance for the first and second child of DM. 10 until completion of the sixteenth year of age of the children. A female employee however receives the marriage and children’s allowances only if she is divorced and is not receiving maintainance, or if her husband is incapable of working and she is herself responsi-ble for meeting the expenses of the common family household or if her husband is missing or if she is a widow and has children who have not yet completed their sixteenth year of age. For married women and children up to completion of their eighteenth year of age a social allowance of DR4. 20 per month is granted for the first five professional years subject to a deduction of social allowances due on a regional or works basis in as far as these have not become invalid under paragraph 7 of the Law on Children’s Allowances.Two examples will show the extent of this. North Rhine- Westphalia 19631 CHEMISTS AND THE COMMON MARKET 107 Italy Minimum standards of pay and working conditions are laid down by the Associazione Nazionale dell’Industria Chimica in collaboration with its associated organiza-tions and other official bodies. These standards are contained in a publication entitled Contratto Collettivo Nasionale di Lauoro per gli Addetti all’lndustria Chimica e Chimicofarmaceutica. Workers in the chemical industry are classified under three main headings : (1) Workers (skilled and unskilled) (2) Workers with special qualifications (3) Technical and administrative personnel.Each group is divided into various categories for which minimum rates of pay are determined according to age qualifications and degree of responsibility. Chemists (diploma) and qualified chemists (university degree) automatically come under Group 3 (technical and administrative) and may only be employed in the two highest categories in this Group (1st and 2nd Categories). Minimum rates of pay are related to the cost of living and vary according to area. Italy is divided into a number of zones each with its own rates of minimum pay. Highest rates of pay are to be found in Milan Turin Rome and Genoa. The minimum basic wage for a chemist or qualified chemist (over the age of 21) in Milan is Lire 70,950 per month paid 13 times annually.This is equivalent to E550 sterling per annum. This minimum basic wage would normally only be applied in the case of a person being appointed to his first job. In the case of a qualified chemist being appointed to an executive position (1st Category) the minimum basic wage rises to Lire 94,200 per month (4720 sterling per annum). The employee is entitled to receive a minimum bi-annual increment of 5 per cent of this basic salary up to a maximum of a 70 per cent total increment, It is important to realize that these conditions repre-sent ,in all cases the basic minimum f o r the chemical industry. Where a chemist is employed in some other branch of industry or commerce rates of pay applicable to the industry in question would tend to apply.Ho 1 land The shortage of trained personnel in Holland naturally affects the salary scales particularly of the lower grade. Thus a graduate entering industry at age 28-31 can generally expect a starting salary off. 10.000 (L990)-f. 12.000 (g1,188) per annum; some have recently obtained up to f. 14.000 (g1,386). Denmark institutions and basic jobs) : The latest remuneration scale is as follows (in public First year after qualifying DXr. 19,513 (E1,006) Second year , , D.Kr. 20,864 (41,075) Third year , , D.Kr. 21,765 (E1,122) Tenth year , , D.Kr. 30,770 (E1,586) Normally 10 per cent will be added to these figures for the pension scheme. These details of existing salary structures in so far as they can be obtained for the various countries in the E.E.C.at the present time give some idea of how chemists are paid on the other side of the Channel. Even though however more attractive rates of pay may be prevalent in the chemical industry in other member countries of the Common Market either now or in the future it is unlikely that this will attract substantial numbers of British chemists for the natural barriers generated by language will tend to preclude this. In this connexion it is interesting to note a comment from Italy : ‘Provisions for the free movement of personnel between various countries in the Common Market have not yet become effective. In the chemical industry in Italy there is a dearth of highly skilled specialists ; in fact the increasing industrial prosperity of the country is providing far greater opportunities for qualified chemists than existed even a few years ago.Nevertheless there has been no general interchange of qualified chemical personnel with other countries in the Common Market. A few isolated instances occur where Dutch German Swiss or British chemists have come to work in Italy but in most cases this is due to the fact of a parent company having established a branch in this country. Should Great Britain enter the Common Market it seems unlikely that any general movement of personnel which might have a bearing on the position of British chemists would take place in the fore-seeable future.’ The most important overall effect of Britain’s entry will be a continuing and expanding prosperity for Europe as a whole and as European chemical industry in which Britain will have an extremely large stake will probably expand to a greater extent than the industrial average for the whole community it would seem reasonable to expect that chemists as individuals will similarly prosper more than the average worker.In general fringe benefits seem to be greater in the Community than they are in Britain and hence there is likely to be some improvement in these with Britain coming up to the general European standard. The next outstanding effect which the Common Market will have on the chemical industry is that individual companies will tend to become more special-ized. Companies making a multitude of chemical products will probably not be able to produce them sufficiently economically ; this will mean the stream-lining of processes and administration and the produc-tion of fewer commercially successful items.Chemists working in these industries will therefore become more highly specialized in a more restricted field. This effect will be particularly manifest and probably more drastic in the smaller countries for example Denmark, who are already or likely to become members of the E.E.C. than for ourselves; but it will nevertheless be an important factor for Britain as indeed it will for all members of the Community. This is cited therefore neither as a disadvantage nor an advantage but as an anticipated and inevitable fact. In this connexion it is interesting to consider the position of Denmark and a comment originating therefrom.‘Industrial Chemists in Denmark A typical feature of Danish industry is the presence of many kemiingenims in key positions e.g. as top or assistant managing directors and proprietors of big companies i.e. companies making sulphuric acid and superphosphate the Royal porcelain factory, drug and medicine companies paint manufacturers etc. ; as professors and scientific leaders of the official nuclear research of the Carlsberg biological research of the investigation of Den-mark’s mineral resources of agricultural and dairy research etc. ; as sales agents and business people in many branches and so on 108 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL One kemzangenz~~r has been Minister of Trade and Commerce, another is the leader of the official technological institutes all these people have got their basic education in one and the same place and principally in one and the same way I t would be too expensive both to the country and to the indi-vidual to specialize as happens in the big countries because many branches of industry etc employ only a few chemists each So the chemists must have a knowledge as universal as possible and be sufficiently flexible to take a job in any industry in the chemical field To a certain extent this is an advantage a strength when Danish kemazngenz~~rs are compared with chemists from other countries because their abilities make them very useful where a broad knowledge IS needed On the other hand these people will be specialists in their respective fields only after some years of postgraduate studies Such studies can take place in some of the official Danish research institutes in the industry itself in other countries or during courses arranged by e g the Danish Engineers’ Association, the Industrial Council etc ’ I t would seem reasonable that the greater specializa-tion over more restricted fields will inevitably become reflected in the schools universities and technical colleges providing the scientific and technical education of the nation There may in fact be a case for those bodies concerned with scientific and technical education of the nation to examine whether this greater specializa-tion should precede the general movement in industry, but the probability is that it is likely to follow.There is also the problem of the differing standards of the degrees and qualifications of the various countries and the mutual recognition of each other’s diplomas The following is advice provided from Germany by the Verband der Chemischen Industrie The background of thzs versatzlaty as undoubtedly the saze o f the country The interests of chemists are touched upon in the Common Market under Article 48 {Freedom of Movement of Employees), Article 52 (Freedom of Establishment) and Article 57 (Recog-nition of Diplomas) Limitations in the exercise of a profession such as ours in existence to date in the individual countries do not generally concern the exercise of the profession of chemists Detailed preparatory work is required for the proposed recognition of diplomas examination certificates and similar matters Since there are considerable differences in the courses of studies and the requirements of examinations for the study of chemistry between the Common Market countries it is necessary first of all to investi-gate in detail the equivalences of university finals These investi-gations are being conducted by the universities ’ The training of chemists varies considerably from country to country and it is interesting to examine some comments on the training for chemical qualifications from Italy Holland Germany and Denmark Italy-Traanang of Chemzsts (1) (Diploma in Chemistry) Perzto Chemzco -This diploma requires a total period of five years’ study of which the first three years would be carried out a t a normal secondary school followed by two years at a polytechnic The diploma may serve as a means of entry into a university or as a qualification for a post in industry or commerce (as an analyst or in a similar capacity where more expert knowledge is not required) (University Degree in Chemistry) Laurea zn Chzmzca -A University degree in Chemistry may be classified under the following headings -(a) Pure Chemistry - Inorganic Chemistry and Physics - Organic Chemistry and Biology ( 6 ) Industrial Chemistry ( c ) Pharmaceutical Chemistr) All these degrees require a minimum of four years’ study at a recognized university and carry the title of Doctor Mith the exception of a degree in Pharmaceutical Chemistry all would be equally valid as the basis of a career in industry or commerce Graduates in pharmaceutical chemistry would normally find employment either in some branch of the pharmaceutical industry or as retail chemists for which such a degree is obligatory S’eczalzzatzon A university degree in chemistry does not in itself imply special-ization to any extent other than that indicated by the type of degree So far as the possibility of Interchange between various branches is concerned (technical works research management etc ’i the situati6n appears similar to that of the U K There is nothing to prevent a qualified chemist with the right personal qualities from obtaining a position in top chemical management True ‘specialists’ in industrial chemistry are comparatively rare Such men in key positions can earn high salaries (k5,OOO per annum or more) Obviously conditions of employment laid down in the Contratto d2 Laroro do not apply in such circumstances According to law should such a man resign from the firm in which he is employed he is required to give a guarantee not to accept similar emp1o)ment with a competitive firm in the same field within two years of his resignation During this entire period howelrer his former emplovers must pay him half-salary in addition to the compensatory entitlement paid at the termination of employment by all firms in Ital\ (After five years this entitlement normally consists of one month s salary for every year of service ) Germany-Trazning o f Chemzsts and Sbeczalzzatzon The training of chemists takes place at the universities and technical high schools After four to fibe semesters (half-yearly term trans1 ) it is usual for the diploma chemist’s intermediate examination to take place 4fter a further four to five semesters the diploma chemist’s main examination IS held At technical high schools this would be the time for qualifying as diploma engineer I t is possible to complete the studv of chemistrv b) a degree and studies to qualify for a degree generally take approxi-mately twelb e to fifteen semesters In general specialization occurs with the diploma or doctorate thesis It can howeler, begin as early as after the intermediate examination e e if a student should decide to study phvsical chemistrv pharmaceutical chem-istry or the chemistry of foodstuffs The Xetherlands- Traznznp o f Graduate Chemzsts Pre-unaverszty educatzon Only children from a high school (H B S ) or grammar school can qualify for entry to a university this secondary education takes five to seven years normallv from age 12 to 17 (19) Special-ization takes place in the last two years and only those children who have chosen the ‘scientific’ stream can qualify to enter a unixersity to study science The difference between the streams is more one of emphasis than of specialization since the child in the scientific stream at a grammar school still studies 17 subjects including two classical and three modern foreign languages until his last year and is examined in 12 Based on his performance in this examination the child qualifies for entrance to any department in the faculty of science at a university which he cares to choose Nevertheless during his first year guidance may be given if it is thought that he has not chosen the most suitable subject Unaverszty educatzon The course in a science subject at a university is set out as covering six years After three years there comes the inter-mediate examination (kandzdaat examen) and after a further three years the final examination (doctoraat examen) In practice however no student ever completes Part One in less than three and a half years and most students require three to four years for Part Two This situation is largely due to the method of examining which is outlined below ,4 student attends a course of lectures and when he considers himself to have reached the required standard in that subject he makes an appointment with the departmental head or a deputy A date is then fixed for a personal oral examination and th 19631 CHEMISTS AND THE COMMON MARKET 109 candidate is given a mark based on the assessment of the examiner.The number of such oral examinations to be taken is fixed but the timing of them is left entirely to the candidate. When the candidate has the required number of passes it is announced that he has gained Part One with a given grading. Exactly the same procedure is adopted for Part Two. Registration to be examined is accepted at monthly intervals and thus there is more or less continuous graduation. A typical chemical course would be organized as follows : Year 1. Analytical Chemistry General Physics a special physics subject e.g.Atomic Physics Calculus, Year 2. Year 3. Year 4-6. ilnalytical Geometry. Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry Physical Chemistry General Physics a special physics subject, Higher Algebra or Statistics. Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry Physical Chemistry. Candidate chooses one aspect e.g. Organic Chemistry, xvhich becomes his prime interest for both theoretical and practical work although in the fourth and fifth years four other aspects of chemistry must be studied to a lesser degree. One literature survey and one colloquium must also be completed. Most students leave the university at this stage only about 10 per cent carry on for a further two years to complete a doctor’s degree for which original research must be carried out and a thesis submitted.Military SeruiLe Either during or after completing his university education the student must do two years’ military service and thus enters industry at age 20-3 1. I am at this point trying to develop the idea that entry into the Common Market will eventually impinge on our university and educational system. I t may be that this matter is already being studied in detail by our university and educational authorities in conjunction with the more detailed study of the equivalence of university qualifications. This pressure is independent of those pressures which will inevitably occur by greater contact between the universities themselves and the consequent acquisition of the best from each other’s systems.One effect of this greater contact is likely to be at least a partial breakdown of the somewhat secretive industrial consultant system which is common in this country. All the evidence seems to show that universities are responsible for the reluctance to publicize the fact that university professors and others act as industrial consultants. Industry business and the profit motive are still seen as slightly distasteful to most of our universities and this is something which a larger more vibrant economic community will tend to eliminate. I t will be inevitable that business influence will grow and successful businessmen will continue to become the new aristocracy. This together with the fact that a number of continental countries are not so secretive in their approach to learned men’s consulting and advising industry will mean that such consultancies will become more and more desirable and probably as a result, more publicized.In this connexion it was particularly timely that Lord Hailsham in his address at the Annual Dinner of the Institute in April last should have urged greater collaboration between industry and the universities. Such greater collaboration would be timely necessary and in fact inevitable. I t is also gratifying that significant steps are being made in this direction by the Colleges of Advanced Technology whose whole aim is to develop closer links between learning and industry. To sum up therefore it would seem reasonable to draw the following general conclusions of the likely effects on the chemical industry and chemists of Britain’s joining the Common Market : The British chemical industry as a whole will do well with the probable exception of the fertilizer industry.Big companies will tend to get bigger with a number of smaller- and medium-sized companies going to the wall except those who have some considerable specialization. (3) The re-orientation of the chemical industry which will occur over the tariff-removing period and which is likely to be complete by 1970 will mean movement of chemists within industry. I t would seem that such movement is likely to be beneficial. The language barrier is likely to limit the migration of chemists from Britain to the Continent despite the provisions of the Treaty of Rome.(4) The condition of the chemist as an individual is likely to improve particularly with regard to fringe benefits. (5) Greater specialization will be called for from individual chemists in line with the greater specialization of their employers. (1) (2) Some re-orientation of university and technical college syllabuses is likely to be necessary both as a consequence of the greater specialization and to permit a move towards a more uniform system of training and qualifications throughout the Common Market. In particular the need for mutual recognition of existing diplomas and qualifications will mean amendments to the study and training programmes for the future to ensure that the standards of similar qualifications throughout the member countries are more nearly equivalent.(7) Greater collaboration will be needed between the universities and industry. The final overall general conclusion that can be drawn is that British chemists have nothing to fear from Britain’s entry into the Common Market and probably a very great deal to gain. Certainly our chemical industry and our chemists should regard entry into the Common Market as an exciting challenge and not as a frightening threat MEASUREMENT OF IONIZATION POTENTIALS OF THE RARE GASES Cs 3.89 1-38 By B. E. DINEEN AND R. S. NYHOLM F.R.S. Department of Chemistry University College London I Cu Ag I Au -I- -7.72 7.57 9.22 3.78 3.65 4.60 Arising out of a number of lecture courses many of which have been arranged by the Institute it is clear that there is a need for a description of convenient experi-mental set-ups for the determination of ionization potentials.It is to be hoped that in the near future, there will be available a British journal of chemical education in which apparatus such as that suitable for this purpose can be described. In the meantime, we are indebted to the Institute for providing space for this description. The main object of this article is to describe some sim-ple experimental arrangements which are convenient for the measurement of the first ionization potential for each of the five rare gases helium neon krypton argon and xenon. We use the term rare gas instead of 'inert' gas because the recent preparation of a salt of xenon, i.e. Xe+[PtF,]- and covalent compounds such as XeF,, means that the word 'inert' is no longer appropriate.Before giving these experimental details it seems desirable to point out briefly why ionization potentials are of value in inorganic chemistry. Chemistry is still an experimental science and experiment and observa-tion leading to a body of facts is still the first step in the study of this as of any other branch of science. However the classification and comparison of these facts are the next important steps and the more funda-mental the basis for this classification the better. We are concerned here mainly with inorganic chemistry. Perhaps the most important difference between inorganic and organic chemistry emerges from a study of the laws governing the products formed in chemical reactions.Usually but not always the product formed in an inorganic reaction is determined by the laws of thermo-dynamics especially in ionic reactions. There are of course many exceptions to this generalization e.g many of the substitution reactions in metal complexes. For example the [Cr(H,0),l3+ ion exchanges water for most other ligands very slowly even when the process is thermodynamically favourable. However it is true to say that for all reactions the position of equilibrium is determined by the free energy of the reaction. Any guide therefore as to the energy involved in a reaction will assist us in deciding to what extent a reaction can proceed. Let us consider a reaction between different atoms A and B to form a compound AB, which may be an ionic solid e.g.Na+ + C1- or a covalent molecule e.g. HgCl,. The formation of sodium chloride involves, amongst other things the removal of an electron from a sodium atom and the addition of an electron to a chlorine atom. In the case of HgCl, however we have to promote an electron so as to obtain an excited atom (Hg*) containing two unpaired electrons i.e. Hg"(6s2) 3 Hg" * (6s6p). The energy required to re-move an electron to infinity from an atom or ion in its ground state is known as the ionization energy or more commonly the ionization potential. For sodium the ionization energy is 118 kcal/g-atom; it can also be expressed as 5.14 electron volts this being the potential required to remove the electron from a single atom. To convert electron volts per atom to kcallg-atom one multiplies by 23,066.For negative ions the term electron affinity is often used. The electron affinity of chlorine is 3.69 electron volts or 85 kcal/g-atom. This is the energy evolved when one adds an electron to a chlorine atom. Strictly speaking there is no need to introduce another term for this since the phrases 'ionization energy of a negative ion' and 'electron affinity of an atom' are synonymous. For the same metal (e.g. Na) and the same halogen (e.g. Cl,) the relative sizes of the ionization potential of the metal and the lattice energy of the ionic crystal are the main factors which decide the stable oxidation state. For a covalent molecule the relative sizes of promotion energies and bond energies are of prime importance.For a series of similar atoms the promotion energy usually parallels ionization energy. Thus for the alkali metal atoms and Cu Ag and Au the s 3 p promotion energy* is roughly proportional to the I.P. of the metal atoms as shown in Table I. TABLE I Atom Ionization Energy (eV) Promotion Energy (eV) -Li -5-39 1 *84 Na 5.14 2-10 K 4.34 1-60 Rb 4.18 1.56 However marked deviations occur when the charge of an atom changes especially near the beginning of the transition series (also note Li" and Na"). These few introductory remarks indicate that in the formation of the ionic crystals and covalent molecules the ionization energy is directly or indirectly of great importance in deciding the energy evolved during a reaction.* The first term only i.e. s + p ( J = ZQ) is considered. 11 MEASUREMENT OF IONIZATION POTENTIALS OF THE RARE GASES 111 Gas Convenient Tube APPLICATION OF IONIZATION ENERGIES No attempt will be made to discuss applications here but we simply list with an example some of the uses He Ne Ar Kr Xe - ~ - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ -6K25 GTIC 20A2 CL57 AFX234 CL56 EN91 I t I I I I I I I 1 I f I ' I ! I ' I ' I I I 1 I ' I ' t i I ' I ' I @ I I I l l l l l i I I I I I I I I I I Number of electron removed 4 4 P 3 9 3p6 I ' 2sz 2p6 I / I I @ I / I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I I 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 FIG. 1. Successive Ionization Potentials for Potassium ionization potentials FIG. 2. Successive Ionization Potentials for Neon which we can make of ionization energies in under-standing the properties of atoms and the reactions which they undergo.1. To show the total number of electrons in an atom (see Fig. 1)*. Atoms 2. To indicate the number of electrons at each principal quantum level (see Fig. 1). 3. To indicate the sub-levels of electrons inside each principal quantum shell (see Fig. 2). r 4. Whether a bond is IikeIy to be covalent or ionic. states (cf. lattice energies). ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ 5. Relative stabilities of various ionic oxidation [ 8. Correlation with bond strengths. i ( 1-31 Crystals Or i 6. Stabilities of complex (especially hydrated) ions. (4-8) 7. Electronegativities. "Instead of plotting log I.P. vertically it is instructive to plot I.P./(charge)2.This leads in a hydrogen-like atom (e.g. H" He+), to a value of 13.595; but for atoms or ions with more than one electron I.P./(charge)2 varies in a manner which shows up effec-tively the number of electrons at each principal quantum level. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS OF MEASUREMENTS Various leading manufacturers in Great Britain have been consulted in order to enable us to choose valves which satisfy as far as possible the following require-ments : (i) (ii) (hi) a separate tube for each of the five rare gases; a high purity of the gas in the tube; reproducibility and reliability of measurement from valve to valve; however very high accuracy i.e. better than 0.1 eV has not been sought; (iv) a low cost. We found that the tubes shown in Table I1 are con-venient for the purpose.TABLE I1 The list is not intended to be exhaustive but directs attention to the smaller readily available tubes ; some larger valves usually containing helium or mercury can be used in similar circuits but these frequently require filament current as high as tens of amperes. They are less convenient and more expensive to operate for simple demonstration purposes. For the measurement of the I.P. of hydrogen and mercury types FX227 and E278U respectively can be recommended. In the discussion which follows we shall describe the experimental set-up which was employed with the tubes which we found most convenient. The tubes not selected were rejected because they failed to give correct I.P. values under the conditions employed.It is probable that their unsuitability for our purposes is du 112 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL to one or both of two reasons viz. inconvenient electrode spacing and the gas pressure operating. Although several different modifications of possible circuits were tried we shall describe only those for which successful results were obtained easily with the tube chosen. Helium (Tube chosen type 6K25) The circuit is shown in Fig. 3. A small negative potential (- 3 V) is applied to the anode in series with a micro-ammeter (&) . Using the 200-ohm variable resistance the The procedure is that due to Hertz. 