i. 104 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. Chemistry of Vegetable Physiology and Agriculture. Gomparative Effects of Phosphates and Sulphates on Soil Bacteria. E. B. FRED and E. B. HART (dgric. Exper. Stat. Uniu. Wisco"itsiiz Research Bull. 35 191 5).-Ammonification occurs with peptone in solutions and with casein in soils both with pure and mixed cultures. Addition of potassium dihydrogen phosphate to peptone solu- tion greatly increased the production of ammonia especially a t the end of the second day whilst precipitated calcium phosphate stimulated ammonia production in five-day liquid cultures. With tricalcium phosphate or bone-ash there was no increase of ammonia in peptone solutions. Calcium and potassium sulphates slightly increased ammonifica- tion the latter being the more effective.Addition of potassium dihydrogen phosphate results in an enormous increase in the numbers of bacteria followed by a rise in ammonia production which however is not in proportion to the number of bacteria. I n the soil experiments dipotassium hydrogen phosphate stimu- lated ammonification and cell production whilst tricalcium plios- phate gave a slight increase. All phosphates especially di- potassium phosphate increased the numbers of bacteria. Addition of sulphates and phosphates to soil imreased the pro- duction of carbon dioxide ; with ammonium sulphate the increase was very great. The results indicate that the increased crop production following an application of soluble phosphates is partly due to increased bacterial activity. With increased animonification the plantsVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRlCULTURE.i. 105 obtain more available nitrogen and with increased production of carbon dioxide more available mineral nutrients. Further Investigations on the Proteolytic Activity of Lactic Organisms. I. Influence of the Temperature. CONSTANTINO GORINI (Atti €2. Accncl. Lincei 191.5 [v] 24 ii 369-376).-Further experiments confirm the author’s previous result (.4 nn. Himo- graphie 1897 9 433) that’ the decompositions of the lactose and of the casein of milk by one and the same bacterium are related t o the temperature conditions the lactose being attacked prefer- ably a t a comparatively high temperature whilst peptonisation of the casein occurs best a t a low temperature. All functions of any given organism have therefore not the same optimum temperature.The supposed connexion between the morphology and the physio- logical activity of lactic organisms is found t o be untenable. N. H. J. &I. T. H. P. A New Nitrite-forming Organism. N. V. JOSHI (Jfeem. Dept. Agric. Itidin Rnct. Ser. 1915 1 85-96).-The organism which differs morphologically from those hitherto described produces nitrites from ammoilium salts asparagine and carbamide ; in the case of ammonium carbonate and carbamide the presence of calcium carbonate seems to retard the production of nitrites. Carbon dioxide up t o SO% and coal-gas stimulate the organism whilst dextrose (0.1 gram) and asparagine (0.2 gram in 50 C.C. of Omelianski’s solution) have retarding effects. Magnesium carbonate is much less effective than calcium carbonate as a base for nitrite formation by the organism.The thermal death point of the organism is between 70° and SOo and tlie optimum temperature between 2 5 O and 35O. N. H. J. M. The Assimilation of Carbon Dioxide. RICHARD WILLST~TTER and ARTHUR SrroIIL (Ber. 1915 48 1540-1564).-The first portion of an investigation on the assimilation of carbon dioxide dealing with the rela€ion between the chlorophyll content and the assimi- latory activity of leaves. The method of experiment? was t o pass a current of air containing a known amount of carbon dioxide through a small illuminated glass chamber containing 5-20 grams of leaves a t constantl temperature< and t o determine the carbon dioxide in the issuing gas; a correction was made f o r the quantity of carbon dioxide found to be yielded by the leaves to a similar stream of air in the dark.It is found that the ratio of chlorophyll content t o assimilatory effect is not a constant one the most marked cases being with autumnal green leaves the assimilatory effect of which is relatively low and with leaves of yellow varieties poor in chlorophyll and etiolated leaves regaining their green colour which possess high assimilatory power. During tlie spring growth of the leaves also a gradual diminution occurs in the ratio of carbon dioxide assimi- lated per hour t o chlorophyll-content a similar difference also being observable in the comparison of young and old leaves.i. 106 ABSTRACl'S OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. Tlisse results are attributed to the existence of another factor probably enzyma.tic in the assimilation process.I n leaves rich in chlorophyll the r a t e of assimilation is almost independent of the degree of illumination within certain limits probably because in this case the chlorophyll effect outweighs that of the enzyme; rise in temperature with normal leaves increases the assimilation probably on account of the marked influence of temperature on the enzymatic process. With leaves poor in chlorophyll telmperature change between 15O and 30° causw little alteration in the assimi- latory proce'ss possibly owing t o the enzyme exerting its full effect on the chlorophyll. The duty of the enzyme may be to facilitate the decomposition of an intermediate compound of chlorophyll and carbon dioxide with liberation of oxygen.Swelling and Germination of Plant Seeds. I. TRAUBE and T. MARUSAWA (Intern. Zeitsch. phy:.