35 t I 10 c 5~ Octal base I A I I I I 1 I I I 5 10 15 20 25 v (volts) FIG. 3 potential across the voltmeter ( Vg) is steadily increased.No detectable current flows until 'c/g reaches 20 volts, after which a rapid increase is observed. Extrapolation of the linear portion of the graph gives a value of I.P. of about 24.4 volts (correct value 24.58 V). The variation in I.P. from one 6K25 tube to another led to differences, among the tubes tested of less than 0.4 V. I I I I I I i I I I I I I I1 I 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 v (volts) FIG. 4 A second method is shown in Fig. 4. Here the valve is connected as a diode the anode and the grid terminals being tied together. With an anode voltage between 15 and 35 volts the value of the anode current varied between about 480 and 500 milliamps. Now according to the well-known Richardson2 equation the anode current ra is proportional to Vg3i2.On plotting A ~ ~ ! ~ against Vg one obtained a sharp discontinuity at the ionization potential. As with the previous method, different values show small variations of the experi-mentally determined I.P. However the end-point is more clearly discernible than with the IJVg plot. Neon (Tube chosen type CL57) No suitable thyratron containing either neon or krypton appears to be available. However the Ferranti Co. manufactures a light source (type CL57) which for our purposes is similar to a thyratron. However instead of a control grid the tube has a trigger electrode. The anode is well removed from both the cathode and the trigger. The voltage I; is steadily increased from 15 to 24 xrolts. The circuit used is shown in Fig. 5. T C t I I I I I v (volts) 5 10 15 20 FIG.5 Readings of the trigger current (It) are taken for trigger voltage (LTt) from 15 volts upwards care being taken to increase I/; by intervals of less than 0.2 volts after a value of V = 20-21 volts is reached. A plot of It2i3 against Vt shows a marked discontinuity at about 22 volts and extrapolation of the value of V thereafter gives a value for I.P. The difference between the I.P. so determined and the accepted value of 21.46 V was less than 0-2 V. The current passing (It) should be kept at less than 100 mA to avoid damage to the tube. Argon (Tube chosen type 884) Satisfactory I.P. values were obtained only with a type 884 tube. The circuit employed is shown in Fig. 6. A plot of Ia2I3 against Va yields an I.P.very close to the accepted value of 15-755 V. It is convenient to plot values of ?Ta every 0.2 V after reaching 15 volts 19631 MEASUREMENT OF IONIZATION POTENTIALS OF THE RARE GASES 113 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 ‘16 I v (volts) FIG. 6 Krypton (Tube chosen type CL56) As mentioned in the case of neon a light source had to be used for krypton and the Ferranti CL56 tube is convenient. The physical construction is identical with the neon-filled CL57. It was found desirable to include a ZOO-ohm resistance in the trigger circuit. This gives better control of the current in the trigger circuit and hence greater accuracy. Values of the trigger resistance R from 100 to 300 ohms were tried the results obtained after subtracting the voltage drop It x R being the same in all cases.We found a ZOO-ohm resistance the best all-round value. When plotting results it is necessary to bear in mind that V = V - ZOOI, to allow for the IR drop across the ZOO-ohm resistance as shown in Figure 7. No useful purpose is served by using an It2/3 plot against Vt. By extrapolating the curve at the end-point a value of I.P. better than 0.5 V was obtained. l - i 80 /vr =I= 5 v, / / / / / I / I \ i I -10 15 20 25 30 35 vt (volts) FIG. 7 ,Ot n 3V v (volts) Xenon (Tube chosen type EN91) The Hertz method was again used as shown in Fig. 8. No current was observed in the anode circuit until Vg reached 12-12-3 volts whereupon the value of I, rapidly increased.It will be observed that the value of Vg now decreases as I increases. This can be understood in terms of the effective internal resistance decreasing as the electron current from cathode to grid increases sharply as the gas ionizes the grid and cathode then behaving as a diode. We found the EN91 particularly convenient for demonstration purposes. Xenon. Audio Demonstration o f Ionization Potential By using the circuit shown in Fig. 9 which incor-porates a 0.5 megohm resistance in series with the anode, it is possible to arrange for an audible demonstration of the I.P. of xenon. On steadily increasing V . a rushing noise will be heard in the loud-speaker when ionization takes place. FIG. 8 3! 0.5 M n -Other Gases Experiments were carried out on the mercury-filled KT66; an I.P.of about 13 V as compared with the accepted value of 10.435 V was obtained and we de-cided that the modifications needed to get the ‘correct’ answer made the set-up unsuitable for simple demon [APRIL 114 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY Tube strations. Similarly with hydrogen-filled FX227 an apparent I.P. of 20 V as compared with 13.56 V was obtained. However in this case the gas is present as H molecules and satisfactory agreement with the expected H atom value without dissociation into hydro-gen atoms is not expected. In Table I11 we show a comparison of the results obtained using in certain cases several different valves. Teachers will appreciate the obvious inverse correlation between the number of tubes of a particular type tested and their cost! TABLE I11 Typical values of I.P.obtained for various tubes Approx. I.P. 1 1 2 1 3 I 4 tube Accepted - - - - cost of Inert gas 6K25 CL57 884 CL56 EN9 1 He Ne Ar Kr Xe 24.58 24.4 24.9 24-7 24.6 E l 5s. 21-56 21.7 E8 15s. 14-00 14.1 L8 15s. 12.13 12.3 12.15 12.18 15s. 15-76 15.75 15.75 E l 10s. Details of Components The e.m.f. for the grid circuits used in these experi-ments was obtained from a variable d.c. rectifier unit, If this is not available accumulators are convenient. The use of h.t. dry batteries is not recommended but if necessary very heavy duty (‘B’) batteries can be employed. The meters used can be of various types but it is desirable to ensure that the voltmeter is a high-resistance one otherwise the heavy current it draws will upset the balance of other circuits and vitiate the results.For example in Fig. 3 the trigger current does not exceed 5 mA and hence the use of a voltmeter drawing as much as 14 mA would cause serious errors. For the purchase of most components the usual army disposal stores will suffice; a considerable saving is effected thereby. For example a 6-in-scale volt-meter drawing only 1 mA is available at these stores for only E5 a large demonstration meter will cost about A1 5. Rheostats of the wire-wound heavy-duty ( 100-200 watt) type cost about 15s. APPENDIX Fundamentals of the Bohr Theory For a hydrogen-like atom the energy of the single electron is - 2,me4m n2 h2 where 2 is the nuclear charge e the charge on an electron, n is the principal quantum number and h is Planck’s constant.The expression may be simplified to 13.595 Z2 n2 I.P. = 25 -24 23 -22 21 -20 19 18 -----17 -I6 -IS-f 14-er -W I 3 - ;;--10 -9 -8-7-6 -7 26 1 / He+/ A+ f~ 2 3 4 5 Charge on atom FIG. 10 For an isoelectronic series of atoms therefore one expects to find that d m = d13.595 x Z/n. This holds perfectly for the isoelectronic series H” He+, Li2+ etc. as shown in Fig. 10. For a polyelectronic series of atoms e.g. Cuo Zn+ Ga2+ and the rest one obtains a linear plot of d m against charge on the \ N eo - 21 I I I i I I I I I H t - t e i i Be B C N 0 F N e d a Element FIG. 1 19631 MEASUREMENT OF IONIZATION POTENTIALS OF THE RARE GASES I15 -2 Or- b 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Atomic number 1 I I I I I I I I I FIG.12 atom for high positive charges but the slope certainly does not agree with the simple hydrogen-like atom +4 c lb - 1 1 I I I I I I 1 0 I II III I V V V I W Group number FIG. 13 formula. Furthermore the deviation from linearity becomes specially evident as the charge approaches zero. This procedure is not applicable for the deter-mination of negative I.P. values. Note that in Table IV only three elements (Be Ne and Mg) in the first two rows require energy to add an electron. TABLE IV IMPORTANT IONIZATION POTENTIALS ( c ~ V ) ~ 94 (See also Figs 1 I 12 and 13) 1 electron volt = 23,066 kcal/mole 1. First ionization potential for first 18 elements : H H e L i Be B C N 0 F 13.59 24-58 5-39 9-32 8.30 11.26 14.54 13.61 17.42 Ne Na Mg A1 Si P S C1 Ar 21-56 5.14 7.64 5.98 8-15 10.48 10.36 13.01 15.76 Alkali Metals and Copper Silver and Gold 2.Li Na K Rb Cs Fr Cu Ag Au 5.39 5.14 4-34 4-18 3.89 4.10 7.72 7.57 9-22 3. Isoelectronic ls22s22p6 atoms or ions. 02- F- Ne Naf Mg2+ AP+ -6.63 3.48 21.56 47.29 78.2 120.0 4. Halide Ions: F- C1- Br- I-3.48 3.69 3.45 3.15 Uni-negative ions of First Row : H- He- Li- Be- B- C- N- 0- F- Ne-0.7 0.19 0.82 -0.19 0.33 1.24 0.05 1.47 3.50 -0.57 (When expressed as electron affinities the sign of the voltage is reversed). REFERENCES 1. G. P. Harnwell and J. J. Livingood ExperimentalAtomic 2. G. R. Noakes Textbook of Electricity and Magnetism.Mac-3. C. E. Moore Atomic Energy Leuels. National Bureau of 4. Physics. McGraw-Hill 1933 p. 319. millan 1941 p. 307. Standards Circular 467 1949. B. EdlCn J. chern. Phys. 1960 33 98 M o L E c u L AR B I o c HE MIST RY. (McGraw-Hill Series in Advanced Chemistry.) E. M. Kosower. Pp. xii + 304. New York McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc; London McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd 1962. 9 7s. Molecular physics yes one learned as a student not to confuse papers in J. Phys. Chem. with those in J. Chem. Phy. Molecular biology certainly that is the field of study of those physicists who win Nobel prizes in chemistry. But molecular biochemistry ? Is not the adjective rather redundant one asks as in ‘Godless atheist’ or ‘Wesleyan Methodist’ or even-should the spirit of the good Pope John prevail-as in ‘Roman Catholic’? The pure chemist might guess and guess wrongly that the book has been given this title because at last biochemistry is presented in terms of molecules and their formulae rather than in the jargon with which, he feels the subject is overloaded (‘to cuvettes were added ATP NADP TPP and Pal P with and without EDTA as inhibitor’).The task of the reviewer must therefore be to explain the title as well as to describe the book. Its first table fortunately gives guidance with a Hierarchy of Sciences; the left-hand column of the table being headed ‘Level’ and the right-hand ‘Science.’ The levels range from ‘Abstract’ at the top to ‘Poly-organism’ at the bottom and the sciences range similarly from mathematics to sociology with physicists look-ing down on everybody except mathematicians.As Dr Kosower observes sciences at neighbouring levels are most enriched by interdisciplinary co-operation ‘because of the ease in hybridizing intellectual and experimental techniques.’ Accordingly we find organic chemistry at the bottom of the stratum labelled ‘polyatomic (low number)’ and biochemistry in the next stratum labelled ‘polyatomic {high number) .’ Sandwiched between the two strata is molecular biochemistry. This position in the hierarchy of sciences indicates why the greater part of the book is devoted to a discussion of theories about the mechanisms of various organic reactions and their application in particular to reactions of biochemistry : the author has ‘hybridized’ the ‘intellectual techniques’ of the two sciences and molecular biochemistry is the result of the operation.Part I is concerned with what are called biochemical patterns well-known biochemical sequences such as glycolysis the tricarboxylic and urea cycles trans-amination and selected biosyntheses are outlined. This section is peppered here and there with discussions of reaction mechanisms but its main object is to summarize the reaction types which are encountered in the survey. On taking a census it emerges that there are 46 phosphate ester reactions 38 reactions forming C-H bonds, 28 forming C-N bonds 10 aldol condensations and so on. These statistics are then used as a guide in choosing the topics for discussion in Part 11; here carboxylations, enolizations nucleophilic displacements hydrations, hydrolyses oxidations and reductions and other types of reactions are described in terms of the electronic changes that occur within the molecules of reactants.In this part of the book the author amply justifies the claim that it is a pioneering work. So far as I know this is the first time that a comprehensive survey of this kind has been made and it will be of great value to all biochemists whose research interests centre upon the study of particular enzyme reactions. I have two misgivings not so much about the book as about the non-specialist reader. First it was not always evident to me which mechanisms are largely speculative and which are well supported by experiment. Secondly the author makes clear a most important point, namely that the pathways taken by enzymic and non-enzymic reactions may be quite different although the reactions may be of the same type such as hydrolyses; but this is brought out rather late in the book when the limitations of model systems are discussed.Many people who have not handled enzymes regard them as mereh agents for speeding up reactions which would tend to take place anyway the pipe is not the cause of the flow of water but merely facilitates it so that given a reservoir and a tap in the kitchen water will emerge if one waits long enough. Dr Kosower is not one of those who think that an enzymic reaction has been fully described when the electronic shifts for a similar non-enzymic reaction have been predicted with confidence he knows that the pipe must be connected up; thus he states at the end of Part I that ‘considering the vast number of enzyme-catalysed reactions it is a challenge to know that no well-defined mechanism has yet been elucidated for such a reaction.’ Attempts by biochemists to fit the all-important enzymes into speculations about reaction mechanisms are usually accompanied by a diagram showing a cross-section of a protein like that through a piece of Gruyitre cheese the substrate being tied into a hole with pieces of dotted string.Clearly we have a long way to go and our progress will be assisted by an excellent though compressed last chapter on the active sites of enzymes. This book displays an extensive knowledge of chemical theory and much originality; the section on pyridine nucleotides is outstanding no doubt because the author has made distinguished contributions to this field.His erudition is not limited to chemistry and the reader who is able to congratulate himself on his appreciation of the quotations in French at the head of section 2.2 in German (2.5) or in Russian (2.6) may yet find his Hebrew taxed in 2.15 or his American in 3.1. S DAGLEY 11 BOOK REVIEWS 117 S T R U C T U R A L CAR B 0 H Y D R ,4T E CHEMISTRY. E. G. V. Percival. Revised by E. Percival. Pp. xv +- 360. London J. Garnet i2.liller Ltd 1962. 40s. When the first edition was published in 1950 it was recognized as a fundamental textbook on this subject, eminently suited to the needs of students of chemistry and biochemistry.Since then advances have been so rapid that this new edition revised by Dr Elizabeth Percival is timely. She has tried to retain the character and aims of the first edition while bringing the text up to date in matters of detail. Accordingly large parts of the original text and many of the diagrams remain unchanged particularly in the early chapters and only where recent advances make some alteration desirable has the original text been revised or re-written. The first three chapters on structure and reactions of monosaccharides are largely untouched except for revision of the nomenclature and some brief additions, including sections on conformation the structure of osazones infra-red spectroscopy and alkaline degrada-tion of sugars.Chapter 4 on sugar anhydrides and aminosugars has greater coverage of aminosugars, particularly those of current biological interest. The remaining chapters have been altered in both order and content although many paragraphs from the first edition appear in their appropriate place. The chapter on natural glycosides has added sections on cerebrosides, antibiotics and nucleic-acid chemistry. Disaccharides have a chapter to themselves reflecting the large number of new ones isolated since 1950 and wisely oligo-saccharides are also treated in a separate chapter; again, those of biological interest have been emphasized. The last five chapters are concerned with the structure of polysaccharides and are introduced by a section on the methods and techniques employed in this field.This section is a welcome addition to the text but perhaps warranted a chapter on its own with a more detailed treatment of the topic. The section on cellulose and the hemicelluloses covers most of the ground of im-portance to the student. Starch and related poly-saccharides are well presented and sections on their biological synthesis are included. The remaining chapters cover a wide range of polysaccharides and welcome additions include immunological aspects of bacterial polysaccharides blood-group polysaccharides, and heparin. Here some choice of material has been inevitable but a representative selection of poly-saccharides has been made. Literature references up to 1960 are now included but where possible these have been confined to per-tinent review articles or to the more important original papers.This book must still rank high as a general text on the chemistry of carbohydrates for the Honours student and indeed can he read \vith profit by the research worker. J. R. TURVEY ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS OF DNA. Arthur Kornberg. New York and London John Wiley This little book contains the text of three lectures given in 1961 by Arthur Kornberg whose work in the biosynthesis of DNA won him a Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1959 and is one of the classics of modern biochemistry. The first chapter deals with the mechanism of the hiosynthesis of DNA under the influence of the poly-merase enzyme which is unique in faithfully reproducing the pattern of a primer. Evidence for the base-pairing mechanism of replication of nucleotide sequences, including the principles of nearest-neighbour-sequence analysis is discussed with great clarity.In the second chapter the enzymic formation of two peculiar DNA-like polymers is described. One the dAT copolymer contains alternating adenine and thymine residues along each of the two opposing strands; the other the dGdC copolymer consists of a strand containing guanine residues only facing a com-plementary strand containing cytosine residues only. The formation properties and significance of these interesting and unusual biosynthetic polymers are presented in detail. The final chapter deals with the fascinating problem of DNA synthesis in cells of Escherichia coli infected with the T-even bacteriophages whose DNA contains glucosylated hydroxymethylcytosine in place of the conventional cytosine found in the DNA of the host.Infection of the bacterial cell by the phage involves a complete and immediate reorganization of the enzymic economy of the cell with the production of new enzymes for the formation of phage DNA and the concomitant development of mechanisms for the suppression of the formation of host DNA. The text is liberally illustrated with diagrams and is characterized by that beautiful clarity of expression which distinguishes all the work from Dr Kornberg’s laboratory. I t summarizes in 103 small pages many years’ work published in a long series of original papers and is a magnificent pr6cis of one of the most exciting developments in our knowledge of the chemical workings of the living cell.Unfortunately the price is so high that it may not be purchased so widely as it deserves to be. Pp. ix + 103. @ Sons 1962. 30s. J. N. DAVIDSON QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS O F BIOCHEMISTRY. SECOND EDITION. Edwin A. Dawes. Pp. xv + 295. Edinburgh and London E. &’ S. Liuingstone Ltd 1962. 32s. 6d. Dr Dawes’s book should prove invaluable to all teachers and students of biochemistry. The author makes it clear that this is not a textbook of physical biochemistry but in each section an admirably complete and concise account is given of the physico-chemica 118 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL principles involved and sufficient worked examples to demonstrate clearly how these are applied.References to original papers and suggestions for further reading are also included. The 227 problems given are graded in their difficulty so that a number will be found within the grasp of more elementary students though the majority are of a standard more suitable for the Honours student. Research workers also will find this book of great use when approaching unfamiliar quantitative techniques in physical biochemistry. Subjects covered include molecular-weight deter-minations acid-base relationships and the electrolytic. behaviour of amino acids and proteins thermodynamics, equilibria reaction and enzyme kinetics photometry, manometry bacterial growth redox potential and isotopic techniques. The inclusion of examples based on techniques not usually encountered in an undergraduate course (e.g.molecular-weight determination by means of the ultra-centrifuge and many isotopic experiments) is particu-larly welcome since it helps to give a proper appreciation of the problems involved which are frequently hidden in many a comparatively simple statement in bio-chemical texts. The author has pointed out a number of common pitfalls and the whole book is written in a commendably clear and lucid style. There are very few errors in the text and most of these are fairly obvious. In the worked example 11.4 it is not made suffciently clear that the calculation is in terms of total activity not specific activity and the reason for multiplying the observed specific radio-activity by a factor of 8 instead of the apparently correct factor of 4 may well elude the reader who has not grasped this point.On p. 2 the expression ‘gram-equivalent’ is unfortunately substituted for ‘gram-atom,’ and in worked example 1.4 a multiplication sign is used instead of a plus. On p. 249 there is a contradiction since in one line turnover time is given as the ratio of an area between two curves and the slope of one of them, whereas a few lines lower it is correctly expressed as a ratio between the area and an increase in specific radioactivity. Six brief appendixes including one on graphical solution of problems complete a book which few biochemists can afford to be without. G. E. FRANCIS OXYGENASES. Edited by Osamu Hayaishi. Pp. xii New York and London Academic Press 1962.Until relatively recently the study of biological oxida-tion has thrown surprisingly little light on the ways in which oxygen molecules participate in metabolic pro-cesses. Much attention has been directed toward the enzymic dehydrogenation of substrates and the investi-gation of the pathways whereby electrons are transferred + 588. 125s. from primary substrates through carriers to molecular oxygen. I t has become recognized that molecular oxygen sometimes serves as an immediate electron acceptor forming water or hydrogen peroxide and the enzymes responsible for bringing this about are called oxidases. Until 1955 it was generally accepted that the oxygen atoms which are incorporated into substrates are derived from the oxygen of water molecules.In that year however the situation was changed by the discovery that the direct addition of oxygen to substrates can occur. These reactions are catalysed by enzymes to which the name ‘oxygenase’ has been given. Osamu Hayaishi who has himself made important contributions to our knowledge of the oxygenases has rendered a valuable service by bringing together in one volume a series of reviews of these enzymes by authors from several different countries. I t is now known that oxygenases occur in plants and animals and that they catalyse a variety of reactions including hydroxylations and the fission of aromatic rings. The use of lSO has been important in the discovery and investigation of the oxygenases and it is appropriate therefore that one chapter has been devoted to methods of using oxygen isotopes.Other chapters deal with phenolytic oxy-genases aromatic hydroxylations oxygenases in lipid and steroid metabolism bacterial oxidation of hydro-carbons peroxidase as an oxygenase phenolase and theoretical considerations on the activation of oxygen. Finally because of their contribution to the understand-ing of oxygen metabolism in general chapters are in-cluded on cytochrome oxidase haemoglobin and myo-globin haemerythrin and haemocyanin . This book is an excellent account of a rapidly de-veloping field of biochemical research and it will do much to establish a wider recognition of the significance of oxygenases and the direct addition of oxygen to substrates. LESLIE YOUNG PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS.F. Bueche. Pp. x + 354. New York and London Interscience Publishers 1962. 72s. For many physicists and mathematicians and for some physical chemists the primary interest in polymer science lies in the understanding of the physical properties of polymers in terms of molecular structure rather than the elucidation of the mechanisms of polymerization reactions. The hypothesis that a high polymer is com-posed of long-chain covalent molecules has only been accepted generally during the past three decades. For almost a century the technology of rubbers and plastics had been developing slowly and accumulating empirical data which still required more fundamental under-standing. Realization of the molecular characteristics of polymers however heralded a vast expansion in synthetic polymer chemistry and its associated industries, Thus the chemical physicist is having to cope with 19631 BOOK REVIEWS 119 flood of new technological data whilst he is still con-solidating the basic framework of his science.Though understanding of the properties of polymers in bulk has developed simultaneously with that of their properties in solution many books devote a larger pro-portion of space to the latter. Professor Buech’s book is confined to a discussion of the behaviour of polymers in bulk and as such it gives an exceptionally clear and well-balanced review of the current situation. The first two chapters deal briefly but adequately with chain statistics and rubber elasticity. Brevity here is not un-reasonable because several excellent texts give detailed coverage of this aspect of polymer physics; it is justified by the masterly survey of dynamic properties of polymers contained in the next seven chapters.Diffusion, viscosity glass temperatures creep stress relaxation, dielectric mechanical and n.m.r. behaviour are all included. The experimental results are intepreted as far as possible on the theory of rate processes using the Rouse-Bueche model to describe the dynamics of long-chain molecules. Although the difficulties and short-comings inherent in this approach are not concealed, Bueche succeeds in correlating a wide range of data. The remaining chapters review crystallization proper-ties of polymeric glasses tear strengths and tensile strengths of rubbers.The expressed purpose of this book ‘is to provide an introduction to the underlying molecular principles governing the physical behaviour of high polymers.’ The author has undoubtedly succeeded in his intention and furthermore has provided stimulating reading for research workers. Not unnaturally the book emphasizes Bueche’s interests in the field. As a result alternative and equally acceptable treatments of some topics are not included. On the other hand a large subject is compressed into 300 pages without loss of clarity. The reviewer and his colleagues have already had a fair amount of fun with the formal problems which are included at frequent intervals in the text. This book should be recommended reading for all polymer chemists. G. ALLEN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY O F POLYMERS.