-chem. Biol. 1915 2 370-393). -The influence of non-electrolytes salts acids and bases on the swelling of starchy seeds such as barley is essentially the same as that exerted on pure starch (see Samec A. 1915 i 76). Bases greatly increase the swelling whilst indifferent narcotics such its ethers and alcohols have only a slight accelerating action. Glycerol sugars salt's acids and the capillary-active higher fatty acids usually inhibit the imbibition phenomenon. Peas and othe'r seeds containing relatively larger quantities of protein are more affected by khe added substances than starchy seeds. The narcotics have an inhibitory action on such seeds possibly due t o their coagulating action on the proteins.The effect of the added substances on germination is usually determined by their action on the enzymes concerned in the germination processes. Indifferent narcotics anzsthetise the enzymes and delay germination and after the removal of the narcotic? germination may proceed undisturbed although in many cases evidence of permanent injury is apparent. When acids are employed germination and growth are usually permanently inhi- bited when a certain limit in concentration is overstepped. I n minute traces however certain acids such as citric acid decidedly increase the rate of germination. The processes of germination and growth are often affected t o different degrees by the added substances. The capillary-active higher fatty acids are specially injurious to germination. The effects of nume'rous bases salts alkaloids and dyes on germination and growth have also been studied.Rate of Absorption of Various Phenolic Solutions by Seeds of Hordeum vulgare and the Factors Governing the Rate of Diffusion of Aqueous Solutions across Semipermeable Mem- branes. ADRIAN J. BROWN and FRANK TINKER (Proc. Roy. SOC. 1915 [ B ] 89 119-135. Compare A. 1909 ii 386; 1912 ii 1086).-Barley seeds were steeped in water and in N / 2-phenolic solutions a t 19O and a t 32*2O and in solutions of phenol of various strengths (N/2 t o N / 3 2 ) a t 2 2 ' 6 O . The increase in weight was ascertained at intervals. D. F. T. H. W. B.VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOUY AND AGRICULTURE. i. 107 The results obtained with N/2-solutions a t 19O showed a gradual falling off in the rate of absorption as the equilibrium point is reached.With the exception of pyrogallol the phenols showed a marked accelerating effect as compared with wabr the greatest effect being produced by phenol then by catechol resarcinol and quinol in the order as given. A t the higher temperature absorp- tion was much more rapid and the equilibrium was attained in two or three days instead of six or seven days. The relative rates with the different solutions remained however the same. With the different concentrations of phenol the rate of absorp- tion decreases with increased dilution and with the N/SZ-solution the results were practically the same as with water. Estimations of the surface tensions of the phenolic solutions a t the diff ersnt temperaturw employed showed a close relationship with the corresponding absorption constants the order in magni- tude of the latter being the same as the inverse order of the former; so that the product of the surface tension and the absorp- tion constant is practically constant.The conclusion is drawn that when osniotic pressures vapour pressures and viscosities of a series of solutions of permeable solutes are equal their rates of diffusion across the barley membrane are inversely proportional t o their surf ace tensions. N. H. J. M. Osmotic Pressure in Plants. IV. Constituents and Con- centration of the Sap in the Conducting Tracts and on the Circulation of Carbohydrates in Plants. HENRY H. DIXON and W. R. G. ATKINS (Sci.Proc. Roy. Dziblin Soc. 1915 [N.S.] 14 374-392).-1n t.he sap in the tracheae of the trees examined mono- or di-saccharides or both are found a t all times usually in greater amounts than electrolytes. The greatest concentration of sugars occurs in the early spring after which there is a rapid dilution for which the rise in transpiration is largely responsible so that a minimum concentration occurs in summer or autumn. Through the winter there is a rise in concentration culminating iu the vernal maximum which coincides with the period of greatmt root-pressure. The upward conveyance of carbohydrates of which sucrose seems to be the most important' is a continual and primary function of the trachm; whilst the sheath of wood parenchymz round the vessels functions as a gland t o secrete carbohydrates into the rising transpiration stream.The presence of large quantities of Carbohydrates in the wood- sap of roots is probably responsible f o r root-pressure and bleeding. I n the evergreen Zlex and the sub-evergreen Cotoneaster the concentration curves of solutes show smaller fluctuations than those of deciduous trees. The concentration of the carbohydrates is usually greater in the trachez of the stem than in the roots except during the summer. I n Zlex however the concentration in the root is the greater except in winter. The columns of the tracheids may be supposed t o afford a permanent channel for the water and salts and to a less degree for organic substances. N. H. J. M.i. 108 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. Osmotic Pressure in Plants V.Seasonal Variations in the Concentration of the Cell-sap of some Deciduous and Evergreen Trees. HENRY H. DIXON and W. R. Q. ATKINS (Sci. Proc. Roy. Dubl. Soc. 1915 [N.S.] 14 445-461).-The osniotic pressure of tissues is mainly due t o dissolved carbohydrates and the variations in the pressure are t o a great extent caused by fluctuations in the amount of carbohydrates in the sap and in a smaller degree to changes in the concentration of the electrolytes. I n the case of leaves there is a progressive rise in osmotic pres- sure due t o accumulation of eldxolytes; whilst in the one root which was examined i t was found t o be due t o the concentration of carbohydrates. The osmotic pressure of Syriuga vulgaris (deciduous) rose irre- gularly from about 13 atm. a t the opening of the buds t o a maximum of about 18 atm.in August. In the case of the evergreens Zlex nquifolium and Hedern helix the osmotic pressure in the leaves was greater in the winter months than in the summer. The osmotic pressure of the sap in the roots of I . apifolium rose from a minimum of about 6 atm. in October to a maximum of 14 atm. in September. There was no concentration of electrolytes in these root's due t o age and the increased osmotic pressure in the older roots is evidently due' to increased concentration of the carbohydrates. N. H. J. M. Studies in Permeability. 11 Effect of Temperature on the Permeability of Plant Cells to the Hydrogen Ion. WALTER STILES and INGVAR J~RGENSEN ( A m . Bot. 1915 29 G11-618).- From the results of experiments with potato discs the conclusion is drawn that the absorption of the hydrogen ion of hydrochloric acid in dilute solution by potlato cells takes place according t o a simple exponential relation betwelen time and the concentration of the acid.The rate of absorption is increased about 2.2 times for a rise of loo between Oo and 30°. N. H. J. M. Presence in Plants of Hmmatoid Compounds of Iron. 11. G. GOLA (Atti R. Accnd. Liizcei 1915 [vl 24 ii 289-291. Compare A. 1915 i 926).-In order tot obtain the h;ematoid compounds of iron of plants in a pure condition advantage is taken of the solubility of their picrates. Froin these the picric acid may be removed by treatment with water or by solution in sodium hydrogen carbonate solution and subsequent acidification with acetic acid. A large number of vegetable organisms of different kinds have been examined and the results show that the occurrence of organic compounds of iron may be regarded as general.The principal propezties of t,hese compounds are as follows They are soluble in aqueous alkali solutions but not in dilute acids and they yield picrates soluble in neutral solvents and are soluble in pyridine after they have been detached from the protein molecule. Their iron is removed by the action of aqueous alkali in the hot but they are resistant t o hot aqueous acids and t o alkali even a t 240O. Wit11 hot alcoholic hydrogen chloride they give compounds whichVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE. i. 109 still contain iron and have some of the characters of haemin.When heated with zinc dust or aluminium they yield pyrrole derivatives. I t is probable therefore that plants contain iron compounds which are chemically and perhaps also biologically analogous t o €hose characteristic of the blood pigments of many animals. T. H. P. Pigments of Fruits in Relation to some Gienetic Experiments on Gapsicurn Annuum. W. R. G. ATICINS and G. 0. SHERRAHD (Sci. Proc. Roy. Dubl. Xoc. 1915 [N.S.] 14 328-365).-1n Capsicum fruit,s red is dominant t o yellow and seems to be a simple dominant to chocolate and orange. I n unripe fruits the different shades of green are due t o variations in the numbers of chromatophores in each cell. The red and chocolate pigmeats form oily liquids and also differ from lycopin carotin and xanthophyll by dissolving readily in cold alcohol and light petroleum.The solutions become colourless when evaporated in daylight. The amount of pexoxydase in the' fruits seems to diminish during ripening. It is frequently present only in the epidermis whilst the defeper tissues contain a strongly reducing in hibitor. N. H J. M. Content of Amylase in Ripening Seeds of Horse Beans. A. BLAGOVESCHTSCHENSKI ( J . Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc. 1915 47 1529-1532).