(HIGH POLYMERS VOLUME XII.) Edited by G. M. Kline. Part 11. Pp. xiii + 619. 132s. Part 111. Pp. xii + 566. 124s. New York and London Inter-sczence Publzshers 1962. Part I1 covers molecular weights and sizes (78 pp.), the use of X-ray diffraction (31) optical methods in the visual region (50)’ differential thermal analysis (32), pyrolysis (68)’ mass-spectroscopy (20) ultra-violet and infra-red spectrophotometry (22 44) fluorescence (24) , chromatography (46) polarography (82) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (74). Part I11 comprises systematic analytical procedures ( 140) colour tests ( 120), microscopy (88) radiochemical analysis (48) and end-group analysis. Each section is written by one or more workers at the National Burcau of Standards and partial uniformity of presentation has resulted from some authors being co-authors of other sections.According to the preface these two volumes ‘were planned to summarize our present knowledge of measure-ment techniques for the determination of structure and composition of macromolecules.’ However the em-phasis in the various sections varies from the detailed and authoritative discussions of ESR of polymers and their interpretation to the useful and well-presented summaries of infra-red data (which however omit the universal use of I.R. for measuring the CH branches in polyethylene) with only a slight treatment of the inter-pretative aspects. (Surely at this level a detailed deriva-tion of the Beer-Lambert law is unnecessary in the ultra-violet section).Molecular-weight measurements, including viscometry osmometry light scattering and ultra-centrifugation receive 78 pages but there is no hint under ‘viscosity’ that the different molecular weight - viscosity relationships of commercial high-pressure and low-pressure polyethylenes could lead to misinterpretation of experimental data. Fractionation is dismissed in five pages (pp. 7-12) in this section re-appearing under ‘chromatography’ on pp. 382 ff. quoting some of the same references differently numbered but without any adequate discussion of the merits of the various methods. No criticism is offered of those sections outside the reviewer’s experience. The title correctly describes much of the contents of this trilogy for in addition to the identification, characterization and estimation of polymers methods of determination are given for monomers and additives such as anti-oxidants plasticizers and initiators (though, curiously no methods are given for aluminium and titanium from Ziegler-Natta systems).Much useful information is presented in a very accessible manner for the analyst who is required to handle a wide variety of polymer problems. As would be expected from the N.B.S. adequate literature references are provided. Viewed as reference books for analysts or polymer scientists who wish to solve routine or incidental analytical problems these books will justify a place in the library of any polymer laboratory. The authors cannot be regarded however as uniformly successful in their aim ‘to endeavour to explore these frontiers (of our knowledge of the physical world) for polymer science.’ K.C. BRYANT METHODS OF ORGANIC ELEMENTAL MICROANALY-SIS. G. Ingram. Pp. xvi + 51 1. London Chapman 63 Hall Ltd 1962. 75s. The development of acceptable methods of quantita-tive organic microanalysis principally by Fritz Pregl during the years 19 12-22 provided a significant stimulus to organic and biological chemistry. Many textbook 120 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL have been published which are devoted almost ex-clusively to detailed accounts of Pregl’s methods but few particularly in more recent years give the im-pression that organic microanalysis is a live and con-tinually developing part of quantitative chemical analysis.Rather the attitude presented by such books is that whatever was good in Pregl’s time is also good enough today. The modern microanalyst has not only to be fully cognizant and appreciative of Pregl’s great contributions but must also recognize the many new developments which have greatly extended the scope of organic microanalysis and in many cases have pro-vided simpler accurate more reliable and rapid methods of analysis. The present book gives perhaps one of the most complete and balanced accounts of the classical Pregl methods and their modern counterparts as applied to the determination of the elements in organic compounds. A little over half the book (261 pp.) is devoted to an up-to-date account of methods for the determination of the common elements-carbon hydrogen nitrogen, halogens (including fluorine) and sulphur.This is followed by a quite extensive account (114 pp.) of methods for the determination of some 43 metals and non-metals encountered in organic compounds. Micro-gram analysis is dealt with in the next section (83 pp.) and the book concludes with appendixes on the prepara-tion of samples for analysis standard solutions suitable reference compounds and reagents. The selection of methods presented in this book leaves little to be desired. Those chemists familiar with the subject will appreciate this from even a cursory thumbing over of the pages. The two-stage process of elemental organic analysis-that is the initial quantitative decom-position of the sample followed by the determination of the particular product of the decomposition-is well emphasized and the treatment illustrates the easy interchange of methods for the two stages according to the preference of the analyst or the type of material being analysed.Too often in the past microanalysis has been hidebound by rigid analytical procedures which take no account of the difficulties arising from the occasional complex sample. Today the complex and unusual samples often outnumber the more conventional ones and the analyst must be prepared to deal with these often alarmingly complex materials. With this book at his disposal there are few determinations which the competent analyst could not carry out. If this book has any shortcomings they are to he found in the section on microgram analysis.As yet too little experience of analyses particularly in the 50-pg range, has been gained by people other than the originators of the methods. Nevertheless the improved techniques for handling and isolating extremely small amounts of organic material have presented a challenge to the analytical chemist to develop workable analytical pro-cedures on a similar scale. The available methods for a number of elements are collected together in this section and provide a useful introduction to the tech-niques of microgram organic analysis. This book can be thoroughly recommended to all concerned with or interested in organic microanalysis. I t is perhaps the most worthwhile book on the subject in English to have appeared in recent years.I t is to be hoped that a companion volume on organic functional group analysis will not be long delayed. W. I. STEPHEN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. (Advanced and Scholar-ship Levels.) J. H. White. Pp. 496. London: Uniuersity of London Press Ltd 1962. 25s. This textbook has been written by an experienced teacher for the use of sixth-form students. The account given is straightforward and well balanced; and it meets all of the various requirements likely to arise in examina-tions set at this level. Indeed the material presented is such that the book exceeds basic needs and could be used to demonstrate the vitality and growth of the subject in recent years. In very many ways it gives a fresh approach to topics that have appeared regularly in books written for this level.The work is presented in 25 chapters. All references to fundamental physico-chemical principles have been kept to a minimum and approximately three-fifths of the text is devoted to descriptive inorganic chemistry. The factual content of the subject matter has not been reduced in any way the author has stressed the im-portance of a number of fundamental principles thereby directly assisting the student in his struggle with what might otherwise be a collection of apparently unrelated facts. The introductory chapters set out briefly the basic facts of general chemical theory in such a manner that the relative importance of most of the contributions can be grasped readily. However in the drive for brevity in this part of the book an opportunity for correcting and expanding the more usual textbook accounts of certain topics has been missed (e.g.the sec-tion on atomic-weight determination). The next few chapters form the central feature of the book. Rarely have such detailed comparative comments on a wide range of topics appeared in texts intended for use at this level. Such discussions should do much to dispel the view that inorganic chemistry is little more than a collection of facts. In the remainder of the book comparative accounts are confined largely to introductory remarks which follow tabulated data on the group of elements described in a particular chapter. Most chapters end with an excellent selection of questions from recent examination papers and a collection of miscellaneous open scholarship questions is given at the end of the text.There are in the reviewer’s opinion a number of irritating and relatively minor features in this boo 19631 BOOK REVIEWS 12 1 which one must set against its good qualities. Thus, one finds some variation in the depth of treatment given, as with the descriptions of the allotropes of various elements. Again the opportunity to make use of ionic equations in appropriate parts of the text is not used to the full and there has been disregard of the suggestions given in IUPAC nomenclature rules (1 957) for complex ions thereby perpetuating the use of out-moded nomenclature. Occasionally a number of vague or incomplete statements occur as in the following exam-ples the incorrectly implied definition of standard electrode potential (p.79); the use of ‘Gossage process’ in place of the more usual ‘lime-soda process’ (p. 190); the explanation given for the ammonia-soda process (pp. 192-1 93) ; the incomplete reference to the reduction of dichromate ions by oxalic acid (p. 260); the wording of the section on the uses of sulphuric acid which could give a false idea of their relative importance (p. 389); and the incomplete presentation of the chain-reaction mechanism (p. 409). Such factors together with a number of misprints (as for example on pp. 64 193 and 430) tend to spoil what might have otherwise been a most promising text. B. E. DAWSON INORGANIC POLYMERS. Edited by F. G. A. Stone New York In their introduction the editors refer to the study of inorganic polymers a little tentatively perhaps as a new discipline.Their book shows clearly that it is not. There is no body of organized knowledge to which further work can be related and no common denomina-tor in the various groups of compounds considered here, other than occurrence in them of inorganic repeating-units. Emphasis on this feature may obscure the points of real chemical interest which are often quite different. I t is not surprising therefore that the treatments of different systems given in this book differ greatly in spirit. The first chapter by Tobolsky is concerned with the physical properties of polymers and shows the measure-ments that could be made on inorganic polymers if there were any. In fact the author could have used polyphosphates and silicones as illustrations ; these com-pounds are in part dealt with in later chapters but a unified treatment here in comparison with organic polymers would have been helpful.The other chapters review specific polymer systems. The impetus for much work on inorganic polymers comes from the successful development of silicones and the chapter by Barry and Beck on their synthesis and properties will be extremely valuable to those wishing to keep in touch with current practice. The possibilities for boron polymers are reviewed by McCloskey and many readers will be grate-ful for his critical assessment. The account of phos-phorus-based macromolecules by Van Wazer and Callis, and W. A. G. Graham. and London Academic Press 1962. Pp. xi + 631. 139s.6d. is written largely from the point of view of the theory of random reorganization which is usefully applied when thermodynamic equilibrium is attained easily a melancholy thought for those looking for chemical as well as thermal stability in polyphosphates. The physical properties of long-chain phosphates appear to have been used advantageously only in sausage manufacture. Sulphur polymers are discussed rather discursively by Schmidt. Sulphur itself is labile and the sulphanes are difficult to handle but their chemistry is interesting, irrespective of their importance as polymers. Ingham and Gilman review the organopolymers of Group IV elements other than silicones but much of the work seems outside the natural scope of the book. A short chapter on electron-deficient polymers (such as dimethyl-beryllium) by Leffler is preceded by a longer one by Block on co-ordination polymers.The variety of co-ordination geometry is so great that the author is occupied as much with taxonomy as chemistry. The structural principles are clearer in Bradley’s chapter on metal alkoxides and related compounds which deserve more crystallographic attention if only to confirm the validity of the basic concepts. If only there were one obviously good new inorganic polymer, the subject and books about it would gain coherence, But there isn’t. Perhaps necessarily the book is uneven. N. L. PADDOCK DIE NEUARTIGEN POLAROGRAPHISCHEN METHO-D EN. (Monographien zu ‘Angewandte Chemie’ und ‘Chernie-Ingenieur-Technik,’ Nr. 77.) H.Schmidt and M. von Stackelberg. Pp. 97. DM 15.40. (Monogra-phien zu ‘Angewandte Chemie’ und ‘Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik,’ Nr. 76.) H. Schafer. Pp. 142. DM 16.80. c H E M I s c H E T R AN s P o R T R E A KT I o N E N. Weinheim Verlag Chemie GmbH 1962. The first of these monographs gives a brief review of some recent advances in polarography emphasizing in particular the possibilities of improving the sensitivity and resolving power of that technique. The topics discussed include differential and derivative methods, and oscillographic and a.c. polarography (including the square-wave method) ; the book concludes with sections on Heyrovsk9 and Forej t’s oscillographic technique and on Faradaic rectification. The account of all these subjects is brief but in general it is lucid.It is well illustrated with circuit diagrams and polarograms, Essential principles are concisely stated and the relative advantages of the various methods in analysis are clearly indicated. The authors deserve congratulation for contriving successfully to compress so much into so small a space. But it must be emphasized that it is a very small space 122 JOURISAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL the book suffers from excessive brevity and although it is excellently produced the question arises whether it is good value for money even though its price is corn-paratively modest. I would personally answer ‘yes’ to this question but all the same I would be happier to pay a bit more for a somewhat more substantial work. Chemische Transportreaktionen deals with a less familiar field.A chemical transport reaction is defined as a process in which a solid or liquid substance is converted into a gaseous compound by reaction with a gas this compound being subsequently decomposed at some other point (usually at a different temperature) with regenera-tion of the original substance. Most chemists are no doubt familiar with particular examples of such pro-cesses but those who like the reviewer are not specialists in this field will probably be surprised to find how frequently they have been used or at least observed. The present monograph is confined to inorganic sub-stances. The history and general principles of the subject are set out in the first two chapters where the techniques are classified according to the mechanism of transport in the gas phase (flow methods diffusion methods and thermal convective circulation) and factors determining the yield are discussed.Nearly 50 pages are then devoted to the discussion of examples involving sub-stances of various classes (elements oxides sulphides, etc.) and to purity of the product mineralization and preparation of single crystals. The remainder of the book deals with applications of the techniques in pre-parative chemistry as a means of detecting gaseous compounds and for the determination of thermodynamic magnitudes. There is a useful table of transport reactions and a bibliography with 263 references. Like the other books in this series the present mono-graph is well produced and well illustrated; it can be recommended as an interesting and stimulating intro-duction to its subject.J. N. AGAR THE MOLE CONCEPT I N CHEMISTRY. (Selected Topics in Modern Chemistry Series.) W. F. Kieffer. Pp. ix + 118. New York Reinhold Publishing Corporation; London Chapman & Hall Ltd, 1962. 16s. A modern definition of the mole as formulated by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, accepted by IUPAC and endorsed by the International Standards Organization is as follows the mole is the amount of substance which contains the same number of molecules (or particles) as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kilogrammes of the pure carbon nuclide 12C. According to this definition we may speak not only of a mole of Cl but also of a mole of Cl of a mole of C1- of a mole of e- and even of a mole of hv.There is then no need for g-atoms g-ions or equivalents. This is clearly illustrated and emphasized in the text and in numerous examples in this little book. The author is the editor of that admirable periodical, the Journal o f Chemical Education and he is an enthusiast for improvement in the teaching of chemistry. The book is addressed to chemistry students presumably American freshmen but the standard of the book would in England correspond to Ordinary level of the G.C.E. A good feature of this book is that quantity calculus is used. This means that units as well as measures are displayed when values for physical quantities are sub-stituted into general algebraic formulae. But unfor-tunately there are far too many errors in the dimensions quoted.The following examples are typical on p. 48, molar heat capacity is quoted in cal mole-I instead of cal mole-l ‘K-l; on p. 84 the coulomb is stated to be a unit of electric current instead of electric charge; on pp. 87-89 values are quoted of conductance in ohm-l which are in fact values of conductivity in ohm-l cm-l; on p. 106 a collision number is quoted in sec-l, whereas it should be in ~ m - ~ sec-l. Moreover there is frequent confusion between mass and weight. This was regarded as an unpardonable howler when the reviewer was at school. There are other fundamental mistakes. Such errors may be obvious to the experienced teacher but they can only confuse his pupils. The book can therefore not be recommended to learners, but it will be found useful by some conscientious sc hoolmas ters.E. A. GUGGENHEIM THE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF METALLURGICAL PROCESSES. A. K. Biswas and G. R. Bashforth. Pp. xi + 336. London Chapman @ Hall Ltd 1962. 50s. Textbooks on the physical chemistry of metallurgical processes are few and far between and only one or two of these are good. We are informed in the preface that the present book has been written for the ‘busy indus-trialist and lecturer and . . . for the student of production metallurgy.’ This is a wide range of interest to attempt to cover but the book is certainly not the ‘complete thesis’ which the authors would suggest they have written. Possibly the only individuals who will really benefit from this book are lecturers who are well acquainted with the subject and who will not be troubled by the mistakes which exist in the text.Indeed they will probably appreciate the many worked examples which are presented at frequent intervals throughout the book to illustrate the various physico-chemical principles involved. These examples are undoubtedly the most pleasing feature of the whole book. However from the student’s standpoint things are somewhat different. To start with a student will probably resent paying money for a book supposedly on the whole of physical chemistry which starts by regurgitating some ‘0’ level work (e.g. Avogadro’s law) 19631 BOOK REL71EWS 123 produces proofs of a number of thermodynamical prin-ciples and then assumes familiarity with many other difficult aspects of the subject.In fact the title of the book is misleading in that it is primarily concerned with the thermodynamics of ferrous metallurgical processes. The student may spot some of the more elementary errors e.g. that nickel and chromium are listed as hexagonal close-packed metals whereas they have been correctly classified only a few lines before; that in a Daniel1 cell the zinc is the cathode and that molar solutions contain a mole of solvent in a litre of solution. However he may spell the names of Gibb Mergules and Boudourd incorrectly for a long time after reading the book (though Gibbs comes into his own on p. 170)’ and think that a 1-0 normal solution always has unit activity and will also be puzzled by whether or not the solubility of nitrogen in iron obeys Sievert’s law as it is dealt with three times over on pp.67 170 262 (Sievert winning 2 to 1). There are numerous other errors. The style of writing is often clumsy and sometimes ungrammatical. This could almost be tolerated if it did not sometimes lead to false statements of fact as at the foot of p. 3. And one continues to be confronted with sentences such as ‘The presence of gases deteriorates the quality of steel.’ What cannot be understood is how a reputable pub-lishing house could produce a book in this form as some careful proof-reading would have greatly improved the book. As it is one cannot expect the book to sell well and it may take years before a new edition is called for and the most elementary errors put right.I t is most disappointing to find that a book of this kind (which must have taken much effort to prepare even in its present condition) has so many defects as to make it of doubtfid value. J. P. CHILTON ACIDS BASES AND THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COVALENT BOND. (Selected Topics in Modern Chemistry.) Pp. ix + 11 7. New York Reinhold Publishing Corporation; London: Chapman i23 Hall Ltd 1962. This book is one of a series of short paper-backed monographs in tended to provide supplementary material for a first-year (American) college course. In this country it would be appropriate to the senior sixth-form pupil and the first-year undergraduate. I t is impossible to have other than mixed feelings about the book since it combines the merits with the conjugate defects of teaching methods.Every enthusiastic teacher who makes occasional use of somewhat picturesque analogies to explain difficult theoretical points knows the feeling when his explanation is returned to him verbatim, in an examination script. This was the predominant feeling experienced by the reviewer on reading this book. C. A. van der Werf. 16s. Chapter sub-headings such as ‘The Old Proton Transfer Game,’ ‘Have Pair-Will Share’ (for a Lewis base) or ‘Organic Chemistry is Back in the Ball Park’ are quite irritating and not a little of the book is written in this vein. One’s feelings are mixed because it must be admitted that picturesque analogies can make all the difference between ineffective and effective teaching.Another reason for mixed feelings is the general overall impression which one gains from the book that chemistry can largely be reduced to a few simple rules. There are two extreme treatments of the subject still encountered today. One is the ‘seed catalogue’ approach which repels the majority of students and gives rise to com-plaints about ‘masses of disconnected facts.’ At the other extreme we can get the impression that armed with resonance a set of electronegativity coefficients and a few other simple concepts an intelligent physicist could deduce the facts of chemistry during a long vacation. In general the treatment found in this book falls rather too near the latter category for comfort although in fairness it might be regarded as useful therapy for those brought up on ‘seed catalogues.’ These are overall impressions.To be more informa-tive one should add that the book is divided into six chapters which deal in succession with such topics as homolytic and heterolytic bond fission the Brransted-Lowry concept of acids and bases the effect of structure on acid and base strengths the Lewis concept of acids and bases and in an organic chemical context reactions involving base and acid displacement and addition. The subject matter as a whole is treated authoritatively but is somewhat uneven in standard. The book is likely to be more useful as an introduction to modern thinking in the field of organic than inorganic chemistry; that is to say that field of chemistry in which the properties of a substance are closely related to those of finite mole-cules involving relatively simple bonding.I t would be a pity if it weie thought that the chemistry of the elements as a whole was as straightforward as is here suggested. H. R. JONES THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROSCOPY. Pp. xv + 624. G’ Sons 1962. 1 13s. H. H. Jaffe and M. Orchin. New York and London John W i l y This book is a fusion of two courses given inde-pendently at the graduate level in the University of Cincinnati. One course on ‘molecular spectra,’ was intended mainly for advanced students of physical and theoretical chemistry. The second course on ‘applica-tions of ultra-violet spectrophotometry,’ attracted gradu-ate students of organic chemistry. The avowed purpose of the book is to facilitate an understanding of electronic absorption spectra by organizing empirical information around a framework of theoretical concepts ‘that would neither offend the molecular spectroscopist nor appear incomprehensively complex .. . to practicing organi 124 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL chemists’ . . . [Did the authors intend to say incompre-hensibly ?] The authors have in fact achieved a reasonable compromise and have produced a useful book. They say that it is ‘necessarily incomplete in many respects.’ This is true and perhaps it is unavoidable if many readers need to have both the fundamental theory and the applications in one volume. Most of the treatment is orthodox but some chapters, such as those on heterocyclic compounds and on steric effects reflect the authors’ special interests.There are interesting sections on organic ions and free radicals and on fluorescence and phosphorescence. In addition, there are chapters on the spectra of sulphur and phos-phorus compounds and on inorganic complexes. There is also a very useful appendix comprising a glossary and definitions with explanations of spectral notation and conventions. One good chapter deals with applica-tions of spectra to quantitative analysis and the deter-mination of equilibrium constants. Neither author displays much awareness that the history of the subject could be used to add life and interest to the exposition. Indeed it is astonishing to notice that the names of most of the pioneers in the different aspects of the subject are not in the index.In important sections of the book the use of secondary sources has taken the shine out of the treatment but in other chapters the writing is fresh and stimulating. In some respects this is an uneven book aimed at perhaps too wide an audience but it is nevertheless well worth a place in every chemistry departmental library. R. A. MORTON PROCEEDINGS O F THE FIFTH CONFERENCE O N CARBON. Volume I. Pp. xii + 639. Oxford: Pergamon Press 1 962. 140s. In an age of increasing specialization the publication of any book which at one and the same time satisfies the needs of several specialists and awakens their interest in other fields is to be welcomed. However such books, especially when they constitute the proceedings of a scientific conference frequently disappoint.This volume (first of two) which co-ordinates some of the papers read at the Conference held in Pennsylvania State University June 1961 is happily not in this category. Seventy papers all of which are original contributions, are arranged in five parts 1 Electronic Properties (64 pp.); 2 Surface Properties Adsorption and Re-activity (1 83 p ~ . ) ; 3 Irradiation Nuclear Graphite and Diffusion ( 145 pp.) ; 4 Carbonization Graphitiza-tion and Structure (123 pp.) ; and 5 Mechanical and Thermal Properties Friction and Wear Carbon Tech-nology (103 pp.). Most of the papers emanate from laboratories in the United States but recognized experts from Australia France Germany India Italy Japan, the U.S.S.R.and the U.K. have also contributed. The range of topics is indeed wide and the selection of some for special mention here is inevitably partly subjective. Recent advances in virtually all of the fields of research reported in the Proceedings of the previous Conferences on Carbon are to be found in this volume. Thus, developments in the interpretation of electron-spin measurements the direct observation of imperfections in graphite single crystals and the preparation and properties of pyrolytic graphite are included. On the other hand work in new or comparatively new fields is reported. Typical examples are the production of thin carbon films by decomposition of carbon suboxide or by deflagration of graphite oxide the oxidation of diamond crystals at high temperature (a topic which has been neglected in comparison with the oxidation of other carbons) the successful use of tritiated water to study the stability of adsorbed films of moisture on graphite and the production of low-density carbon as well as of flexible carbon fibres.There are also a few articles which are concerned solely with technique ; two of particular interest deal with X-ray stereomicro-radiography and with optical microscopy. This book which is excellently produced and remark-ably free from typographical errors-the only one detected by the reviewer is a trivial error in ref. 7 p. 147 -is warmly commended to all those interested in any of the properties of graphite carbon black or other allotropes of carbon. JOHN M. THOMAS THE METALLURGY OF SEMICONDUCTORS.By Yu. M. Shashkov. Translated by J. E. S. Bradley. Pp. viii + 183. London Sir Isaac Pitrnan &? Sons Lid 1962. 75s. This book dealing with the metallurgy of germanium and silicon but not with the compound semiconductors, has been written from the Russian point of view and reveals that semiconductor technology in the U.S.S.R. is as advanced as anywhere. Germanium and silicon are still the primary materials for device manufacture, and a very considerable amount of valuable information on their technology is given particularly with reference to crystal-growing. A large number of the data are of Russian origin and the original references are quoted. Excellent practical details of high-purity silicon pro-duction and crystal-growing procedures are described.Detailed information on impurity distributions distri-bution coefficients high-quality crystal production rates of evaporation of impurities from the melt and their diffusion coefficients and activation energies are given. The segregation of impurities in crystal-pulling and zone processes and the essential mathematics of diffusion and vapour-doping receive thorough ma thematical treatment. However the preparation of specialized diode and transistor structures the etching processes for revealing crystal defects and device preparation and widely-scattered literature information are sketchily treated 19631 BOOK REVIEWS 125 Minor criticisms include the disappointing printing in a book at this price and the lack of an index which would have increased its usefulness.The accepted English phrase for the conductivity of material contain-ing no ionized impurities is ‘intrinsic conduction,’ not ‘inherent conduction.’ ‘Calorimetric’ analysis pre-sumably should read ‘colorimetric’ analysis. The relation between optical absorption properties and the characteristic energy gap of the semiconductor is not made clear (p. 10). Certain points raised are debatable, e.g. the reduction of GeO and melting in ammonia (p. 19) may produce N-type germanium doped with nitrogen although nitrogen gas itself is inert. The SiHCl and SiCl reduction methods (pp. 31-32) are now used commercially to obtain very high grade silicon crystals with resistivities about 1,000 ohm-cm in contrast to the values of 100-150 ohm-cm quoted.Silicon de-posited on silica or tantalum is not of the highest purity, due to impurity diffusion and a pure silicon substrate is now used. Some notable omissions are details of methods of checking the electrical properties of prepared material, particularly resistivity and minority carrier lifetime the floating crucible technique for obtaining crystals of uniform resistivity and the epitaxial growth process for preparing transistor structures. Since books on semiconductor topics rarely deal with practical methods in any detail this one fills a need of semiconductor technologists and is complementary to the best of existing literature. J. A. RADLEY SPECTROSCOPY. Edited by M. J. Wells. Pp. viii The Hydrocarbon Research Group of the Institute of Petroleum organizes a discussion on advances in spectroscopy every three or four years.This volume contains the contributions to the March 1962 meeting. A considerable variety of items are included and the wide-ranging title ‘Spectroscopy’ provides the only appropriate umbrella for them. The following topics may be noted atomic absorption spectra; X-ray fluorescence analysis; n.m.r. and e.s.r. ; flash photolysis; flame spectra and oriented free-radical spectra; seven reports on infra-red spectra and two substantial items on molecular electronic spectra. In this collection there are a number of brief papers which provide excellent accounts of current develop-ments which can be read with great profit by the indus-trial scientist or Honours B.Sc.student. Few of the topics have not been reviewed more fully in other pub-lications but it is at least a convenience to have them summarized by experts in one volume. Within 10 to 15 pages it is impossible to present more than an outline of the principles and the general scope of the individual methods. This the authors do on the whole most successfully. I t is noticeable that the less general + 305. London Institute o f Petroleum 1962. 63s. features tend to be longer and some of them will be useful only to specialists e.g. ‘performance parameters of n.m.r. spectrometers’ (25 pages). Of general interest and of excellent presentation within their limited space are the articles by Walsh on atomic absorption spectra while Ingram on the method and technique of e.s.r.is especially worthy of mention; Whiffen discusses some such spectra in detail; the range of flash-photolytic studies is sketched by Dixon; Sugden gives a clear summary of his work on free-radical pro-cesses in flames where a great deal has been learned by comparatively simple methods ; Wilkinson provides an admirable account of the developments in far infra-red spectroscopy and presents some typical results of especial interest . More detailed aspects of infra-red spectra are analysed in five other papers. Bellamy’s uncanny insight into group-frequency correlations leads him to suggest that interactions between non-bonded atoms are an important feature in many vibrational modes. Jones and Sheppard present the evidence for molecular and group rotations persisting in the liquid phase.Thompson presents some comments on infra-red and Raman intensities and two papers (Hallam and Adams) deal with solvent effects. On the basis of ultra-violet spectra Price and his co-workers describe important features of bond-energy curves whilst a paper from Queen’s College Dundee, details the electronic spectra of some small molecules. I t can be seen that the volume is of very good value and should have a wide appeal. MANSEL DAVIES u LTR A- HI G H - P u RI TY METALS. Papers Presented at a Seminar of the American Society for Metals. New York Reinhold Publishing Cor-oration; London: Chapman 49 Hall Ltd 1962. Interest in the techniques for the purification of metals and the investigation of the properties of very pure metals has been greatly stimulated by the outstanding advances made in the preparation and study of semi-conducting materials.Instead of the old designation of metal purity in terms of ‘nines,’ parts per million has become the established terminology and with the in-creasing availability of metals containing less than 10 p.p.m. impurities considerable progress has been made in the understanding of their properties. The present volume contains 11 papers which were presented at a seminar organized by the American Society for Metals in 196 1 and they provide an excellent review of the developments in the field of ultra-high-purity metals during the past decade. The methods of preparing pure metals are described first and there are three papers dealing with chemical processes by H.A. Wilhelm and D. T. Peterson electrolytic refining by D. H. Baker and T. A. Henrie and zone melting and high-temperature melting techniques by J. H. Werwick. Having developed techniques for purification it is 84s JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL 126 necessary to analyse the product. In a very interesting paper P. Albert of C.N.R.S. Paris describes the methods for the systematic analysis of metals for elements present to the extent of 0.01 p.p.m. and with a total impurity content of the order of 1 p.p.m. The properties of high-purity metals are dealt with in the remaining papers. In discussing mechanical properties R. L. Smith and A. A. Hendrickson contrast the impurity-sensitive behaviour of bcc metals with small effects of impurities on the yield stress of close-packed metals.The effects of impurities on annealing phenomena are described by K. T. Aust and J. W. Rutter and here they lean heavily on the coincidence site theory of boundary structure to explain differences in boundary migration rates. The electrical properties of metals and their dependence upon impurity content are described by J. E. Kunzler though in this paper his emphasis is largely on copper and the properties considered are resistivity magnetoresistance and the Hall effect. The thermo-electricity of metals as influenced by impurities and physical imperfections is described by W. B. Pearson and the electromagnetic properties by W. A. Harrison. In a further paper from France G.Chaudron of C.N.R.S. Paris describes the effects of impurities in the range 10-1000 p.p.m. on the recrystallization and recovery of aluminium iron and copper. He also points out the remarkable influence of impurities on the shape of the oxide-metal interface during the high temperature oxidation of iron. W. P. Pfann in giving the introductory paper asks the very important question why do we need ultra-high-purity metals? After giving some very good technological reasons he probably gets very close to the truth in quoting Hilary’s reasons for climbing Everest : ‘because it was there.’ J. NUTTING INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY. J. W. Davis and J. Zussman. Pp. xii + 388. London John Murray (PubEishers) Lid 1962. 15s. The success of a textbook for beginners and for ‘0’ level pupils depends largely on the skill with which the author arranges and presents the subject and on the force with which he emphasizes the most important principles.Davis and Zussman have been only partially successful in meeting these requirements. The first part of this book consists of a general and theoretical treatment which in the first few chapters could be studied by beginners. This is followed by six chapters on metals and salts and the book ends with non-metals. One result of dealing with the elements in this order is that the authors have failed to emphasize sufficiently the relationship between salts and their parent acids about which so much introductory chemistry revolves. Although the reactivity series of metals is considered in a general chapter on metals there is little mention of it elsewhere and its importance and usefulness are not emphasized.Among the worst of many minor deficiencies is the definition of an acid as a sub-stance containing replaceable hydrogen which neutrazizes sodium hydroxide (my italics). The chapter on carbon contains sections on hydrocarbons from petroleum, carbohydrates alcohols and acids but these are pre-sented as just a few more compounds of carbon rather than as an introduction to organic chemistry. In spite of shortcomings the book has much to its credit. I t is informative and many useful experiments for demonstration and for work by the class are described. The diagrams are excellent and those of industrial pro-cesses are in general up to date but one is puzzled by the omission of such important examples as the Frasch pump or either of the cells used in the manufacture of sodium hydroxide.On the whole this book will be more useful as a stand-by for the teacher than as a textbook for the pupil. I. DAVID PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY A N INTEGRATED COURSE. J. W. Buttle and D. J. Daniels. London Butterworths 1 962. Pp. xi + 294. This book demonstrates most forcibly the importance of the personal approach to their subject by teachers of chemistry. It will be valuable to teachers in schools and technical colleges providing them with many new ideas but to students preparing for ‘A’ level or National Certificate it will serve chiefly as a source of practical details of experiments. The work is presented in three parts Part 1 Inorganic and Physical (96 pp.); Part 2 Organic and Physical (108 pp.); Part 3 Inorganic and Organic Analysis (24 pp.).In Part 1 the arrangement is based on the periodic classification but the material included in each chapter seems to have been selected in a somewhat arbitrary way and a reader may be excused for wonder-ing why some things have been included and others left out. The organic section follows the usual arrangement in textbooks of organic chemistry and the authors have been more successful in their purpose than in Part 1. I t consists chiefly of preparative details and instructions on suitable tests that may be carried out on various types of organic compounds. A novel and welcome feature is the attention paid to the preparation of the higher members of a homologous series.Physical chemistry is spread (at a first glance apparently at random) throughout the inorganic and organic sections appearing at appropriate or convenient places. Thus strong and weak electrolytes are con-sidered in the chapter on carboxylic acids which seems appropriate whilst osmosis is treated with carbohydrates, which surely must be because this is convenient. When introduced like this some of the physical chemistry receives only a brief treatment; for example there is no explanation of the sign convention of electrode potentials. The book is well produced and the price is reasonable. 2 Is 19631 BOOK REVIEWS 127 I t is an interesting work which should be studied by teachers of chemistry but many will be disappointed with it.I. DAVID PRACTICAL PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. A. H. Beckett and J. B. Stenlake. Pp. viii + 378. University of London The Athlone Press 1962. The book contains a useful collection of practical information for an experimental course in pharma-ceutical chemistry though it is surprising that little attention is given to chromatographic methods and in fact the word chromatography does not appear in the index. The earlier chapters of the book are perhaps too concerned with traditional methods of analysis and some more forward-looking sections might have been added. For example in the section on weighing the advantages of modern constant-load balances might have been mentioned. Many of the assays described follow the official methods prescribed in the British Pharmacopoeia with the addition of further detailed information which facilitates the carrying out of the analysis; perhaps more attention should be given to the general trend in chemical analysis to reduce the quantities of materials used.The later chapters on physical analysis form an intro-ductory course to electrometric and spectrometric methods; according to the footnote they are not mainly the work of the two authors but have been written by their colleagues. Each of these chapters contains a brief theoretical introduction to the physical principles utilized in the analytical method. I t is interesting to note that nearly one third of the book is devoted to physical methods.A few detailed criticisms noted are as follows in Chapter V on titration in non-aqueous media some mention should have been made of the high coefficient of thermal expansion of acetic acid which causes trouble in using solutions in this acid volumetrically. On p. 197 in discussing the simple potentiometer it is stated among the advantages of this instrument that the internal resistance of the cell is of no consequence. This is contradicted on p. 202 where it is stated that it is not possible to use the simple potentiometer for determining pH with the glass electrode an effect which is of course, due to the high internal resistance of the glass electrode. On p. 262 in discussing the determination of strychnine in nux uomica extract when the troublesome nature of the emulsions formed in the chloroform extraction is men-tioned it would be a good idea to describe at this point an ion-exchange assay in which emulsion formation is avoided.On p. 289 in discussing the theory of light absorption the somewhat rash statement is made that ‘Lambert’s law is always obeyed,’ which seems an un-warranted over-simplification since deviation from Lambert’s law due to instrumental factors and high 63s. concentrations of absorbing solute are frequently en-countered. On p. 306 the absorption of light of wave-length less than 210 m,u is mentioned; the discussion might be expanded somewhat to make it clear why special instruments are required for this type of radiation. In Chapter XVII on the principles of polarography, the description of half-wave potential on p.329 is not clear; on p. 330 the statement that ‘the current carried by the reducible ions will decrease practically to zero’ is wrong and should be changed to the ‘proportion of the current carried.’ On p. 333 the section beginning with ‘from the Nernst equation . . .’ should be expanded to emphasize the very considerable assumptions made in applying the Nernst equation for a reversible electrode to an irreversible deliberately polarized electrode. The book is well produced and is commendably free from typographical blemishes and should prove very useful for designing courses in practical pharmaceutical chemistry and for students who are following such courses. As it is primarily for the laboratory the possi-bility of producing a cheaper edition with a simpler binding should be explored.The price of &3 3s. is somewhat high for a student’s practical textbook. L. SAUNDERS THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF FUELS FOR JET PROPULSION. Ya. M. Paushkin. Translated by W. E. Jones. Edited by B. P. Mullins. Pp. 480. Oxford Pergamon Press 1962. 100s. This book is a comprehensive monograph describing the chemical composition and physical and chemical properties of fuels for jet propulsion and liquid pro-pellants for rockets. Section I comprises an unusually full account of hydrocarbon fuels for aero-jet engines. I t begins with a useful general description of the characteristics of individual types principles of operation and range of application of such engines.The chemical composition and methods of production of fuels are then discussed and such characteristics as completeness of combustion, starting properties ignition flame velocity and com-bustion stability are dealt with in relation to chemical composition and physico-chemical properties. Recent information on the possible use of high-energy fuels is provided and a useful chapter on lubricants for turbo-jet and turbo-prop engines is included. In Section I1 after describing the principles involved in rocket engines their range of application and possible future sources of energy the subject matter is syste-matically arranged to deal with processes of ignition in liquid-propellant engines the characteristics of bi-propzllant systems including hypergolic and non-hypergolic combinations based on nitric acid hi-propellant systems using concentrated hydrogen peroxide, liquid oxygen ozone or fluorine as the oxidizer and finally the characteristics of mono-propellants 128 JOURNAL OF TIIE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL The separate description of the various oxidants for liquid-propellant engines in Section I11 leads to a certain amount of repetition and it is felt that in this section, the presentation of physical and chemical data could be improved and that rather more information could be given on such subjects as compatibility with materials, handling hazards and toxicity.The book is well produced and makes very interesting reading. There are a few printer’s errors which should not however mislead the reader.Of particular interest are the literature references at the conclusion of each chapter many of which are to Russian publications. Reference to the subject matter is facilitated by the provision of a detailed table of contents a subject index and an author index. The publication of this book is to be welcomed in that it is devoted primarily to an account of the chemical aspects of prime movers and provides a great deal of useful physico-chemical data. F. T. MAGGS PROGRESS I N MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY. VOLUME 11. Edited by G. P. Ellis and G. B. West. Pp. ix + 201. London Butterworths 1962. 60s. This volume the second in a series of reviews on topics related to the chemistry and use of drugs includes chapters on the patenting of drugs testing and develop-ment of analgesics neuromuscular blockade anaphy-lactic reactions and the chemistry and pharmacology of 2-halogeno-alkylamines.The wide field covered by modern medicinal chemistry is well illustrated by these reviews which range from straightforward organic chemistry to physiology the article by Bowman on mechanisms of neuromuscular blockade for example, contains an excellent succinct survey of the mechanism of conduction in nerve and muscle. Perhaps the best test of the value of a review article is the difficulty involved in obtaining the information it contains from other sources. By this criterion the article by Murphy on the patenting of drugs is particu-larly valuable since it deals with a topic about which even those scientists who have spent some years in the drug industry tend to be hazy.All the papers are clearly written and provided with an extensive list of references. There should be few chemists physiologists or pharmacologists who would find nothing to interest them in this volume. D. W. Moss BOILER HOUSE AND POWER STATION CHEMISTRY. Fourth Edition. W. Francis. Pp. xii + 435. London Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd 1962. 70s. To command continued success in a progressive science an author must keep his printed word up to date. Books on- some subjects for example analytical chemis-try take reasonably well to the retention of their original plans through several decades and editions. Power-station chemistry is not however such a subject and its structure in 1940 (when the first edition of ‘Francis’ appeared) is considerably different from its structure today.Unfortunately the fourth edition of ‘Francis’ has fallen further behind than did the third some seven years ago and so an opportunity to regain balance and authority has been lost. The fact is that power-station chemistry is broadly two-thirds water chemistry and one-third fuel chemistry -and not the other way round as the author would lead us to believe. It is true that in enlarging the old edition by 23 per cent the author has allocated nearly half of the additional pages to water chemistry but the bulk of the text is still devoted to fuel chemistry particu-larly coal. As they now stand the two chapters given to water chemistry do not reflect the modern situation either in principle or in detail.For example analytical instrumentation and the volatile amines find no place, whereas some discredited methods of water conditioning and sampling persist. Elsewhere in the new edition, too much valuable space has been consumed in irrelevant wrangling of the tub-thumping variety. The overall impression is one of patched obsolescence and apathetic omission. E. C. POTTER DICTIONARY O F CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY - ENGLISH/GERMAN/POLISH/ RUSSIAN. Edited by Z. Sobecka W. Biernacki, D. Kryt and T. Zadroina. Pp. 724. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne; Oxford Pergamon Press 1962. 200s. This dictionary is based on the chemical card register in the Technical Terminology Division of the Polish Technical Publishing Institute.Any polyglot dic-tionary necessarily requires more space than a two-language dictionary and the present large volume has a very generous layout with four columns and rules be-tween each line of cognate terms so that it covers only 12,000 terms. Translations appear across the page in the order English German Polish and Russian; immediate access is given to the English and there are German Polish and Russian alphabetical indexes on different coloured papers at the end with references to the numbered lines in the main text. Synonyms (in English) are entered on separate lines as are homonyms (different meanings of one word). Considering the exigencies of space it seems a pity that the large number of compound terms should all be given as separate entries e.g.sodium bromide, sodium chloride non-drying oil and mordant dye. The reader should surely be credited with the ability to look up the radicals separately (as also given) ; only where the other languages have inseparable terms would a compound entry seem necessary in the English. I t is also a pity that where compound foreign terms occur 19631 BOOK REVIEWS 129 the separate parts of the foreign terms are not listed in their appropriate index e.g. vinasse = Melasseschlempe, but Schlempe has three entries elsewhere without reference to this. The Polish is of course accurate and the German and Russian appear good (though more alternative translations would have been desirable and cannot be found even at the end) but there are several mistakes and poor versions in the English e.g.‘pyroracemic acid’ for Brenstraubensiiure also entered elsewhere as ‘pyruvic acid,’ an error copied I suspect from Patterson’s German-English dictionary ‘centrifugal’ as a noun, instead of centrifuge and en tries under ’muriatic acid’ (do modern readers know this as HCl?). There are also very many English entries under initial adjectives, e.g. ‘highly active,’ ‘rapid method,’ ‘non-variant,’ which are unnecessary. The dictionary has of course its value within its scope for translations into other languages. But since much more comprehensive German-English and Russian-English technical dic-tionaries are available the greatest use for this dictionary seems to be as a technical Polish-English dictionary of which there is no up-to-date equivalent.The paper, printing and binding are very good and I have found only one printer’s error. J. FARRADANE THE DEVELOPMENT O F SCIENTIFIC METHOD. W. S. Fowler. Pp. xiii + 116. Oxford Pergamon Press 1962. 10s. This slight report on what scientists and philosophers have been saying about the nature of things for the past 2,500 or so years is easy to read and attractively presented. I t serves however merely as an introduction to the subject; whoever is at all familiar with the history of science or the history of the philosophy of science, can safely pass the little volume by. I t is indeed, rather like an advertising agency’s publicity release, prepared especially for the untutored and designed to inspire the conviction that the history and philosophy of science are really important and probably very interesting subjects.Since these subjects are in fact, both important and interesting the book will have been worth the effort if this end is in some measure realized. Like most others of its kind the work suffers from two rather serious shortcomings it so abbreviates its subject matter that what information it does impart is generally incomplete and disjointed. The facts cata-logued are usually over-simplified and they are far too often strung together by vague transitional passages which leave one with the comforting but incorrect impression that everything is in some way neatly connected and inter-related. What is scientific method the development of which is traced throughout the course of history? According to Fowler in the physical sciences it is ‘a combination of calculus and probability statement interpreted by analogy and model making’ ; in biology ‘teleological explanation” plays a large part in theory-making’ ; in the social sciences ‘genetic “explanation” is employed’ ; and ‘only in such sciences as mechanics can we see the predominantly deductive scheme which constituted the ideal of early thinkers in the scientific sphere.Further-more all types of explanation in a given era reflect to a greater or lesser extent the spirit of the age of the “current conceptual scheme”.’ Fowler sums up by quoting Oakeshott ‘Men sail a boundless and bottom-less sea; there is neither harbour for shelter nor floor for anchorage neither starting place nor appointed destination.The enterprise is to keep afloat on an even keel; the sea is both friend and enemy; and the seamanship consists in using the resources of a traditional manner of behaviour in order to make a friend of every hostile occasion.’ Such vague stuff as this it must be agreed may be harmless enough but it does not in itself merit serious evaluation or review. Nevertheless the effect of saying such things may be to encourage someone somewhere, to take up the study of the history and philosophy of science. c c M. S. FINLAY RIEGEL’S INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. Edited by J. A. Kent. Pp. xii + 963. New York Chapman &? Hall 1962. 160s. In this completely re-written version of ‘Riegel’s Industrial Chemistry’ the world of applied chemistry is brought within easy reach of every chemist be he of the pure or applied variety.Chemistry is international and big business-it has long passed the stage when anything that was new emanated from a few well-estab-lished university schools or other seats of learning. The major research establishments are now maintained by industry and their efforts are directed towards short-term and long-term chemical industrial expansion in an increasingly competitive international market. This is the world which our young chemistry students are inheriting and it is becoming increasingly important that each should in these early formative years obtain a broad picture of the chemical industry as it is and, perhaps even more importantly imbibe something of its competitive creative atmosphere.‘ Riegel’s I ndus-trial Chemistry’ goes a long way towards meeting this educational need. There are 25 sections in the book ranging from the ever-green ‘Sulphuric Acid and Sulphur’ and ‘Mis-cellaneous Heavy Chemicals’ to the present-day more glamorous ‘Pharmaceutical Industries’ and ‘Chemical Explosives and Missile Propellants.’ Completely new sections include ‘Economic Aspects of the Chemical Industry,’ ‘Industrial Water Supplies and Industrial Waste Disposal’ and ‘The Nuclear Industry,’ but there is a lot that is new in all the sections and each is a mine of easily digested information. Sections omitted in thi 130 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY new edition include cement metallurgy leather and electrothermal furnace products.The balance is generally very good with each section written by Dr Kent in collaboration with chosen authorities in the respective fields. This latter probably accounts for some sections being noticeably better than others and also for some sections having a much stronger ‘American-practice’ bias. The information is general rather than highly technical and the specialist will possibly find little to advance his particular speciali-zation-though the remainder of the book will no doubt prove as interesting to him as it will prove useful to students of chemistry and chemical engineering. In a completely new book such as this there are inevitably a number of typographical errors (about 20 were noticed in the first half of the book).The more humorous of these were ‘patient literature’ (p. 330) and ‘toiilene’ (p. 520) for (toluene.’ The ‘equation’ on p. 657 is a masterpiece of how not to write an equation, and the footnote on p. 690 (referring to aromatic nitration) takes no account of the present-day view, correctly expressed on page 796! These are however minor criticisms. The book could be read with advantage and enjoyment by all chemists but unless a much cheaper paper-back version is produced for student use it will remain for many, unfortunately yet another library reference book. R. F. PHILLIPS GENERAL INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE. E. H. Wise. London Blackie 63 Son Ltd 1962. This textbook is intended for (students who are required to know a little about a lot’ and is claimed to be unique in that it covers in one volume the essence of a wide range of subjects in a form suitable for the younger students in many different industries.The book is particularly directed at students taking the examinations in Chemical Plant Operations and is said to cover fully the Intermediate and Final grades of the Industrial Science Section and also to be useful to students of all types of technologies. In attempting to set out the basic principles for many different technologies the author has achieved only partial success for he has been much too ambitious. Eight sections deal with industrial chemistry; heat light and sound ; mechanics of solids and liquids; instrumenta-tion ; technical electricity ; chemical engineering opera-tions ; engineering materials ; and a miscellaneous section on engineering drawing and safety precautions.As a textbook for the younger students for the apprentices with little previous scientific knowledge it fails hope-lessly; as a reference book for a qualified industrial operator whose knowledge of basic principles in each of the wide range of subjects has become ‘rusty,’ it is a delightful book. I t refreshes one’s mind on a host Pp. xii + 454. Cloth 40s.; Paper 25s. of forgotten topics but it irritates by an uneven presenta-tion of very elementary and too advanced work. For example a too detailed account of mixtures and com-pounds is given in the 30 pages dealing with basic chemical principles yet there is no mention of potash as a fertilizer or of the electrical properties of pure copper.The principles of distillation are briefly dis-missed in terms of molal concentrations a term that is not defined anywhere. An extended light-hearted introduction of pH value is followed by a scant incorrect treatment of buffer solutions. An outline of organic chemistry is given in 20 pages and includes several errors likely to confuse a student. The equals sign and double-bond sign are not clearly differentiated in several formulae and equations; an equation for the formation of a red dye as given on p. 98 is most mis-leading. The section concludes with directions for six test-tube experiments representing practical exercises in organic chemistry ; no experimental details are given to illustrate chemical principles in the first section.It must be said that the work as a whole is unusually stimulating because of its broad treatment. I t probably does not give the understanding of the basic principles that the author claims. A fuller treatment of more limited topics in one volume for the Intermediate stage and in another for the Final stages would have given a better guidance for the young student. W. SIDDALL ~ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED FLASH POINTS. Pp. 40. British Drug Houses Ltd, Laboratory Chemicals Division 1962. 3s. 6d. PERIODICALS RECEIVED IN THE LIBRARY OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, JULY 1962. Natalie J. Hopper. N.B.S. Mono-graph 57. Pp. ii + 34. Washington U.S. Govern-ment Printing Ofice 1962. 25c. RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS. International Commission on Radiological Units and Measure-ment Report 10a.N.B.S. Handbook 84. Pp. iii + 8. Washington U.S. Government Printing OBce, 1962. 206. ENGINEERING ALLOYS. FOURTH EDITION. Nor-man E. Woldman. Pp. xii + 1354. New York: Reinhotd Publishing Corporation; London Chapmun €9 Hall Ltd 1962. 236s. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MODERN COSMETICS. VOLUME I. MODERN COSMETIC-OLOGY. Ralph G. Harry. Revised by J. B. Wilkinson. Fifth Edition. Pp. v + 683. London: Leonard Hill (Books) Ltd 1962. CONVERTIBLE COATINGS. Paint Technology Man-uals Part Three. Pp. 318. London Chapman @ Hall L t d 1962. 35s. 84s Graduate Membership Part I1 Examiners Dr L. Crombie Professor G. Wilkinson, Professor W. F. K. Wynne-Jones. Assistant Examiners Dr D. A. Frye Mr E. A.W. Hebdon. The examination was held at the University of London the theoretical papers being also taken at various local centres in the periods 7 to 12 January and 15 to 18 January 1963. The total number of candidates was 103 of whom 20 passed (19 per cent). Of these 103 candidates 4 studied full-time of whom none passed; 5 attended ‘sandwich’ courses of whom 1 passed (20 per cent); 37 attended part-time courses preceded or followed by a period of full-time or ‘sand-wich’ study of whom 1 1 passed (30 per cent) ; 57 trained wholly by means of part-time courses of whom 8 passed (14 per cent). Of the candidates who passed Part 11 18 had either passed Part I or had been exempted under the current Regulations (90 per cent). Institute Affairs EXAMINATIONS SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1963 Graduate Membership Part 11.Theoretical examinations will be held in London Birmingham, Glasgow and other centres on Monday and Tuesday, 9 and 10 September 1963. Practical exercises will be carried out in London and, subject to confirmation in Birmingham and Glasgow on Wednesday to Saturday 11 to 14 September inclusive, and in London on Tuesday to Friday 17 to 20 September, inclusive. Candidates will be asked to state their preference as to the centre for their theoretical papers and the period and centre for their practical exercises; but it must be clearly understood that no guarantee can be given that their wishes will be met. Candidates who have not yet been accepted for examination and who wish to present themselves in September should obtain from the Assistant Registrar without delay the prescribed Application Form so as to allow ample time for obtaining the necessary signatures certifying that they have complied with the Regulations concerning their courses of training.The completed Application Form must reach the Institute not later than Friday 7 June. No application will be considered if received after that date. Entry forms will be sent as soon as they are ready to all accepted candidates. The last date for the re-ceipt of entry forms is Monday 1 July. No entry will be accepted if received after that date. Diploma Examinations. Examinations for Post-graduate Diplomas in Applied Chemistry will be held in the week beginning Monday 7 October 1963 in London and elsewhere at the discretion of the Council.Candidates for these examinations should return completed application forms to the Institute not later than Monday 17 June. The last date for receipt of entry forms is Monday 1 July 1963. EXAMINATIONS JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1 963 Graduate Membership Part I Examiners Professor F. Fairbrother Professor W. J. Hickinbottom Dr J. W. Smith. The examination was held in London and at various local centres in the period 7 to 8 January 1963. There were 221 candidates of whom 96 passed (43.4 per cent). Of this total 16 had taken full-time courses of whom 6 passed (37.5 per cent) ; 20 had taken ‘sandwich’ courses of whom 14 passed (70 per cent) ; 17 had taken part-time courses preceded or followed by a period of full-time or ‘sandwich’ study of whom 8 passed (47 per cent) ; 168 had studied part-time of whom 68 passed (40 per cent).PASS LIST PART I1 BURDEN Peter Slough College Slough BURROW Peter Dixon Lancaster and Morecambe Col-lege of Further Education Lancaster BUTTERWORTH John Stuart College of Further Edu-cation W hi tehaven CAMERON David Technical College Bolton CARTER John Keith M.B. B.S.(LOND.) Medway Col-lege of Technology Chatham ; Norwood Technical College London COOPER Bryan Ewart College of Technology Hatfield ; Woolwich Polytechnic London FAIRHURST Frank Lawson College of Further Educa-tion Widnes HARRISON George David College of Further Education, Widnes HEY Austin Edward College of Technology Liverpool ; the Harris College Preston KAPUR Raj Kumar B.SC.(DELHI) Brunel College of Technology London KERSHAW Stuart Royal College of Advanced Tech-nology Salford MORTON-JAMES David Hugh Lancaster and Morecambe College of Further Education Lancaster ; Northamp-ton College of Advanced Technology London ; Wolverhampton and Staffordshire College of Tech-nology Wolverhampton NEWMAN Ronald Vernon Technical College Reading ; Slough College Slough PARSONS William Henry Rutherford College of Tech-nology Newcastle upon Tyne PEARSON Alan John College for Further Education, Stockport PRITCHARD Ivor David Lyn Welsh College of Advanced Technology Cardiff; Newport and Monmouthshire College of Technology Newport 13 132 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL SLATER James Ross Constantine College of Technology, SUCKLING John Slough College Slough VALE John Gordon South-East Essex Technical Col-lege Dagenham; Queen Mary College London WARD Brian Godfrey Nottingham and District Tech-nical College Nottingham Middlesbrough Diploma in Applied Chemistry Examination in Branch E The Chemistry (including rWicroscopy) o f Food Drugs and Water.Examiners Dr H. E. Archer Mr E. Voelcker. The examination was held at the University of London Examinations Laboratory Brunswick Square London, and at 30 Russell Square in the week beginning 11 Feb-ruary 1963. There were 5 candidates of whom 1 passed: FREED P. G. BRITISH CHEMICAL EDUCATION The Council is pleased to announce its decision to launch a new quarterly journal on chemical education as a project of its Fund for the Development of Education in Chemistry.The need for such a medium of publica-tion has been under discussion for several years and it is considered that the time is now opportune for its introduction. The chief reasons leading to this con-clusion are that the Institute has been taking an in-creasingly active part in fostering educational develop-ments particularly by holding symposia and conferences for teachers at various levels and also by forming in conjunction with the Royal Society the British Committee on Chemical Education. I t is hoped to produce the first issue of the new Journal early in 1964. There will be an independent editorial advisory board and the Journal will be conducted from the headquarters of the Institute with Dr F.W. Gibbs as Editor. Every effort will be made to ensure that the Journal becomes self-supporting and it is hoped that members of the Institute and others engaged in chemical education or interested in the subject as employers of chemists will give it their support. The Journal will be concerned with all levels of chemistry teaching-at school technical college and university-with the emphasis at least initially on the first. I t will aim to co-ordinate the activities of those engaged in promoting the improvement of chemical education as well as to publish the results of educational research and review articles on topics of current interest. The Nuffield Foundation which is now engaged on a project designed to further the teaching of chemistry, physics and biology in schools has generously made an exception to its normal policy of not supporting new journals and has provided a guarantee of up to I( 10,000 over three years to assist the launching of the publication.B.A./R.I.C. Reception.-A reception for chemistry masters and mistresses from selected schools in London and the Home Counties was held at the Institute on 20 March. The purpose of the Reception which was arranged jointly by the British Association for the Ad-vancement of Science and the Institute was to show some recent films on chemistry and to demonstrate the potentialities of the new 8 mm single-concept films. The visitors were welcomed on behalf of the Institute by Mr E. H. Coulson Vice-president and on behalf of the British Association by Professor Dame Kathleen Lonsdale D.B.E.F.R.S. Several members of the Insti-tute’s Education Committee and the Administrative Officers were in attendance. The films shown were Chemistryfor the Nuclear Age (U.K.A.E.A.) ; Chromatography (I.C.I. Film Library) ; Black Monday (I.C.I. Film Library); and Prospect for Plastics (Petroleum Films Bureau). Dr F. P. Gloyns Fellow of Technicolor Ltd demon-strated the new 8 mm Technicolor 800-E visual aids projector which has been designed to show short single-concept silent films for teaching purposes. These are in the form of film loops loaded in cassettes and are available with teaching notes. Institute Representatives.-The Council has nomi-nated the following members to represent the Institute on the bodies named: Bradford Technical College Advisory Committee for Science and Mathematics Dr R.L. Elliott. Swansea College of Technology Science Advisory Com-mittee Dr I. W. Williams in succession to Dr H. E. Hallam. North- Western Regional Advisory Council Science Ad-visory Committee Mr R. Shackleton. Oxford University Dr W. A. Waters F.R.s. in succession to the late Dr F. M. Brewer C.B.E. Hackney Technical College Advisory Committee : Mr A. J. Turnbull. Salisbury and S. Wilts College o f Further Education: Advisory Committee Mr L. C. Thomas. City o f Liverfool College o f Technology Chemistry and Biology Sub-Committee Dr R. 0. Gibson. The Council has re-appointed the following : National College o f Food Science and Technology Weybridge: Lanchester College o f Technology Governing Board : Governing Board Miss M.Olliver. Professor J. C. Robb. Recognition of Colleges.-Carlisle Technical Col-lege has been granted provisional recognition for the training of students to the Part I level of the Graduate Membership examination. The Liaison Officer will be Dr F. H. Day Fellow Head of the Department of Science 19631 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 133 R.I.C. Film Index Third Edition.-The 1963 edition of the Index of Chemistry Films is now available and order forms for the use of members are being distributed with this issue of the JournaZ. This edition again compiled by Dr J. H. Pryor, Chairman of the Films Sub-Committee of the London Section has been revised to 30 September 1962. I t gives details of the films and filmstrips on chemistry and related topics (including background films) that were in circulation in this country at that date.The main sections of the Index contain about 1200 films and 300 filmstrips classified by subject. These are followed by addresses of distributors and an alphabetical list of titles. The number of films and filmstrips available on chemical subjects has greatly increased over the two years since the publication of the Second Edition. Thus in order to keep the Index within reasonable limits of size and cost some reduction has been necessary in the background topics covered. The present edition, therefore is of approximately the same size as its pre-decessor. Apart from this no major changes have been made but some sections have been rearranged.The new edition is 50 per cent larger than the first, and in view of the increases in production costs since that time it has become necessary to increase the price from 5s. to 7s. 6d. However one copy of the Index at the original price of 5s. will be available to any Member ordering on the form provided. PERSONAL NOTES Honours and Awards Professor A. J. Birch F.R.s. Fellow professor of organic chemistry University of Manchester has been awarded the 1963 Fritzsche Award of the American Chemical Society and the Edward Curtis Franklin Memorial Award for outstanding contributions to chemistry. As recipient of the latter award Professor Birch has been asked to deliver the Memorial Lecture at Stanford University. Professor F. Sondheimer Associate professor and head of the organic chemistry department Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovoth has been awarded the Corday-Morgan Medal and Prize by the Chemical Society in consideration of his contribution to the chemistry of natural products.The award is made in respect of the year 1961. Societies and Institutions Institute of Chemistry of Ireland.-The Institute of Chemistry of Ireland has recently elected three prominent chemists as its first Honorary Fellows Sir Robert Robinson o.M. F.R.s. Nobel Laureate; Professor E. J. Conway F.R.s. professor of biochemistry and pharmacology University College Dublin ; and Lord Fleck K.B.E. F.R.S. The number of Honorary Fellows is to be limited to five. Courtesy of the Irish Times Sir Robert Robinson (left) accepting the certificate of honorary fellowship from Mr M.J. Crauley Fellow President of the Institute of Chemistry of Ireland. Royal Society of Edinburgh.-The following Fellows have been elected Fellows of the Society: Professor J. Hawthorn professor of food science Royal College of Science and Technology Glasgow; Dr P. N. Hobson head of the microbiology department Rowett Research Institute Bucksburn; Dr R. L. M. Synge, F.R.s. research biochemist Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn; and Dr J. Tinsley reader in soil science and head of department University of Aberdeen. Society for Analytical Chemistry.-The following Fellows have been elected Officers of the Society for the forthcoming year President Dr D. C. Garratt; Vice-Presidents Dr s. G. Burgess and Dr R.E. Stuckey; Hon. Treasurer Dr D. T. Lewis; Hon. Secretary, Mr S. A. Price; Hon. Assistant Secretaries Mr C. A. Johnson and Mr D. W. Wilson. Educational Dr W. 0. Brown Fellow has had the title of reader in agricultural chemistry conferred on him in respect of his post at Queen’s University Belfast. Dr R. G. Chitre Fellow has resigned from his post at the S.G.S. Medical College Bombay to become professor and head of the department of biochemistry and nutrition Medical College Jamshedpur. Dr E. M. Crook Fellow reader in biochemistry at University College London has been appointed to the chair of biochemistry tenable at St Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical College 134 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY Mr R. C. Feather Fellow has been elected Chairman of the Governors of Twickenham College of Technology.He has been re-appointed a governor of Isleworth Polytechnic and Twickenham Secondary Schools. Dr J. R. Hodges Associate has had the title of reader in pharmacology conferred on him in respect of his post at the Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine. Dr P. Johnson Associate has resigned his post as university research fellow Birmingham Medical School, to accept the position of visiting lecturer in the bio-chemistry division University of Illinois U.S.A. Mr P. Macdonald Associate has been appointed senior lecturer in statistics at Brunel College London. Mr J. Ormston Fellow has been appointed head of the science department College of Further Education, Darlington. Dr W. A. Smeaton Fellow has had the title of reader in the history and philosophy of science conferred on him in respect of his post at University College London.Dr A. M. Beryl Whitaker Fellow formerly senior lecturer in chemistry has been appointed head of the science department Reading Technical College. Consultants Mr T. Howard Fellow has retired from active partnership in the firm of Riley Harbord & Law, Consulting Metallurgists and Chemists but will continue his association with the firm as a consultant. Mr J. H. E. Marshall Fellow is now the principal of the two consulting practices formerly controlled by the late Mr C. Harcourt Wordsworth. The name of the practice in Canterbury previously known as Hawkins and Hawkins is now the South Eastern Laboratory and the address is 1 New Dover Road, Canterbury.Mr Marshall is also sole principal of the practice a t the Chemical Laboratory Finsbury Town Hall Rosebery Avenue London E.C.l. He will specialize in the analysis of food drugs water fertilizers and feeding-stuffs ; the examination of sewage and effluents ; and toxicology bacteriology and biochemical examinations. Mr A. J. Prince Fellow who was seconded to act as special technical adviser to the Centre of Industrial Development Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations New York has completed his assignment and has returned to his post with Cremer and Warner Consulting Chemical Engineers. Dr J. C. Swallow Fellow former chairman of the Plastics Division of I.C.I. Ltd has now become asso-ciated with the Yarsley Research Laboratories Ltd in a consulting capacity.Public and Industrial Mr G. Barclay Fellow Vice-principal of Moray House College of Education Edinburgh has been appointed a member of the Audio-visual Aids Committee set up by the University Grants Committee the Ministry of Education and the Scottish Education Department. Mr F. Braybrook Fellow formerly with Shell Inter-national Chemical Go. Ltd London now a director of Shell Italia Genoa has been appointed a director and one of the managing directors of Monteshell the new joint Shell-Montecatini venture. Mr J. K. Cosslett Associate has taken a post with Richard Thomas & Baldwins Ltd at their central research laboratories W hi tc hurch. Mr E. J. Hemer Associate formerly assistant works manager nylon works I.C.I.Ltd Dyestuffs Division, Wilton has been appointed nylon works manager, Billingham. Mr V. C. Hender Fellow has taken up the position of general manager Dornay Foods a new division of Mars Ltd at King’s Lynn Norfolk. Mr M. W. Hill Associate formerly process control section head Morganite Carbon Co. Ltd has been appointed group technical editor Morgan Crucible Co. Ltd. Dr R. D. Hill Associate has relinquished his post with Beecham Research Laboratories Ltd to take up the position of marketing manager with Research & Industrial Instruments Co. London. Mr W. E. Humphreys Associate works manager nylon works I.C.I. Ltd Dyestuffs Division Billingham has been appointed works manager at Blackley. Mr P. J. Jackson Associate has been appointed senior chemist research and development department, Central Electricity Generating Board Marchwood, Sou thamp ton.Mr A. Jewsbury Fellow formerly chief analyst, Murgatroyd’s Salt st Chemical Co. Ltd has been appointed works manager. Mr C. W. Platten Associate has resigned his post as senior chemist Microcell Ltd to take up an appointment with British Celanese Ltd at Spondon. Dr F. Popplesdorff Associate has accepted an appoint-ment as research scientist Union Carbide Chemicals Go. South Charleston Virginia U.S.A. Mr R. L. Smith Fellow formerly control chemist, Uclaf Ltd has been appointed chief chemist for the company. Retirements Dr A. W. Chapman o.B.E. Fellow is to retire from his post as Registrar of the University of Sheffield in September.Mr W. J. G. Farrer Associate has retired from his position as laboratory manager Brentwood Labora-tories Ilford Ltd after more than 40 years with the company. Professor T. M. Oza Fellow has retired from his post as principal and professor of chemistry Government College Jamnagar. Mr H. W. Rigden o.B.E. Fellow has retired from his post as general manager Iranian Oil Services Ltd the virtual elimination of learning by rote in order to pass examinations. During the discussion which followed Mr D. Brown (Morgan Academy) raised the question of the cost of mentioned for the apparatus required for the physics side Many speakers felt that the time available to cover Mr Hood (Bell-Baxter Academy) was concerned about difficulties which could arise when a pupil transferred from a school following the old syllabus to one following the new scheme and the chaos that could arise at the university and Several members of the audience were perturbed about over-examination of pupils.While it had been intended (in Scotland) that more able pupils should by-pass the ‘0’ levels in practice some schools en-original idea of the less gifted child stopping at ‘0’ level is not being carried out. The danger of too early Section Activities ABERDEEN AND NORTH OF SCOTLAND Lecture a meeting for students of local senior secondary schools was held in conjunction with the Aberdeen Schools’ Scientific Society on 15 February when ments in Chemistry.’ Dr Campbell’s theme was the scope of organic chemistry and he illustrated with colourful experiments the first synthesis of dyestuffs, which laid the foundations of organic chemistry.This led to the purification of organic compounds with examples of column chromatography. Some of the bands on a column were shown up by ultra-violet light and other examples of fluorescence were shown. In-clusion compounds such as the starch-iodine compound, catalysis provided phosphorescent streams of liquids in the darkened theatre and were a fitting end to an Children’s Lecture. In place of the usual Christmas new demonstration A figure of,C;2,000 was Dr N. Campbell of Edinburgh talked on ‘Some Experi- the ‘Ontent Of the sY1labus was insufficient. Lvere considered. The final experiments illustrating ‘Ouraged PUPi1’ to sit this examination and the enjoyable and instructive talk.After the formal vote was raised Dr R. JamesOn (Queen’s of thanks by H. Reid of Robert Gordon’s College the who warned that we were a PUPi1 might well be forced to chose the subject of his degree at the age of eleven. The second topic ‘Practical Examinations,’ was introduced by Mr Johnstone who made the point that the chief virtue of the practical work during the session. In the absence of a practical be sacrificed for theory. Dr Morrison was an enthusias-was a case for a practical test at ‘0’ level. If laboratory facilities did not make this feasible then this fact was an indictment of our existing laboratory arrangements. Dr Copp (Queen’s College) asked for the removal of non-relevant laboratory work and concentration on essentials.Professional Qualijcations. The final discussion was on ‘Professional Qualifications,’ introduced by a survey of the Present Position by Dr Morrison. The desirability of good H.N.C. candidates proceeding to the status of Grad.R.1.C. was mentioned and atten-tion was drawn to the increasing interest in the Research Diploma of the Institute. Tea was a welcome lubricant during the meeting and the vote of thanks to the speakers was proposed by Mr J. Quinn of Lawside Academy. audience gathered around the lecturer for more questions and discussion. Practical Examinations. BELFAST AND DISTRICT ~ i l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ . ~h~ last meeting of the session was Q ~ ~ ~ ~ ’ ~ University and took the form ofa film evening. Junction Transistors-the production of highly pure nature properties and of ultrasonic waves; A ’Ci‘tamin Emerges-the isolation of Vitamin BIZ its struc-ture method of assay and subsequent research ; and Quick Freeze-the principles and practice of quick-freezing foodstuffs.held on 12 March in the Chemistry Lecture Theatre examination lay in the Placed On laboratorY The following films Were shown The Manufacture of test there was a danger that this might germanium and its use in transistors ; Ultrasonics-the tic supPorter Of this and suggested that there Mr W. Ford-Kirkpatrick was Chairman. Symposium on Education The Section held an Educational Symposium at Dundee Technical College on 25 January when matters of educational moment were introduced by three short talks given by a panel of speakers.The greater part of the evening was then given over to discussion. Mr R. S. Nicolson Vice-chairman of the Section was in the Chair and the speakers were Mr J. Smart of Dundee High School and Mr N. B. B. Johnstone and Dr T. J. Morrison of Dundee Technical College. Mr Smart initiated a dis-cussion on ‘Second Thoughts on the New Alternative Syllabus for Scottish Schools,’ mentioning in particular the shortage of suitable textbooks and the possibility that the syllabus might be altered in the light of ex-perience One good point of the new approach was New Alternative Syllabus. BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLANDS A joint meeting of the Section and the Paper and Textile Chemicals Group of the Society of Chemical Industry was held on 20 February at Coventry Technical College.The lecturer was Dr G. Landells of the Bradford Dyers’ Chemical Reactions and Textile Fibres. 13 136 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Association Ltd who spoke on the subject of ‘Chemical Reactions and Textile Fibres.’ Mr S. A. Ray Section Chairman was chairman for this joint meeting. Dr Landells’s lecture covered the various chemical treatments which have been employed to modify textile fibres in useful ways. The term ‘chemical reaction’ was given the widest interpretation to include substitution (including reactive dyeing) cross-linking internal resin formation and surface reactions. He emphasized the importance of the seat of the reaction and the state of the fibres in affecting the result obtained and dis-cussed the outstanding problem of maintaining fibre strength in cross-linking cellulose.Most of the reactions referred to cellulose but problems of modifying wool and the synthetic fibres were also dealt with. The use made by industry of these reactions was illustrated. The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr J. W. Reidy, Chairman of the Group S.C.I. Ladzes’ Evening. Following the success of the wine and cheese tasting last year a similar function was organized this year on 1 March. By courtesy of Pro-fessor J. C. Robb the facilities of the Haworth Chemistry Building were made available to the Section and once again the large attendance (in the region of 300) almost proved an embarrassment to the organizing committee. The meeting began with a talk in the Haworth Lecture Hall by Professor Fraser Mackenzie Professor of French in the University of Birmingham on ‘Some Aspects of French Wines.’ Professor Mackenzie’s light-hearted but erudite account of the various wines and wine-growing regions of France captivated his audience, and few could forget the ease grace and humour he brought to the art of lecturing.The appreciation of all present was formally expressed by the Chairman, Mr Ray. After Professor Mackenzie’s talk the meeting ad-journed to the Common Rooms which had been laid out for the less formal business of eating and drinking. A wide variety of cheeses had been obtained for the occasion and suitable wines to accompany them were provided. At the end of the evening a small quantity of surplus cheese was auctioned by Mr Ray for the Benevolent Fund.The proceeds of this sale and a raffle amounted to over Ll5. BRISTOL AND DISTRICT The morning and afternoon sessions of this meeting were well attended by sixth-form science students in spite of the very difficult weather of 2 January. Mr G. J. Chamberlin discussed the subject ‘What is Colour and How Can We Use I t as a Scientific Tool’ in a lecture full of visual interest. He was ably supported by Mr F. J. Heath. Numerous demonstrations were made to show that for colour we must have light of a suitable wave-length Christmas Lecture. and a sufficiency of it. Coloured material in white light can only reflect its own wave-length from the total available. Similarly transparent material may absorb much incident light and transmit that of one colour.Light emitted from radiant sources varies with tem-perature and hence with voltage changes. Objects of similar colour under one light source can appear very different under another. This metamerism is due to the differing wave-lengths emitted by the sources. Different types of nerve endings in the retina are sensitive to light of different wave-length. ‘Rods’ give the impression of shape or movement as they are sensitive to the amount of light. ‘Cones’ respond to different wave-lengths some to red to green and to blue. Fatigue of one group gives the impression of complementary colours. For the communication of ideas on colour a numerical expres-sion is most precise. In the Lovibond system a colour is expressed in terms of standard units of red and/or yellow and/or blue units of which some nine million permutations are possible and this is an internationally accepted system.CARDIFF AND DISTRICT Detergency. At a joint meeting with the South Wales Section of the Society of Chemical Industry held at the Newport College of Technology at Allt-yr-yn on 22 February members of the Section heard Dr A. S. C. Lawrence of the University of Sheffield lecture on ‘Detergency.’ Dr Lawrence said that whilst detergence has been explained in terms of contact angles interfacial tension and free surface energy this does not explain how dirt is removed from its substrate-and this is the actual process of detergence. From a study of the actual miscibilities of aliphatic substances containing polar groups with soap and water, it has been shown at Sheffield that a general pattern of behaviour exists regardless of the nature of the polar groups and ionic head-group of the soap.The triangular equilibrium diagram shows two isotropic solution areas -one water-rich the other organic solute-rich-and a ternary liquid crystalline area covering a wide range of composition. Temperature-concentration graphs show eutectic lowering of freezing point of organic substance and Krafft point of soap solution. The possibility of spontaneous penetration of aqueous soap solution into fatty substances with resultant formation of a ternary liquid crystalline phase leads directly to a new picture of detergence. This penetration does in fact occur above a temperature characteristic of the fatty substance and this temperature is obviously the minimum of the eutectic curve-the lowest temperature at which the ternary liquid crystalline phase can exist.There is, therefore in detergence of polar oil a spontaneou 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 137 penetration process by which the hydrated soap eats into the polar dirt. Mr G. H. Macadam proposed the vote of thanks. CUMBERLAND AND DISTRICT At a meeting in the Windscale Club on 20 February Mr J. Davy science correspondent of The Observer gave a lecture entitled ‘Science and Power.’ Mr Davy discussed the growing power of science to exploit man’s natural environment and the lack of power to direct this ability towards solving the most urgent problem facing the world today that of conservation and efficient use of world resources in the face of the so-called population explosion.The world has an estimated potential ability to support a population of 12,000 millions this figure will be reached in 80 years. Exploitation of world resources must expand enormously to achieve its potential in the time available; yet in many countries where the popula-tion growth is highest scientific investment is inadequate to maintain present living standards let alone improve them. Science has the power to meet this challenge but cannot control the political and economic forces that drive it along. These are interests of national defence, political influence and prestige. Such forces encourage the expenditure of $20 billion on the American ‘Man on the Moon’ programme but cannot promote invest-ment of a fraction of this sum to meet the basic needs of a rapidly growing world population.The answer lies in awakening public interest which is fundamentally a question of education. In this the scientific journalist has a part to play but cannot hope for much success unless a foundation is laid in the schools because of the difficulty of seizing and sustaining the readers’ interest long enough and often enough for lessons to sink in. After a lively discussion Mr B. F. Warner proposed the vote of thanks. Science and Power. DUBLIN AND DISTRICT At a meeting of the Section in the Chemistry Department Trinity College Dublin, Sir William Slater K.B.E. F.R.s. gave a lecture entitled ‘Science in a Developing World’ (see J.92). The discussion which followed was mainly concerned with the possibility of bridging the gap between food supplies and population. In conclusion Mr D. Crowley, Chairman thanked Sir William for his interesting address on this important theme. President’s Address. DUNDEE AND DISTRICT Fluorine Chemistry. The joint meeting with the Chemical Society of St Salvator’s College University of St Andrews was held in the University on 22 February. The speaker was Dr D. W. A. Sharp of the Royal College of Science and Technology Glasgow and his topic was ‘Some Recent Aspects of Inorganic Fluorine Chemistry.’ Mr D. M. G. Lloyd was in the Chair. In his stimulating and lucid address Dr Sharp outlined the production of fluorine by electrolytic means and the preparation of inorganic fluorine compounds by the reaction of fluorine with metallic oxides.The hydrolysis of fluorides by water was discussed. Dr Sharp also described the preparation of a few organo-fluorine compounds by direct reaction and electrolysis and was able to exhibit a sample of xenon tetrafluoride. Some interesting examples of fluorine bridge compounds were discussed and compared with oxygen bridge compounds. In the concluding stages of his lecture Dr Sharp dealt with the strength of the F-F bond and the stability of fluorine-containing free radicals. The lecture was followed as usual by discussion and the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr W. D. Woolley. EAST ANGLIA A large audience was present at a meeting held in the Oriental Cafk, Ipswich on 28 February when Professor R.Belcher, of the University of Birmingham gave a lecture entitled ‘A Survey of Recent Developments in Analytical Chemistry.’ Referring to inorganic analysis the speaker described some developments in new indicators and also their application as reagents in spectrophotometric analysis. Examples were given of the use of such reagents for the determination of metals. Professor Belcher described developments in organic precipitants including examples of their applications. At Birmingham an organic reagent for anions which was selective for nitrate had been developed. In organic analysis Professor Belcher traced the history of the oxygen flask technique. He mentioned analyses which can be carried out by this method.An account was given of some developments in the analysis of carbon and hydrogen. He then described the development of sub-micro methods of organic analysis at Birmingham. The importance of these methods in connexion with chemical and biochemical research was mentioned. After an interesting discussion the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr D. E. Herring. Developments in Analytical Chemistry. Dr J. W. Corran was in the Chair. EAST MIDLANDS The Chemistry and Application o f Silicones. At a meeting held in the Derby College of Technology on 17 January, Dr W. W. Cuthbertson of I.C.I. Ltd outlined the de-velopment of the chemistry of organo-silicon compounds from the original synthesis of tetraethylsilane by Friedel and Crafts in 1863 to the work of Kipping during the years 1900-40 and the commercial development of silicones in the United States during and following World War 11 to the present output of an estimated 20,000 tons of silicone compounds per annum 138 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL The main properties which render silicones industrially useful are heat resistance water repellancy and incom-patibility with many other materials.Silicone rubbers and resins therefore find outlets in the electrical and aircraft industries for high-temperature applications, whilst the silicone fluids are excellent mould-release agents. The silicone polymers of commerce are based mainly on methyl- and phenyl-substituted polysiloxanes but during the past few years more attention has been given to polymers with other substituents particularly nitrile and w-fluoro-alkyl groups which confer the property of improved oil-repellancy these intermediates are of importance in the manufacture of oil-resistant rubbers.Silicone rubbers now available will cure at room temperature in very short times and find use in the enscapulation of electronic equipment and in the sealing of joints. Professor E. L. Hirst c.B.E. F.R.s. addressed a meeting at the University of Leicester held jointly with the Chemical Society and the University Chemical Society on 19 February on this subject. The lecturer pointed out that plant-cell walls consist mainly of cellulose the hemicelluloses and lignins in proportions varying with the nature of the plant and the nature of the cell in the plant.The hemicelluloses are polysaccharides and one of the main groups the xylans contains a backbone of 1,4-linked /3-xylose residues with various side-chains linked to the 2 and 3 positions of the xylose residues. The various side-chains characterize the hemicelluloses from different sources. For example the xylan from wheat flour contains many arabofuranose residues whereas the xylans of various grasses contain both arabinose and glucuronic acid side-chains. Along with glucuronic acid the 4-methyl ether of D-glucuronic acid is often encountered. In many hardwoods for example beechwood the xylan contains little arabinose but up to 12 per cent or more of 4-methyl glucuronic acid residues.In these sub-stances the typical xylose-xylose linkage is 1,4- but in some algae where xylans occur in abundance and may be of importance in metabolism both 1,3- and 1,4-xylose linkages occur. 0 ther groups of hemicelluloses frequently accompany the xylans. For example in softwoods considerable amounts of polysaccharide based on glucose and mannose residues are found. These consist mainly of chains of 1,4-1inked hexose residues but details of structure are not yet known. Chemistry o f the HemiceZZulose Group. Professor L. Hunter was in the Chair. Dr Trippet proposed the vote of thanks. EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND Pests and Plenty. On 14 February Dr R. A. E. Galley, Director of Research at Shell’s Woodstock Agricultural Research Centre lectured to a joint meeting with the local members of the Chemical Society and Society of Chemical Industry on ‘Pests and Plenty.’ Dr E.A. C. Chamberlain was in the Chair. Dr Galley drew attention to the vast problem of increasing food supplies for the rapidly growing human population. It is predicted that an additional 3,000 million people will be born by the end of the century, which means that world food supplies must be more than doubled in less than 40 years if malnutrition and starvation are to be avoided. He stressed that agricul-tural chemicals will play a vital part in this effort by protecting the growing crop and the harvested product. He indicated that the use of pesticides introduced hazards to different parts of the community hazards which were well defined and for which proper safety measures had been evolved.Dr Galley pointed to the successful part that insecticides had played in public-health programmes e.g. over 300 million people pre-viously exposed to a continuous threat of malaria are now free from this disease and concluded by emphasizing that pesticides can be used safely in agriculture and public health and must continue to be used to ensure that adequate food supplies and control of insect-borne diseases are maintained. The lecture was illustrated by slides and sections of film. The vote of thanks was proposed by Dr F. N. Woodward C.B.E. Old Edinburgh. Dr Chamberlain again took the Chair at a most enjoyable Ladies’ Night held in the Royal British Hotel Edinburgh on 28 February when Mr J.S. Cavaye lectured on ‘Old Edinburgh,’ with particular reference to the Royal Mile. Mr Cavaye illustrated his lecture with slides of many famous buildings a number of which still stand and described, sometimes with a wealth of grisly detail incidents from the lives of their equally famous (and infamous) inhabi-tants. His slides of photographs taken from old prints were of especial interest. Dr A. Mackie proposed the vote of thanks and the enthusiastic applause for the lecturer reflected the skill and humour with which he had entertained and instruc-ted his large audience. Light refreshments were served after the lecture. GLASGOW AND WEST OF SCOTLAND A joint meeting of the Section with the Scottish Section of the Society for Analytical Chemistry was held in the Royal College of Science and Technology Glasgow on 8 February.The original programme provided for three speakers but owing to ill-health Mr A. F. Williams was unable to present his paper on ‘Quantitative Aspects of G.L.C.’ Professor P. D. Ritchie Chairman introduced the two lecturers Dr G. Eglinton of the University of Glasgow and Dr J. H. Knox of the University of Edinburgh. Gas-Liquid Chromatography 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 139 Dr Eglinton discussed the basic apparatus used in gas chromatography and indicated how the information provided could be extended by submitting the fractions to analysis with spectrophotometers and the mass spectrometer. The lecturer continued with observa-tions on the sensitivity of detectors and illustrations of the use of G.L.C.were provided by reference to natural products in particular the work carried out at the University of Glasgow on plant waxes. Dr Eglinton concluded his talk by showing a number of slides of apparatus results obtained and (in colour) places visited in the Canary Islands during the collection of the rare plants examined in the taxonomic survey. Dr Knox concentrated on describing the recent ad-vances that have been made in the units of the basic apparatus. These covered the design of sampling devices for use under ordinary pressures and under very high pressures ; detectors including the ionization cross-section detector; new forms of packed and open tubular columns ; and recording and integrating systems. After questions on detectors criminal investigation and preparative techniques Dr R.A. Chalmers, Chairman of the S.A.C. Section proposed the vote of thanks. The forty-fourth A.G.M. of the Section was held on 8 March in the Royal College of Science and Technology Glasgow. The minutes of the previous A.G.M. the Committee’s Report for 1962 and the Financial Statement for the year ending 31 December 1962 were approved. The following Officers and Members of Committee were elected Chairman Professor P. D. Ritchie; Vice-Chairman Dr J. Bell; Hon. Treasurer Dr A. C Syme; Hon. Secretary Dr W. D. Williams; Members of Committee Dr F. W. Moon and Mr H. Winslow. The other Members of Committee are Mr W. Anderson, Mr W. L. Clark Dr J. D. Easton Det. Supt J. K. McLellan and Dr S. J. Thomson.Dr A. M. Comrie was elected Hon. Auditor. Professor Ritchie Chairman proposed the vote of thanks to the retiring Members of Committee and to Dr W. Good for his many years of service to the Section as Hon. Auditor. Annual General Meeting. President’s Address. After the business meeting an address on ‘Scientific Aid to Underdeveloped Countries’ was given by Sir William Slater R.B.E. F.R.S. (see J. 92), which stimulated much discussion. Professor P. L. Pauson proposed the vote of thanks to Sir William. HUDDERSFIELD Chemistry of Tanmzs. On 30 January at the Hudders-field College of Technology the Chairman Dr R. R. Pritchard introduced Professor R. D. Haworth F.R.s., of the University of Sheffield who spoke on ‘The Chemistry of the Tannins.’ Introducing the subject Professor Haworth described the use of tannins in the leather industry and their secondary applications as ink ingredients pharmaceuti-cals and in boiler-water treatment and oil-well drillings.The tannins can be divided into hydrolysable and non-hydrolysable tannins the former being subdivided into the gallotannins and ellagitannins (these being hydrolysed mainly to gallic acid and ellagic acid, respectively). Early work by Emil Fischer and others led to the view that the amorphous Turkish and Chinese gallotannins were largely pentagalloyl- and penta-m-digalloyl-glucose respectively while later workers suggested that the tannins were galloylated polysaccharides. In Pro-fessor Haworth’s laboratories the complexity of several tannins had been demonstrated by chromatographic methods and samples of purified tannins had been obtained.Treatment of Turkish and Chinese gallo-tannins with an esterase fraction from the enzyme tannase which does not hydrolyse polysaccharides gave only gallic acid and glucose thus confirming Fischer’s view. Following work on synthetic o-hydroxydepsides, a depside linkage in Chinese tannins was also confirmed. Recent studies of the biogenesis of the tannins sug-gested that gallic acid was formed from glucose with dehydroshikimic acid as immediate precursor. Ella-gitannins were possibly formed from the related gallo-tannins by oxidation. The nature of the non-hydro-lysable tannins and their relation to the flavonoids was outlined. After refreshments in the College Refectory the evening concluded with a short discussion.Dr Pritchard thanked the Principal of the Huddersfield College of Technology Dr W. E. Scott for his hospitality. Dr G. Sheldrick proposed the vote of thanks to the lecturer. HULL AND DISTRICT Productzuity. At a meeting of the Section held jointly with the Hull Chemical and Engineering Society at the Royal Station Hotel Hull on 12 February Dr W. L. Patrick general manager and local director of Pilkington Brothers Ltd and President of the Doncaster Productivity Committee lectured on ‘Increased Productivity-The Vital Role of Technical Development.’ Dr Patrick first gave a short introductory talk about the technical development of industrial processes and then showed a film entitled ‘Glass Makers,’ illustrating the research which has been carried out in the sheet and plate glass industry.Starting with historical shots of the production of crown glass by hand the film followed the industry through its various stages of de-velopmen t to the present continuous processes. After the film Dr Patrick showed with illustrations from his personal experience how research and development can give rise to savings in labour fuel and raw materials. Initial research should be separate from production an 140 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY carried out in a more academic atmosphere. When a project reaches the development stage however it should be associated more closely with the production departments so that it can get that sense of urgency necessary to keep a company ahead of its rivals.After a variety of questions from the audience Mr D. F. Harrison President of the Society proposed the vote of thanks. Frozen Foods. The annual Ladies’ Evening of the Section was held on 20 February at the Royal Station Hotel Hull. A talk and demonstration of frozen foods was presented by the Food and Cookery Centre Ltd, representing Birds Eye Foods Ltd Bachelors Foods Ltd, Mac Fisheries Ltd and T. Wall and Sons Ltd. A film depicting the manufacture of frozen foods was supplemented by talks on the history of Birds Eye Foods Ltd and ways of using their various products. After numerous questions the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr F. H. Plaster. Aiznual Dinner and Dance. The Annual Dinner and dance was again held at the Guildhall Hull on 8 March, and attended by 214 members and guests an encourag-ing increase on last year.Professor C. C. Addison of the University of Nottingham the principal pest, proposed the toast to the Hull Section. Professor Addison Member of Council said that there was a time when the Institute did not make the maximum impact in the world of education particularly in the schools. He had been interested to see in the last two years however that its activities in this direction were increasing so rapidly that it was becoming the leading co-ordinating body in chemical education. Referring to the drift of British scientists to America he said that the Institute had the task of making chemistry so attrac-tive that it would induce British scientists to stay here.Mr P. Bricklebank Chairman of the Section replied. A toast to the guests and ladies was proposed by the Vice-chairman Mr R. C. Grimwood and the Deputy Lord Mayor of Kingston upon Hull Alderman A. Turner replied. The chief guests were Professor and Mrs C. C. Addison Mr Turner Deputy Lord Mayor and Mrs Turner Mr W. Fox Sheriff of Kingston upon Hull and Mrs Fox Mr H. Bays Chairman Hull Section of the Pharmaceutical Society and Mrs Bays Mr E. Armstrong Chairman Hull Section of the Oil and Colour Chemists’ Association and Mrs Armstrong and Mr D. F. Harrison President Hull Chemical and Engineering Society. A Tombola was organized in aid of the Benevolent Fund with prizes donated by many local companies and private individuals and it is hoped that the total ofE40 raised by last year’s event will be exceeded this year.The Section Committee would like to thank all those who gave prizes for their contributions and all those who bought tickets for their generous support. [APRIL LIVERPOOL AND NORTH-WESTERN Corrosion in the Motor Car. At a joint meeting bvith the Institute of Petroleum held at the College of Further Education Chester on 14 February Mr L. W. Harris lectured on ‘Corrosion in the Motor Car.’ Mr Harris began by reminding the large audience that corrosion in the motor car was a serious problem, since it led to depreciation in the value of \$That was probably the second most valuable asset for many. He then dealt with the mechanism of electrochemical attack on metals connected as it was with the relative electrode potentials.Methods of preventing such attack included plating painting use of stainless steel or forma-tion of an oxide film. He spoke at some length on the developments in chromium plating of various components mentioning particularly the advantages of duplex nickel plating as a foundation and of ‘crack-free’ chromium for finishing. Mr Harris mentioned silencers as components which have to resist very stringent conditions since corrosive acids have been known to collect in them. He dealt in turn with cylinder blocks and cooling systems and their special corrosion problems. Car bodies now commonly have an integral chassis, and a method of complete protection has been de-veloped-the Carrier Rotodip whereby complete bodies are treated continuously in baths for cleaning phos-phating protection and painting.At a meeting held in the University of Liverpool on 7 March, Mr N. L. Paddock of the University of Manchester, lectured to members on this subject. Mr Paddock prefaced his lecture with the provocative remark that there were no inorganic polymers; or that all inorganic molecules were polymeric according to one’s point of view. He then compared the structures of some large silicate molecules the pyroxenes ( Si4012) 8- amphiboles (Si,O1J6- and mica (Si4Ol,J4-. In the latter case (layer lattice) he mentioned that in the unit: 0- 0-Si-0-Si 0- 0-the forces holding units together fall off as 1 / r 2 whereas in the case of the substituted compound the units: Me Me Si-0-Si Me Me are held together by forces falling off as l/r6.In the case of the boron-nitrogen compounds the introduction of polarity B-N+ led to high bond energy Rings and Chains in Inorganic Chemistry. I 1 I 1 ~ I i 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 141 but did not favour the production of polymers. Re-actions Ivhich might be expected to give linear polymers gave instead borazole the cyclic benzene analogue. Illustrating his remarks mainly by phosphonitrilic derivatives (PNX units) Mr Paddock showed how kinetics thermodynamics and bond orbital considera-tions were consistent with the formation of 8-membered ring compounds but not in general with the occurrence of pol) merization. LONDON In a lecture entitled ‘Some Applications of Electron Spin Resonance in Chemistry’ given to the Section at Sir John Cass College on 12 Februarj Dr Whiffen of the National Physical Laboratory outlined the principles involved in electron spin-resonance spectroscopy and described essential features of an e.s.r.spectrometer. The first applications discussed were based on counting of radicals. The area of an e.s.r. absorption band is proportional to the number of free radicals present, spectrometers being calibrated by use of the known weights of compounds existing completely in the form of free radicals. I t is then possible to count radicals, to determine rates of formation or decay of radicals and hence to obtain values of both pre-exponential terms and activation energies. A second application has been developed from the existence of a spectral hyperfine structure produced by the coupling of nuclear spins with th electron spin the magnitude of this coupling being used to locate the unpaired electron in a radical.In solids the coupling depends on orientation with respect to the applied magnetic field; the change of spectrum with orientation of an irradiated single crystal of alanine is due to this phenomenon the results implying that the trapped radicals are specifically oriented with respect to the crystal lattice. At low temperatures the spectrum of the CH,CHCOOH radical shows three different couplings between the unpaired electron and the hydrogen nuclei of the methyl group. Under these conditions rotation about the carbon-carbon bond is prevented and the measured couplings can be used to determine the orientation of the methyl group.Professor T. D. Sawyer of the University of California addressed the Cambridge Sub-section on 12 February at the Spillers Technical Research Station Cambridge. He stressed that the relatively little use made of polarography may be due to initial operational difficulties rather than inherent restrictions in its applicability When the technique is established in a laboratory more extensive uses may develop. The requirements are diffusion control of the current carried by a reducible species to a micro-electrode in a solution of supporting electrolyte of at least 100 times its concentration and a non-polarizable reference electrode. The half-wave potential at which Electron Spziz Resonance.Analysis by Polarography. reduction occurs is characteristic of a species but may change on altering the supporting electrolyte; the height of the wave is proportional to its concentration. Mix-tures of different oxidation states of an element may be analysed by using the anodic and cathodic waves. Certain organic groups are polarographically reducible. The method may be used in thermodynamic studies of systems in which the reduction can be shown to be reversible. Professor Sawyer discussed the deterrnina-tion of the number of electrons involved and of the dissociation constant for cornplexed ions. Gases may be analysed polarographically using a membrane through which the gas diffuses into the solution around the electrode. Thus oxygen is reduced to OH- and sulphur dioxide gives oxidation and reduction waves.Answering questions Professor Sawyer compared polarography with chronopotentiometry in which the time for decay of potential at constant large current is measured and discussed the use of polarography in preliminary drug screening. Aduances in Energy Production. A meeting of the Kent Sub-section was held on 12 February at the North-West Kent College of Technology when Dr F. E. King, Scientific Adviser to the British Petroleum Company Ltd, lectured on this topic. He began with a review of methods of producing electricity by non-conventional routes i.e. by means of thermoelectric generators, thermionic generators magnetohydrodynamics and fuel cells. The fuel cell regarded as a power plant of the future, is a subject for research and development work in all the major countries of the world.It has essentially two electrodes in contact with an electrolyte and converts chemical energy into low-voltage direct current. The cell components ideally remain unchanged and the reactants are the fuel and oxygen supplied to suitably porous electrodes anode and cathode respectively. Fuels can be hydrogen methane ammonia methanol, propane butane kerosine or even solid carbon. The chemical energy of these combustibles is converted directly into electrical energy. There being no inter-mediate heat stage the Carnot limitation does not apply; thus efficiencies may theoretically approach 100 per cent. Closed circuit currents of several hundred A/ft2 at 1-2 V are attainable.Dr King described the main types of fuel cell-the hydrox (hydrogen oxygen and water electrolyte) and carbox (steamlmethane re-forming to H and CO oxygen and fused alkali carbonates as electrolyte)-and also referred to the sodium cell (sodium amalgam oxygen and aqueous electrolye giving sodium hydroxide). On 20 February a joint meeting with the Luton Scientific Association was held at the College of Technology Luton. Dr J. Haslam, Chairman of the Lea Valley Sub-section introduced the lecturer Mr P. J. Syrett of University College London. Mechanism o f Photosynthesis 142 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Mr Syrett adopted an historical approach to the subject showing how it was first deduced that there was both a light phase and a dark phase in the photosynthetic process.He then proceeded to deal with the methods used in the elucidation of the dark reaction. Mr Syrett explained that the water which is used in the process provides a source of hydrogen which is necessary to reduce carbon dioxide to organic compounds. The Calvin cycle was dealt with in some detail and then an account was given of the recent view concerning the light reaction. According to this the absorption of photons by chlorophyll molecules leads to a displace-ment of an electron from some molecules. These elec-trons together with hydrogen ions derived from the dissociation of water are used to reduce triphospho-pyridine nucleotide (TPN) to TPNH, which in turn is used as a source of hydrogen for the dark reaction.The ‘hole’ left in the chlorophyll molecule by the loss of the electron is filled by an electron removed from OH-. During the transfer of this electron adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is converted to adenosine triphos-phate (ATP) and this can then drive the Calvin cycle. MANCHESTER AND DISTRICT ‘Recent Advances in the Chemistry of Nitrogen’ was the subject of a lecture given to the Section by Professor C. C. Addison on 12 February at Stockport College for Further Education. Professor Addison said that although nitrogen was one of the first gaseous elements to be studied there had been a continuous interest in its chemistry since the pioneer work of Scheele in 1772. I t would be expected that the properties of its simple compounds, especially those with oxygen should by now be fully understood.That this is not the case has become obvious since they have been considered as rocket fuels. Compounds such as the nitrogen fluorides nitrogen oxides and nitric acid are being given intensive study in many laboratories throughout the world. The speaker developed this theme by particular reference to recent investigations on reactions of dinitro-gen tetroxide. In the liquid state reaction with metals or their compounds gives simple metal nitrates of the transition elements; nitrates in which covalent bonding occurs show chemical reactivity which is quite different from the behaviour of nitrate ions. Reactions involving NO vapour can give transition-metal nitrites which show unexpectedly high thermal and chemical stability.In prosposing the vote of thanks Professor F. Fair-brother said that the attendance at this meeting was indicative of the renewed interest in inorganic chemistry to which Professor Addison and his research school had made a considerable contribution. New Ideas in Nitrogen Chemistry. NORTH LANCASHIRE At a joint meeting with the Society for Analytical Chemistry held at the Harris Gas Chromatography. College Preston on 8 February Mr T. E. V. Horsley, Chairman of the Section introduced Dr A. T. James of the Unilever Research Laboratory who gave a lecture en titled ‘Gas Chromatography . ’ Dr James first surveyed progress in chromatography from Tswett’s work to modern gas-liquid techniques and then discussed basic principles.The partial pressure of a gas on a chromatographic column depends on two types of intermolecular forces London dispersion forces proportional only to the molecular weights of solvent and solute and donor-acceptor forces in the case of polar molecules. These effects were illustrated by the relationship between retention times boiling points and structure of homologous series of non-polar and polar compounds. Dr James then dealt with the different detector systems used from the early gas-density balance to the recent electron-capture detector. He concluded by reviewing some applications of the Golay capillary column. After a lively question-time Dr James was thanked for his address by Mr C. J. House Chairman North of England Section of S.A.C. Name and Number.A meeting was held at the Tech-nical College Blackburn on 21 February when Mr R. B. Heslop of the Faculty of Technology Uni-versity of Manchester gave a lecture entitled ‘Name and Number.’ Commencing with the classical definition of valency Mr Heslop proceeded to show the difficulties which the inorganic chemistry student had to face when he came to complex compounds. Mr Heslop said that in his opinion the following rules would overcome the confusion caused by indis-criminate use of the word ‘valency’ ( I ) refer to ions as unipositive etc.; (2) make more use of co-ordination numbers; (3) use the oxidation number concept; and (4) replace the -ow and -ic endings by Stock Notation names. He explained how to find the oxidation state of an element in any of its compounds and how the idea was also useful in balancing redox equations.He then went on to consider the oxidation number of elements such as nitrogen and carbon in their compounds. Finally Mr Heslop gave examples of the Stock nomenclature which he considered to have the great advantage of completely defining an ion or compound. For example the name hexacyanoferrate(II1) gives a full description of the Fe(CN)i- ion; the name ferri-cyanide does not. After answering many questions Mr Heslop war thanked for his address by Mr S. Hargreaves. Lubrication. At the Lancaster and Morecambe College of Further Education on 7 March members and visitors heard Dr E. R. Braithwaite of Acheson Industries (Europe) Ltd describe the three kinds o 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 143 lubrication-under hydrodynamic boundary and con-tact conditions.He pointed out that the fatty acids in boundary lubricants form solid soaps with the metal surfaces and thus operating temperatures can be raised from the melting points of the fatty acids to those of the soaps. Lamellar solid lubricants act in contact with the metal, and their action involves adsorption phenomena. TEES-SIDE supplies. Imported processed foods which are not subject to these regulations have to undergo rigorous testing. The lecture was followed by the Annual Dinner which was also held in the University College of Swansea and was much appreciated by all. The toast to the guests was proposed by Mr J. S. Hughes Section Chairman. Graphite and molybdenum disulphide the most import-ant solid lubricants have molecular structures which resemble a pack of cards.Lubrication depends upon slip between the molecular layers. In terms of physical chemistry the conditions for lubrication are that the force with which the lamella adheres to the metal surface shall exceed the force needed to overcome the shear strength of the molecular layers. Experiments had shown that water reduces the strength of the slip-plane forces in graphite but increases them in molybdenum disulphide. Thus graphite powder loses its lubricating properties in a vacuum whereas MoS powder lubricates well in vacuum but not in the presence of water. (Colloidal dispersions of graphite and molybdenum disulphide do not necessarily behave like the powders.) Whether this is due to distortion of the planes or to the wider spacing of layers through the formation of intercalation compounds is still under investigation.After a lively question time Dr H. Gregson Principal of the College proposed the vote of thanks. SOUTH WALES Joint AnnuaE Scientific Meeting. On 16 January members of the Section participated in the Annual General Meeting of the Joint Scientific Societies of South Wales. The Annual Lecture which was being given in Swansea for the first time was to have been addressed by Lord Hailsham but he had to withdraw a t the last minute because of Government business. Lord Hailsham’s place was taken by the Government Chemist Dr D. T. Lewis who spoke on the subject of ‘Science and Government.’ Dr Lewis described himself as a scientist with some knowledge of politics standing in for a politician with some knowledge of science.He began his lecture by recalling the Ages of Sculpture of Classics of Arts and of Drama classifying our own era as being emphatically the Age of Science. He described man’s conquest of the elements leading up to the ‘new’ elements such as Neptunium Berkelium and Nobelium suggesting that element 103 might well be named Pandemonium. Dr Lewis then outlined the work of the government scientific laboratories and was able to describe specific examples of work carried out in the laboratories of the Government Chemist. He gave particular mention to recent research work on fluoridization and on food additives stressing that it is the Government’s policy to allow the use of very few adulterants in the nation’s food Chemistry and Biochemistry in South America.On 25 Janu-ary at William Newton School Norton Professor M. Stacey F.R.s. gave a talk entitled ‘Some Impressions of Chemistry and Biochemistry in South America.’ Dr I. J. Faulkner presided. Professor Stacey gave an account of his recent visit to South America under the auspices of the British Council and illustrated his talk with his own colour slides. He said that the overall impression was one of countries possessing enormous potential for expansion and of universities filled with keen and enthusiastic students. Most of the chemistry teaching and research was of an applied nature and some of the research work -especially in biochemistry-was of a very high standard.THAMES VALLEY Science in China. At a joint meeting with the Chemical Society and the Reading University Chemical Society at the University of Reading on 5 March Dr H. W. Thompson c.B.E. F.R.s. gave a fascinating account of a recent visit to China. He went as member of a party representing the Royal Society at the invitation of the Chinese Academy. During his travels he visited Universities and Research Institutes at Peking and elsewhere and had an opportunity to assess the teaching and research facilities. He was impressed by the enthusiasm with which the Research Institutes were laying the foundations for ad-vanced work although often hampered by lack of the most modern apparatus. The Universities were devoted to teaching the best students being selected for the Research Institutes.The greatest need of China was the production of more food to feed her population of 700 million which is increasing at the rate of 15 million a year but research in agriculture and allied sciences appears to be neglected particularly in the field of animal and plant genetics. In physics and chemistry, foreign literature had obviously been studied with great thoroughness and tremendous efforts made to repeat the experimental work in order to acquire a basic knowledge of the techniques as a preliminary to embarking upon original research. Dr Thompson showed a large number of colour slides illustrating both the old China exemplified by the ‘Forbidden City,’ formerly the home of the Chinese emperors in Peking and the modern China exemplified by concrete buildings and imaginative town planning 144 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY DECCAN Annual General ibfeeting.The thirteenth A.G.M. of the Section was held in the Lecture Hall of the Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry Indian Institute of Science Bangalore on 22 January. Dr B. H. Iyer, Chairman of the Section presided. The “on. Secre-tary’s Report and the Hon. Treasurer’s Statement of Accounts for 1962 were approved. The following Officers and Members of Committee were elected for the year 1963 Chairman Dr T. L. Rama Char; Vice-Chairmen Mr M. Rajagopalan; Dr R. Rajagopalan (Mysore) ; Hon. Treasurer Dr J. Ganguly; Hon. Secretary Dr J. V. Bhat; Members of Committee Dr H.R. Cama; Mr D. Range Gowda; Dr K. Kalyan; Dr K. P. Karanth (Hyderabad); Dr T. R. Kasturi; Dr R. K. Maller; Dr S. C. Pillai; and Mr H. Shiva Rau; Hon. Auditors Mr H. S. Lakke Gowda and Mr H. Srikantiah. Professor R. A. Morton F.R.s. of the University of Liverpool delivered the Annual Address on ‘Biochemical Aspects of Spectroscopy.’ At the end of the address, Dr J. V. Bhat proposed the vote of thanks. The A.G.M. was concluded with tea for members of the Section and their guests. WESTERN INDIA Intermolecular Forces. Dr B. N. Ghosh Reader in Physical Chemistry addressed the Section on 25 January on ‘Intermolecular Forces and Liquid Structure of Oily Phosphonitrilic Chlorides.’ Dr Ghosh explained the basic relations which exist between molecular structure intermolcular forces and viscosity in the light of the present state of theory He stressed that enough is known about the nature of the viscosity and the liquid state to enable one to predict the effect of given molecular structures or structural units on flow behaviour.This would perhaps govern the number of experiments that must be performed, leading eventually to the desired compound or material. The viscosities of an oily substance obtained in the synthesis of phosphonitrilic chlorides were measured between 30” and 50°C using a constant-temperature water thermostat. This oily substance was allowed to ‘age’ and the viscosities of such ‘aged’ oils were also determined. Before ageing this oil seems to have a linear structure and molecular composition (PNCI,),, PCl,, while the ‘aged’ oil has the composition (PNCL,), PCl,.The molecular-weight determination was carried out by the freezing-point depression technique. He demon-strated the experimental observations by means of slides. The liquid structure of the oil was discussed in terms of the activation energy free energy and entropy of activa-tion for viscous flow and the energies of cohesion and vaporization. ScientiJic Education in Indonesia. Professor S. K. Mukherjee Dean of the Faculty of Science Kalyani University and till recently UNESCO expert on tech-nical education to Indonesia lectured on this topic on 7 February. Narrating his experiences in Indonesia Professor Mukherjee explained that his job had been a great challenge since in Indonesia there have been many attempts to change the mode of teaching first during the period of Japanese occupation and subsequently by the National Government after independence.At present the emphasis was on the adoption of the national Indonesian language for teaching of all subjects and this posed a serious problem to the teachers as there were no suitable textbooks. The political conditions in the Universities in Sumatra were not particularly peaceful and normal courses were frequently interrupted. The Government authorities however were making all-out efforts to foster scientific studies and there was great eagerness on the part of the student community to study scientific subjects. Professor Mukherjee thought that the period of un-settled conditions was over and that in the coming decade Indonesian scientists were bound to make their presence felt in the world of international chemistry.Dr T. P. S. Rajan proposed the vote of thanks. Hydrogenation o f Fat9 Acids. Dr B. Sreenivasan Deputy Chief Research Chemist Tata Oil Mills Co. Ltd, addressed the Section on 15 February on ‘Some Obser-vations on the Hydrogenation of Fatty Acids Esters and Glycerides.’ Dr Sreenivasan indicated that in the early stages of hydrogenation of methyl oleate oleic acid or triolein, formation of trans isomers exceeds simple saturation of the double bond. Positional isomers with double bonds from six to 14 positions are formed. Atomic hydro-genation wherein an atom of hydrogen adds to one carbon of the double bond producing a free centre at the other followed by elimination of hydrogen from any adjacent carbon atom to this free centre has been suggested as a possible mechanism by which these trans and positional isomers are formed.Conjugated dienoic acids or esters irrespective of their geometry or position add readily two atoms of hydrogen, producing an equimolar mixture of the expected three monoenes. Conjugation occurs during the hydrogena-tion of linoleic acid or its methyl ester and this explains the very high rate of hydrogenation of linoleic acid over oleic acid. Methyl eleostearate or eleostearic acid can take up four atoms of hydrogen simultaneously to produce an equimolar mixture of the five expected monoenes. No intermediary conjugated dienes are formed.Formation of partially conjugated trienes at the inter-mediary stage and simultaneous hydrogenation of these by the addition of either two or four atoms of hydrogen has been proposed as the major route of hydrogenation of methyl linolenate News and. Notes SPECIAL COURSES Reinforced Plastics.-The Borough Polytechnic in collaboration with the Reinforced Plastics Group of the Plastics Institute is organizing a full-time course on reinforced plastics at the Polytechnic from 1 to 5 July. The syllabus will include practical work as well as lectures. Advance registration is necessary and further details are available from the Head of the Chemistry and Chemical Technology Department Borough Poly-technic Borough Road London S.E. 1. Teachers’ Refresher Course.-A one-day teachers’ refresher course on ‘Teaching of Organic Chemistry at Pre-University Level’ is to be held at the University of Birmingham on 4 May under the auspices of the Bir-mingham and Midlands Section.The programme will consist of four invited lectures on various aspects of chemistry teaching and ample time has been allowed for discussion. Further details of the course are available from Dr M. E. FOSS Department of Chemistry and Metallurgy Lanchester College of Technology Priory Street Coventry. MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES Catalysis in Practice.-The Institution of Chemical Engineers is organizing a Yorkshire Meeting on ‘Cataly-sis in Practice’ to be held at the Royal Hall Harrogate, during the afternoon of Thursday 20 June and the morning of Friday 21 June.The meeting will consist of three events the afternoon session on 20 June the reception and symposium dinner on the evening of 20 June and the morning session on 21 June. A number of papers uill be presented and time has been allowed for discussion and for the authors should they wish, to comment on the points raised in the discussion. on application to the Secretary of the Committee a t 47 Belgrave Square London S.W. 1. Health Physics (Radiation Protection) .-The fourth annual Summer School in Health Physics (Radiation Protection) will be held in the department of chemical engineering and chemical technology Im-perial College London from 1 to 12 July. The course is designed primarily though not exclusively for graduates in science engineering or medicine whose work involves the use of radiation or radioactive materials or whose duties involve radiation protection.The lectures cover a wide range of topics concerned with various aspects of health physics and the programme will also include practical work involving the measure-ment of radioactivity. There will also be an exhibition of health physics equipment and a day visit to an outside establishment. The fee for the course is L26 5s. but those wishing to attend only a few lectures may do so at a fee of E l 1 Is. 6d. a lecture. Further information and application forms may be obtained from the Registrar Imperial College Prince Consort Road, London S.W.7. Humidity and Moisture Symposium.-An inter-national symposium on ‘Humidity and Moisture Measurement and Control in Science and Industry,’ sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards the United States Weather Bureau the Instrument Society of America the American Meteorological Society and the American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers will be held in the Sheraton Park Hotel Washington from 20 to 23 May.More than 200 papers will be presented at the 31 technical sessions of the symposium and in addition there will be an exhibition of commercial and scientific equipment. Further details are available from Mr J. H. Cansdale, Assistant Secretary-Public Relations ASHRAE 345 E. 47th Street New York 17 U.S.A. Further details of the meeting and of the registration fees Institute of Metal Finishing.-The Institute of are availahle from Catalysis in Practice The Institution Metal Finishing is to hold its 1963 Conference in of Chemical Engineers 16 Belgrave Square London Edinburgh from 30 April to 4 May.The programme S.W. 1. will include seven technical sessions when some 18 papers Education in Vacuum Science and Technology. -The Institute of Physics and the Physical Society in collaboration with the Joint British Committee for Vacuum Science and Technology is organizing a con-ference on ‘Education in Vacuum Science and Tech-nology’ at Brunel College Acton on 29 May. Short contributions are invited and should be sent to the Hon. Symposium Secretary Mr D. J. Pacey Physics Department Brunel College Woodlands Avenue, Acton W. 3. Details of this and other meetings will be found in the Bulletin now being issued by the Joint British Com-mittee for Vacuum Science and Technology which is available free of charge to members of the Institute will be presented a Civic Reception given for the Institute by the City of Edinburgh a conference dinner and dance and a number of works visits.Further details of the conference and of registration fees are avail-able from The Conference Secretary Institute of Metal Finishing 32 Great Ormond Street London W.C. 1. International Atomic Energy Agency.