-Examination of the seeds of Vicia faba L. var. minor a t different stages of their maturation shows t h a t the amount of amylase present changes approximately in the same way as the rate of accumulation of staxch. This result is regarded as a proof of the synthesising action of the amylase in the ripening seeds the apparent incompleteness of the parallelism between rate of synthesis and amount of enzyme being due to the loss of some of the starch from the assimilatory organs.T. H. P. Oxydases and their Inhibitors in Plant Tissues. IV. The Flowers of Iris. W. R. G. ATKINS (Sci. PYOC. Roy. Dub]. Soc. 1915 [N.S.] 14 317-327).-The peroxydase reactions of related species of Iris are similar although the distribution and amount of anthocyanin may be very different. Active peroxydase is absent in the Pogoniris group whilst the reactions are usually well marked in the Xiphion group; in the Apogon group the distribution varies. When negative results are obtained by the usual method the presence of the enzyme can be shown by treatment with hydrogen cyanide or toluencwater which removes an inhibitor probably by diffusion since the protoplasm is rendered permeable by the reagents.When the flowers are kept in darkness the quantity of active peroxydase increases; in one case organic peroxide was produced. It is not possible to correlate the distribution of peroxydase and anthocyanin in Iris owing perhaps to complications introduced by inhibitors. N. H. J. M.i. 110 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. Formation of Alkaloids in Papaver Somniferum L. var. Nigrum and the Opium obtained from the Plant. L. VAN ITALLIE and J. A. VAN TOORENBURG (Phnmz. Weekblad 1915 52 1601-1 606).-The opium from Papver somniferum var. migrum contains thebaine narceine morphine codeine and papaverine but not narcotine. A. J. W. Odoriferous Substances of the Thorn-apple Datura Stra- monium.A. SIVOLOBOV (J. Russ. Phys. Chenz. SOC. 1915 47 15 61-15 69).-The products obtained on distilling disintegrated branches of Datura stramoniam including leaves flowers twigs and fruit cones with water consist principally of methyl and ethyl alcohols mixed with small proportions of trimethylcarbinol ( ?) aldehydes ketones and esters. The aldehydes comprise acetalde- hyde and probably formaldehyde propaldehyde isobutaldehyde and another of considerably higher boiling point. Acetone and another ketone of higher boiling point were found and esters of acetic and formic acids. The small proportion of odoriferous sub- stances is explainable by their volatility which prevents any marked accumulation. T. H. P. Soil Gases. J. WALTER LEATHER (Mem. Dept. Agric.India Chem. Ser. 1915 4 S5-134).-By means of an attachment to a soil-boring cylinder the soil samples could be a t once completely enclosed and the whole of the contained gases could be pumped out. I n addi- tion to the total volumes of gas the amounts of argon nitrogen oxygen hydrogen and carbon dioxide were estimated. Argon was estimated because its ratio to the oxygen or nitrogen in soil gases would show whether these gases had been liberated or combined. When rain falls on a dry soil the volume of gas displaced is not necessarily the same as the volume of water. I n the wettest weather it was found that the soil contained about half as much gas as in hot drx weather. Gases from swamp rice soils were found to contain large amounts of nitrogen in relation to argon indicating liberation of soil nitrogen very little oxygen and considerable amounts of hydrogen and methane.Gases in the neighbourhood of roots contained high percentages of carbon dioxide and commonly contained hydrogen but not methane. Analyses of gases from soils during active nitrification showed normal instead of low amounts of oxygen. These results and others obtained in nitrification experiments in closed vessels seem to point to a rapid diffusion of gases through soil. The conclusion is drawn t'hat tillage of the soil is unnecessary as far as aeration is concerned and that the value of good cultiva- tion must be due t o other effects. N. H. J. M. Adsorption of Potassium and Phosphate Ions by Typical Soila of the Connecticut Valley. HOBERT H. BOGUE (J.Physical Chem. 1915 19 665-695).-The adsorption of phosphate and potassium ions by four typical soils from the Connecticut valleyVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE. i. 111 has been exhaustively studied. The soils examined were a Windsor sand a Podunk fine sandy loam a Connecticut meadow silt loam and a Suffield clay. The soils were thoroughly leached with water to remove any soluble salts and then placed in a nickel tube and solutions of potassium chloride and monocalcium ortho- phosphate CaH4(P0& of known strength were allowed to perco- late through them. The change in concentration of the potassium and phosphate ions was determined colorirnetrically. The results of the investigation are expressed in tables and curves. The main results are in agreement with previous work of Cameron Schreiner Failyer and Schloesing.It is shown that when soils are leached the concentration of phosphate and potassium ions in the soil extract approaches a constant value which appears to be fixed and definite for