-The second annual lecture of the British Nuclear Energy Society will be given by Dr Sigvard Eklund on ‘The International Atomic Energy Agency’ at the Institution of Civil Engineers on 1 May at 5.30 p.m. Further details are available fi-om the Secretary The British Nuclear Energy Society 1-7 Great George Street, London S.W.1. 14 146 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Particle -Size Analysis .-T he Industrial Powders Division of the Whiting and Industrial Powders Re-search Council is organizing a regional meeting on problems of particle-size analysis at the Hatfield College of Technology on 23 April from 2.15 to 5.15 p.m. Among the subjects to be discussed are instrumental methods of analysis; surface area and related measure-ments; size-analysis problems in the specification of powder plant; and optimum design of routine techniques. An exhibition of particle-size analysis equipment will also be held at the College on 23 April from 12 noon to 7 p.m. Registration fee for the meeting is 10s.6d. (including tea) and further details and registration forms are available from the Whiting and Industrial Powders Research Council The Hall Welwyn Herts. Symposium on Fungicides.-A symposium on ‘The Chemistry and Mode of Action of Fungicides’ is to be held in the Department of Science Hatfield College of Technology from 10a.m. to 5 p.m.on 16 May. Four papers will be presented laboratory evaluation of antifungal substances for medical uses ; chemistry of some systemic fungicides ; antifungal antibiotics; and mode of action of some protectant fungicides. Each paper will be followed by a short period of discussion. The fee for the symposium is L2 (including coffee lunch and tea) and further details are available from Dr R.J. Cremlyn Department of Science Hatfield College of Technology Hatfield Herts. NEW AND RECENT PUBLICATIONS Approved Names.-The British Pharmacopoeia Commission published in March a second supplementary list of Approved Names to the booklet dated November, 1962. All inquiries should be addressed to the Secretary, British Pharmacopoeia Commission 44 Hallam Street, London W. 1. Crystal Data.-The American Crystallographic Association recently published the second edition of its Monograph No. 5 Crystal Data (Determinative Tables). The book contains a listing of cell dimensions by crystal systems according to axial ratios determined by X-rays, with space-group symmetry observed and calculated densities and auxiliary determinative properties-morphological optical etc.There are about 13,000 entries covering the years 1912 to 1960. I t can be ordered from Polycrystal Book Service G.P.O. Box 620, Brooklyn 1 New York U.S.A. price $20.00. Chemical Society Library.-All members both corporate and non-corporate are reminded that they have full borrowing rights from the Chemical Society Library Inquiries about books journals photocopies and the like and all bibliographical inquiries should be addressed to the Librarian The Chemical Society, Burlington House Piccadilly London W. 1. International House Associatiom-This organiza-tion aims to further international understanding by providing hospitality to visiting students particularly older postgraduate students. Activities include supper parties at members’ homes sometimes combined with excursions.Further details are available from Inter-national House Association 30 Fitzroy Square, London W. 1. Powder Technology.-An Industrial Powders Divi-sion has been added to the Research Council of the British Whiting Federation now re-named the Whiting and Industrial Powders Research Council with the aim of helping manufacturers with powder technology problems. The division is planning a particle-size analysis bibliography an assisted translation scheme and the creation of a ‘powder bank’ of powders of genuinely known characteristics. An established library and in-formation service the availability of experts for con-sultation and access to all the results of jointly financed, DSIR grant-supported research are among the advan-tages offered by the new division.All further inquiries should be addressed to the Director of Research The Hall Welwyn Herts. Reduced Rates for Students.-Students at uni-versity technical college and school are reminded that they can obtain the following publications at substantially reduced rates : The Times. Student’s Rate 24d. per copy. Regis-tration forms and full particulars can be obtained from The Subscription Manager The Times Printing House Square London E.C.4. Student’s Rate L3 12s. per annum. Registration forms and full particulars are available from The Subscription Department The Economist, 22 Ryder Street London S.W.l. The Economist. Standard Samples of Organic Compounds.-Additions have recently been made to the list of pure compounds which are available from the National Chemical Laboratory.The samples are suitable for calibration of spectrometers and for precise physico-chemical measurements. Most of the 78 compounds now listed have a certificated purity greater than 99-9 per cent. Further information on the supply of these Standard Samples can be obtained from The Director National Chemical Laboratory Teddington Middlesex. Teaching in Technical Colleges.-The Ministry of Education has published a leaflet entitled Teaching in Technical Colleges which sets out briefly the opportuni-ties and conditions of employment for technical teachers 19631 OBITUARY 147 The aim of the leaflet is to arouse interest among potential teachers in technical education and stimulate recruitment to this important work.Copies may be obtained from the Ministry of Education Further Education Branch I General Curzon Street London, w . l . Water Research.-The programme proposed by the Water Research Association for the next five-year period has been approved by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the grant-aid terms have been announced. The effect is that the direct Government grant in support of the Association’s programme can total more than QO0,OOO in the forthcoming five-year period. The principal objectives of the 1963-68 research pro-gramme are continued work on the hydrological programme ; improvement in methods of controlling living organisms of various kinds in water; extensions of the work on chemical problems; the development of pilot-scale water-treatment plant ; further assessment of reports on research into the desalination of sea water and the calculation of problems in the design of water distribution systems.suburbs there is a case for forming more local sub-sections. Such groups would attract members living within reasonable travelling distance and could meet regularly at say local technical colleges. The activities of the groups would generally be more informal than the main Institute meetings and could include dis-cussions on topics of general chemical interest talks by individual members on topics on which they are par-ticularly well informed and social evenings with occasional specialist lectures of the standard of the current Institute Lecture Series.Such smaller informal gatherings nearer members’ homes might well encourage members to take greater interest in Institute activities and even produce better attendances at the meetings and social functions held at the Institute’s main centres. A member attending a social function as one of a party from his sub-section would at least be assured of not spending the evening in the ‘enforced isolation’ envisaged by Mr Collins. 11 Studland Road, Byfleet, Surrey . D. J. PALMER CORRESPONDENCE ARNOLD COOKSEY MEMORIAL FUND SIR,-Mr Arnold Cooksey gave long and valuable service to the Wigan and District Mining and Technical College and to many generations of students. In order that there should be some fitting permanent memorial to him it has been suggested that past and present students colleagues and friends should be invited to subscribe to a fund for the provision of an Annual Prize for a Student of the Chemistry Department of the College.Contributions which should be made payable to ‘The Arnold Cooksey Memorial Fund’ and sent to the address shown will be most welcome. ‘Linthorpe,’ Rectory Lane, Standish, Nr Wigan Lancs. J. H. WOOD DECLINE IN LECTURE ATTENDANCE SIR,--I am not in a position to comment on attendance a t Institute meetings as I have not attended any since my recent election. However I do feel that since the reasons for my disinclination to attend lectures are covered in Mr Collins’s letter (see J. 65) I am able to comment on other points raised. It seems to me that with increasing membership of the Institute and the spread of population to the OBITUARY Cyril William Attwood.B. 4.10.06. Ed. Birmingham Central Technical College 1925-31. B.Sc. (Lond.). In 1926 he became a chemist at John & E. Sturge Ltd Birmingham. He left in 1936 to take a post as a research chemist at Robinson Bros Ltd West Bromwich where he remained until the time of his death when he was chief works chemist. ( A . 1931) D. June, 1962. Mary Corner. B. 25.3.1899. Ed. Battersea Polytechnic, 1922-27; University of London 1928. B.Sc. In 1927 she became an observer at the British Cotton Industry Research Association. From 1928 she was engaged on general research work in the rayon department until 1934 when she became a microanalyst. In 1945 she joined the British Leather Manu-facturers’ Research Association as head of the Analytical Depart-ment.Shortly after she was appointed a senior scientific officer at the National Chemical Laboratory Teddington a position which she held for the rest of her life. ( A . 1931 F. 1946) D. 4.1 1.62. Harold Minter Harvey. B. 1887. Ed. School of the Pharma-ceutical Society 1905-09. In 1906 he was appointed demon-strator at the School. Some years later he became a works chemist at firstly Burgoyne Burbridges & Co. Ltd and then at Warrick Bros. After being engaged in manufacturing pharma-ceutical products for some twenty years he acquired a retail pharmacy which he continued to manage until his retirement in 1961. ( A . 1910 F. 1919) D. 27.10.62. Frederick William Foreman.B. 22.9.1880. Ed. King’s Lynn Technical Institute; University of Cambridge 1902-05. M.A. He continued at the University as an assistant chemist in the School of Agriculture became a demonstrator and thereafter remained at the School of Agriculture as a research worker until his retirement in 1942. ( A . 1907 F. 1910) D. 22.10.62. William Henry Frederick Jackman. B. 10.7.10. Ed. Battersea Polytechnic 1928-32. B.Sc. Ph.D. In 1929 he took a post as junior chemist at Confectionery Butters Ltd and there-after became successively chemical assistant the Cancer Hospital, 193 1 research biochemist to R. Milton 1932 ; chemist Associated Fumigators Ltd 1935; chemist Baird & Tatlock Ltd 1936 148 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL chemist Geochemical Laboratories 1937 chemist British Boot, Shoe and Allied Trades Research Association 1937 In 1946 he joined the Public Health Department of London County Council where he remained until the time of his death when he was a senior scientific officer ( A 1934) D 23 10 62 Robert Emrys Jones.B 19 405 Ed Festiniog County School Manchester College of Technology 1924-3 1 (et enings) He joined the divisional chemical laboratory of the L M S Rly at Crewe in 1923 as ajunior chemist under Dr P Lewis-Dale and later worked as assistant chemist He was appointed chief assistant to Dr E H Morris at Glasgow in 1946 but returned to Crewe six months later On the appointment of Mr V Binns as area chemist of British Railways at Crewe he became his chief assistant eventually becoming the aiea chemist himself in 1955 He carried out investigations on fungal decay on timber water analysis trade effluents etc He had a great enthusiasm for all things associated with the traditions and culture of Wales and won many prizes for various sections in the national Eisteddfod He was also a keen philatelist ( A 1932 F 1943) D 27 10 62 Earl Judson King.B 19 5 01 Ed Brandon College Canada M A (McMaster) Ph D (Toronto) D Sc (Lond) On completion of his training he was offered by Sir Frederick Banting the position of biochemist in the new Banting Institute and there he began his researchea in silicosis It is on this and later on coal miners’ pneumoconiosis that his international reputation as an investigator is based In 1928 he went to the Lister Institute, London and to Munich in 1929 There he began his work on phosphatase the second subject for which he is known He returned to Toronto in 1929 and with A R Armstrong intented a method for estimating phosphatase in blood which is used all over the world This work furnished a scientific basis for the diagnosis and study of liver disease In 1934 King was invited to become head of chemical pathology in the newly founded Post-graduate Medical School in London and soon found himself part of a flourishing and rapidly expanding enterprise which attracts postgraduate students of medicine from all parts of the world At the beginning of the Second World War he helped Sir Alexander Fleming to organize the pathological sen ices in one of the London sectors for the emergency medical service later becoming involved in research on anti-malarial drugs and chemicals In 1945 he went to India as an actinq Brigadier in the R A hI C to act as consultant in medical biochemistry to the Royal and Indian Army Medical Corps He returned to Postgraduate Medical School in 1946 having been made a full professor of the University of London and sub-Dean of the postgraduate school In 1957 he was made chairman and director of the combined departments of bacteriology biophysics chemical pathology haematology and morbid anatomy and histology His many external activities occupied a considerable part of his time among them being examiner for the Institute in clinical chemistry since 1952 He was the author of Mzcroanal_szs zn Medzcal Bzochemzstry Chronzc Pulmonary Dzsease zn South Wales Coal Manes Exberz yental Studzes, and of numerous papers in the scientific press He was an excellent host a most amusing talker a good friend and a chief whom I shall always remember with great affection ’ ( F 1948) L) 31 1062 Hyme Lempert.B 22 5 06 Ed Royal Technical College, Salford 1922-24 University of Manchester 1924-27 M Sc M D In 1929 he joined Kirklees Ltd as a works chemist where he remained until 1931 when he took a post as a technical assistant in the clinical laboratory of the Royal Infirmary Manchestei In 1935 he became a laboratory technician and biochemist in the clinical laboratory of the Victoria Memorial Jewish Hospital, Manchester He resigned in 1940 in order to enter the Univer-sity of Manchester for a further course of training He returned to the Manchester Royal Infirmary and at the time of his death was assistant director of the department of clinical pathologv ( A 1930) D May 1962 Nalinbihari Sen.B 27 10 O f Ed Dacca College 1919-20, Presidency College Calcutta 1920-22 University of Sheffield, 1922-24 BSc (Calcutta) M Met (Sheff) In 1925 he joined the Tata Iron and Steel Go Ltd Jamshedpur and shortly after was appointed chief chemist He remained with the company for the rest of his life becoming deputy technical director and finally technical adviser ( A 1924 F 1930) D 20 10 62 Andrew Picken Orr. B 6 8 1898 Ed University of Glasgow, 1919-22 He continued at the University to carry out research Later he was appointed a research chemist at the Scottish Marine Biological Association and remained there for the rest of his life At the time of his death he was the deputy director ( A 1923) D 19962 Komal Viswanatha Sundaram Ayyar.B 27 12 1894 Ed hladura College Trichinopoly 19 13-1 8 M Sc (Calcutta) He remained at the College as a demonstrator becoming a lecturer in chemistry in 1919 He joined the King Institute Guindy in I923 as a junior chemical assistant and was promoted to senior chemical assistant in 1928 senior assistant to the Government Analvst in 1933 and Government Analyst in 1936 a position which he held until his retirement in 1949 He was the first Hon Secretary of the Madras Section of the Institute of which he later became Chairman (4 1937 F 1945) D 18862 Edwin Percival Taylor.B 27 12 13 Ed Brighton Technical College 1930-35 B Sc Ph D (Lond ) He continued at the College as a lecturer until 1940 when he took a post as a works chemist at May & Baker Ltd Dagenham The following year he took a post as a works research chemist at Drake Law Lid, Stratford He joined the Royal Air Force in 1942 and saw service overseas On his release in 1946 he was appointed to the research staff of British Drug Houses Ltd where he remained until 1948 when he obtained a more senior post at Allen & Hanburys Ltd He later became head of the chemical research department a post which he held for the rest of his life He was the author or co-author of a number of papers in the scientific press ( A 1937 F 1955) D 22 962 Henry Frankland Taylor.B 17 6 1896 Ed Royal Technical Institute Salford 19 12-1 5 College of Technology Manchester, 1919-20 He joined Hardman & Holden Ltd Manchester in 1914 as a process control chemist After serving in the R N V R in 1918 he returned to Hardman & Holden Ltd as a research chemist until 1928 when he took a similar post at the Midland Tar Distillers Ltd In 1930 he joined the Manchester Oxide Go Ltd as a research chemist Later he returned to Hardman & Holden Ltd where he remained until his retirement in 1961 ( 4 1921 F 1929) D September 1962 John Watson. B 30 3 1886 Fd Armstrong College (now King’s College) Newcastle upon Tyne 1903-08 M Sc He served in H M Forces from 1915 to 1919 and was awarded the M C I n 1919 he was appointed technical manager of Thos ’Il‘atson & Son and in 1921 took a similar post a t the Northern Dyers Ltd In 1932 he joined Presco Ltd as technical manager, where he remained until his retirement in 1955 when he was technical director ( A 1918) D 1961 John George Webster.B 7 12 1893 Ed Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh 1920 24 He became an assistant chemist at the Yorth British Rubber Co Ltd 1915-20 On completion of his training at Heriot-Watt College in 1924 he remained at the College as a junior demonstrator Later he was promoted to demonstrator in chemistry a post which he held until his retirement in 1961 (1 1927) D 4 1 6 3 Thomas Sherlock Wheeler. B 30 4 1899 Ed Royal College of Science for Ireland Dublin 1916 20 Ph D (Lond ) D Sc (N U I ) He was appointed a demonstrator in chemistry at the Royal Technical College Glasgow in 1920 and thereafter became successively research chemist Royal Naval Cordite Factory Holton Heath and Research Department Woolwich, 192 1 senior research chemist Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd, horthwich 1928 Principal and Professor of Organic Chemistry, Royal Institute of Science Bombay 193 1 .State Chemist Repub-lic of Ireland 1939 In 1945 he was appointed Professor and Head of the Department of Chemistry at University College, Dublin a position which he held for the rest of his life His activities were numerous including member of the Senate, National University of Ireland Member of the Governing Body and Dean of Faculty of Science University College Dublin, Member of Governing Body School of Theoretical Physics, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies Member of Council, Royal Irish Academy and Royal Dublin Society Member of the Irish Government Peat and Chemical Boards and of Industrial Research and Standards Committees Past Present Irish Chemical M A D S 19631 THE REGISTER 149 Association ; Foundation Fellow (sometime a Vice-president), National Institute of Sciences of India.He was the author of a number of papers and patents. Hi. principal pastime was golf. ( A . 1920 F. 1924; Council 1951-54 Vice-president 1954-56) D. 13.12.62. Robert Lees Young. B. 9.6.08. Ed. Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh 1925-31. B.Sc.(Lond.). In 1933 he took a post as chemist at British Celanese Ltd and the following year became an analyst in the Coal Survey Laboratory Glaegow.In 1940 he left on his appointment as chief chemist at the Associated Lothian Coal Owners Ltd. He continued when the company was absorbed into the National Coal Board and at the time of his death was area coal preparation engineer Lothians area. ( A . 1931) D. 21.12.62. THE REGISTER NEW FELLOWS (P) FINCH Christopher Aspell MA D.PHIL. (OXON.) (P) LANDOR Stephen Robert B.SC. PH.D.(LOND.) D.I.C. (T) LLOYD Peter Frederick B.SC. PH.D. (BIRM) (0) MERCER Richard James B.SC. (WALES) (OG) PANDE Chandra Shekhar M.SC. PH.D. (LUCK.) PH.D. (LOND.) ASSOCIATES ELECTED TO THE FELLOWSHIP BUDGE John Edward BSC. (WALES) BUTLER Edward Joseph MA D.PHIL. (OXON.) CHISNALL Thomas Donald B.SC. (LOND.) A.K.C. CHUBB Leslie George M.SC. PH.D. (LOND.) COIJLSON Charles Barrie M.SC.(SHEFF.) DR.NAT.SCI. FELIX Richard Ieuan F.P.s. M.B.I.M. FLEMIN( Garrett Ahern M.sc.(N.c.I.) FRAZER Malcolm John BSC. PH.D.(LOND.) Goucir. Charles Chamberlain HAINES Robert Markham MA. D.PHIL. (OXON.) HEAD Malcolm .John B.SC.(R’DG) PH.D.(ABERD.) M.I.BIOL. HEANEY Harry B.A. (KEELE) PH.D. (MAWC.) HEATII. Peter B.SC.(LOND.) JOLLY. Stephen Claude B.SC.(LOND.) B.PHARM. M.P.S. JONES David Morris BSC. PH.D. (WALES) DIP.ED. TAVENIIER Ronald Morris LINES Michael George B.SC. PH.D. (WALES) LLOYI) Douglas Mathon Gent B.SC. (BRIST.) MANSFIELD Geoffrey Harry B.SC. PH.D. (MANC.) OUBRIDGE John Oliver Victor B.sC. P1i.D. (LOND.) PERKINS Walter Manuel Temple M.SC. ( LOND.) A.R.c.s., KIDGWAY Leslie Randal M.SC. PH.D.(MANC.) F.I.R.I. ROBERTS Percy Ronald BSC.( MANC. ) A.M.B.I.M. ROBERTSON Walter Munro BSC. (LOND.) ROBINSON William BSC. ( LOND.) Ross John Alexander B.SC. ( DURH.) A.P.I. SLATLR John Philip B.SC. (LEEDS) STONL Ronald George B.SC.(LOND.) TREMAZI Sultan Ahmad M.SC.AGRIC. PH.D. (PANJAB), (PRAGUE) PH.J).(WAI.ES) D.I.C. M.I.CI1EM.E. M.S. (TEXAS) NEW ASSOCIATES BELL Peter Fawcett B.SC.(LEEDS) BURN Alan Jack B.SC. PH.D.(LOND.) CLARK John Colin B.SC. PH.D.(S’TON) EDGAR Ian B.SC.(MANC.) EVERETT Kenneth B.SC. ( NOTT.) FISHER Derek George B.SC. PH.D.(LEEDS) FLOWERS William Thain M.A. (CANTAB.) FOWLER Brian B.SC. ( DURH.) GILLAM Keith Alfred B.SC.(LIV.) GREEN David Edward BSC. (NOTT.) (OD) HALEEM Mohammed Abdul,’ M.SC. (osM.) PH.D. (DURH.) (€3) HAMILL John Augustine B.SC. (BELF.) HANSON Richard Wadsworth B.SC.PH.D. (EXE.) HARRISON Charles Robert B.A. (CANTAB.) HARVEY James Frederick B.SC. (LOND.) HERRON Raymond Craig B.SC. PH.D. (BELF.) HORNCASTLE Douglas Colin John M.SC. (WALES) JOHNSON Brian John B.SC. ( LEEDS) *JONES David Alan Kenneth M.SC. PH.D. (MANC.) KELLETT John Raymond B.SC. ( LOND.) LANG Terence Charles B.SC. (LOND.) MANCHANDA Ashok Harish B.SC. (Box) M.SC. (LOND. MAYS Martin Joshua B.A. (CANTAB.) PARFITT James Quested B.SC.(BRIST.) PATHAN Habibkhan Rahimkhan M.SC. (GUJAR.) RAMANATHAN Arumbakam Xageswarier B.A. (ANNAM. ROBINSON William Victor B.SC. (HULL) ROSS William James B.SC. PH.D.(LIV.) SARMA Pattamadai Subramania Nataraja M.A. B.SC. SETHI Satya Paul M.SC.(BOM.) SHET Ramakant Tukaram B.SC. M.SC.TECH. (BOM.) SILVER Herbert Graham BSC.(LOND.) SMITH James B.SC. PH.D.(ABERD.) STEWART John Hill B.SC.(BELF.) SCNDARAM Kantha Maran Soma MA. MSC. PILD. TAM Shang M’ai M.SC. (H.K.) THOMAS Ieuan Jenkin B.A. (OXON.) \TATSON Paul B.SC.(MANC.) ~ ~ ‘ I L D I N G Peter B.SC. ( BIRM) D.I.C. M.SC.(MANC.) (MADR.) (ANNAM.) PH.D. (SYD.) GRADUATE MEMBERS ELECTED TO THE ASSOCIATESHIP CLAMP Anthony Charles A.C.T. (BIRM) COLMAN Carol Helena B.SC. (BRIST.) CROSBY Thomas Spain B.SC. (MANC.) CURTIS Murray Francis B.SC. (LOND.) DAY Russell M‘illiam DELVES Hugh Trevor A.C.T. (LIV.) DEWIIURST Brian Bernard DRUCE Thomas Gordon FISHER Keith GABBOTT Peter Anthony B.SC. (WALES) GILBERT Andrew U.L.C. GRIMWOOD Brian Edwin B.SC.(LOND.) GRUNDY Bryan HAYES Gerald A.R.T.C.S. HOLLAND Frank Stanley HOUSTON Robert Scott B.SC. (LOND.) HUGIIES John Gwynne D.L.C. HUTTON Robert Christopher B.SC. (BIRM) JONES Kenneth Morgan B.SC. PH.D. ( WALES) KILLOH David Charles KIRKBY Ernest Arnold B.SC. (DURII.) LEATHER Edward Harry LETON Garrick Barilee BSC. (LOND.) MCLINDEN Hugh Gerard A.R.C.S.T. (GLAS.) (WW) MORRISON James Bryce A.H.-w.c. A.M.INST.F. (P) NESS Norman Morin (0) YWMAN David John (P) ~ I C O L S O N Norman Derek (0) (h) OGDEN Brian Anthony (0) ROWLAND Ronald (P) STEVENS David John B.SC.(R’DG) (L) THACKRAY Arnold Wilfred B.SC. (BRIST.) (0) TIPLADY Arthur (P) VINCENT Alan B.SC. ( LOND.) (X) WARD John Junior B.SC.(DURH.) (G) WESTMAN Kevin DIP.TECH. (Q) M OOD Allen A.R.T.C.S. NIXON Kenneth Edwin B.SC. PH.D.(DURH.) (0) MIHITEHEAD Norman NEW LICENTIATES ASTON Michael William A.c.T. A.P.I. (C) (U) ATKIN John Alan Robi JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY BAILEY Norman Terence B.SC. (LOND.) M.SC. (BIRM) BARRACLOUGH David James BATCHELOR Reginald Francis BATES Raymond Edward BENSON Ralph Hubert BOOKER Donald Ivor Joseph BRINDLEY David James BROMLEY Alan Frank BUTTERWORTH Doris Emily CARE David Alan John CARRIVICK Ronald George CHAPMAN Colin Richard CHILDS Brian A.M.INST.F. A.M.I.GAS E. CLARKE Kenneth Frederick CLAYTON Ronald Fraser CLEGG Malcolm COATES Alfred William COHEN Frank B.SC.(WALES) COLLIN Ernest Lee COOK George COOPER Roger James CRAWFORD Robert B.SC. (EDIN.) CURTIS Bryan William DICK Thomas Brown DISHLEY John Thomas Edward DUNNING Kenneth Henry ELFORD Eric Dennis ELLIOTT Harold John James B.SC. (LOND.) FEINER Henry FULLER Michael John GOCHER Raymond George B.SC. (LOND.) GRAVES Eric Leonard GRAY George Alexander GREEN Gerald Alfred GREEN Harry Cave HAMILTON Alan David Christie B.A. (CANTAB.) HARFLEET Norman Bert HARRIS Jack HOLT John Richard HOSKING Dylla Esther Mabel B.SC. (LOND.) HOWARTH Edward HUGHES Philip Graham HUTCHINSON Richard Norman JOHNS Derek William B.SC. (DURN.) JOLLES Giosue Igal B.SC. (LOND.) JORDAN Peter Lewis LOWE Robert Davis MCDONALD Eric MOLLOY Joseph MORRIS Leslie Heber M.A. (OXON.) Moss Henry Salter MOWAT Joy Isobel B.SC.(GLAS.) OLDFIELD Brian Wilfrid PALLETT Anthony George PARKER Geoffrey PASCOE Victor George PEYTON Anthony B.SC. (LOND.) PRATT Andrew Johannes Alexander B.SC. (LOND.) PRATT John Wesley PRIOR Kingsley Roy ROBERTS Brian Charles SHIRLEY Marcus Bernard B.SC. ( LOND.) A.M.INST.F., SIDDALL Raymond Eric SILBURN Keith B.A. (CANTAB.) SMITH Arthur James Gordon STAFF Francis Adam STICHBURY Yvonne STROTHER John Kirby B.SC. (DURH.) SUTTON John Frank Hoad SWATRIDGE Peter James THOMAS Richard David B.SC.(LOND.) TUNE Arthur UNNI T. N. Madhavan B.SC.(MADR.) VATCHER Peter Wesley WALKER Christopher WATERS Edward Nicholas B.SC. (LOND.) WILLIS Robert Ralston A.F.INST.PET. WILSON John Peter YEARRON Douglas Robert B.SC.(EXE.) YOUNG Anne Elizabeth B.PHARM. (NOTT.) NEW GRADUATE MEMBERS BARNATT Allen B.SC. (DURH.) BRISDON Brian John B.SC. (S'TON) BURDEN Peter BURROW Peter Dixon BUTTERWORTH John Stuart CAMERON David CARTER John Keith M.B. B.s. PH.D.(LOND.) COMBE Edward Charles B.SC.(BELF.) COOPER Bryan Ewart DUKE Brian James B.A.(OXON.) EDWARDS John BX. (WALES) FAIRHURST Frank Lawson FERN Colin Wilson DIP.TECH. FOLLOWS Gordon William DIP.TECH. HARDISTY Edward William DIP.TECH. HARRISON George David HEY Austin Edward HUNT Kenneth George DIP.TECH. IRWIN JYilliam Derek English B.SC. (BELF.) JUDD Barry Thomas B.SC. (SHEFF.) KERSHAW Stuart KING Jane Elizabeth Mary B.SC. (LOND.) LENTON Michael Vincent DIP.TECH. MACNAB Robert Marshall B.SC. (ST AND.) MANSFIELD Gillian Patricia B.SC. (LOND.) MILLS Roger Crockford B.SC. (DURH.) MURRAY Stewart Alexander DIP.TECH. NEWMAN Ronald Vernon NU" Peter Bruce B.SC.(LOND.) PARKER Martin Arthur Caley B.SC.TECH. (MANC.) A.M.C.T. PARSONS William Henry PEARSON Alan John PRITCHARD Ivor David Lyn SLATER James Ross SUCKLING John VALE John Gordon WARD Brian Godfrey WARD George Arthur B.SC. (LEEDS) WARDALE Harold William B.SC. (LEIC.) WELCH Michael John B.SC.(BIRM) WILLIAMSON Barry James B.SC. (LOND.) WOOD Geoffrey Edmund DIP.TECH. DEATHS Fellows A . 1928 F. 1933. COOKSEY Arnold B.SC. (LOND.). Died 26 December, 1962 aged 59. ELLIS George William o.B.E. D.SC.(LOND.). Died 22 No-vember 1962 aged 80. A . 1918 F. 1922. JOHNSON Rowland Nicholas M.SC. (LOND.). Died 17 Sep-tember 1962 aged 64. A . 1922 F. 1936. PHILLIPS Reginald John. Died 2 I February 1963, aged 64. A . 1922 F. 1925. PORTER James Walker M.sc.(N.u.I.). Died 8 February, 1963 aged 73. SMITH Sydney William c.B.E. B.SC.(LOND.) HON. D.SC. (WITWATERSRAND). Died 30 January 1963 aged 84. F. 1921. WILLEY George Brydon. Died 30 December 1962, aged 82. F. 1919. YOUNG John Henry M,SC.(MANC.). Died 9 March 1963, aged 85. F. 1918. A . 1915 F. 1918. Associates BETTS Brian Ernest B.SC. PH.D.(LOND.). Died 6 March, 1963 aged 28. A . 1961. CURRIE Alexander. Died 14 February 1963 aged 63. A . 1951. GRAHAM Frank Nelson B.SC.(LOND.) . Died 15 February, 1963 aged 61. A. 1922. POOLE Harold James c.B.E. D.SC. PH.D.(LOND.). Died 14 March 1963 aged 66. A . 1920