any given soil. When soils are subjected to the action of soluble potassium and phosphate salts the concentration of these salts in the soil extract is a t first not materially increased owing to the power of the soils to adsorb these salts but as adsorp- tion proceeds it becomes weaker and a point is finally reached where the amount of soluble salts extracted in the soil extract is nearly equivalent to the amount applied. The concentration of the potassium and phosphate ions in the soil extract approaches a low constant which appears to be fixed and definite for each soil when only a part of the adsorbed ions has been removed by the leaching action of water.The constants attained by the four soils by the leaching action of water are very nearly alike which seems to indicate that the concentration of the potassium and phosphate ions in the soil solutions of the various soils were practically the same and not a t all dependent on the amount of adsorbed potassium or phosphate they originally contained. This indicates that the concentration of salts in soils is largely dependent on the specific adsorptive capacity of the individual soils. These results tend t o disprove the theory that the composition of the soil moisture and hence the adsorptive capacity of the soil is determined primarily by the composition of the soil.They tend to prove that this quality is dependent on the mechanical texture of the soil. Further since these soils continue to adsorb small amounts of potassium and phosphate ions long after the approximate point of saturation has been reached and they continue to lose potassium and phosphate ions in small amounts long after the soluble forms must have been entirely leached outt and as the latter point is reached long before all the previously adsorbed potassium and phosphate ions have been leached out it would appear that the soils were able to take up these ions from the solution in two distinct ways first by saturating itself with the ions these undergoing no chemical change and thus remaining readily soluble and easily leached out; and secondly by interacting with the salts producing insoluble compounds which are slowly reconverted into soluble compounds on treatment with water.J. F. S. Field Test with a Toxic Soil Constituent Vanillin. J. J. SKINNER (U.S. Dept. Agric. B?ill. 164 1915).-The results of poti. 112 ABSTRACTS OF CHEMICAL PAPERS. experiments in which clover was grown in soil containing 100 mg. per kilo. of vanillin increased by subsequent additions t o 300 mg. showed a reduction in yield of 53%. Similar experiments with wheat showed injurious effects in two soils (sand and sandy loam respectively) whilst in a third soil (loam) no injurious effects were observed. Experiments were also made with different plants grown on small plots. The soil was a silty clay loam of an acid nature with a low percentage of organic matter.Vanillin was applied the day before sowing the seed and three other applications were made the total amount added being 320 kilos. per hectare. ThO final results showed considerable reductions in the yields of cow peas garden peas and string beans. It was found that the soil when kept for six months after the application of vanillin was still harmful to the respective crops. N. H. J. M. The Solubility of the Phosphoric Acid in Powdered Thomas Slag on Repeated Extraction with Water Containing Carbon Dioxide. J. G. MASCHHAUPT (Chew. Zentr. 1915 ii 552; from Verslag. L a n d bouw kwad. Onderxoelc. Ry ks land boziwproefstat. 19 15 41 pp.).-The amount of phosphoric acid which can be extracted from powdered Thomas slag by water containing carbon dioxide depends largely on the relative quantities of the solid and liquid phases. If this relation is fairly constant the' more' marked is the effect of the free lime and calcium silicate present on the solu- bility of the phosphoric acid.Slag- powder characterised by a high solubility with respect t o citric acid gives a higher yield of phos- phoric acid in the earlier extractions but after a certain number of extractions all samples exhibit similar behaviour as to the solu- bility of the remaining phosphoric acid. The content of free lime determined by extraction with a sugar solution is higher in samples of low solubility towards citric acid whilst the content of calcium silicate is higher in samples showing the same characteristic. The varying content of free lime can only in a small degree be responsible for the variable solubility in citric acid because although the removal of the lime raises the percentage of phos- phoric acid extracted by 2% citric acid or by water containing carbon dioxide the differences still persist' and therefore are possibly to be referred to double salts of calcium silicate and calcium phosphate. The results do not indicate any definite relation between the solubility in water containing carbon dioxide and in citric acid considerable differences being observed in the behaviour on the first extraction with the former solvent with samples the difference between which is only slight as measured by the citric acid test. D. F. T.