The pharmacokinetics of furosemide (frusemide) in patients with oedema have been relatively well studied, but in many studies it is unclear whether the disease or the oedemaper sehas the major effect. The rate of absorption of oral furosemide in patients with oedema was decreased, but total bioavailability was almost unchanged. The peak serum concentration (Cmax) and time taken to achieve Cmaxwere either decreased or unchanged. Binding of furosemide to plasma proteins is lower in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF), decompensated liver cirrhosis (DLC) and nephrotic syndrome, probably as a result of hypoalbuminaemia. The elimination half-life (t½) can be unchanged (CHF, DLC) or prolonged (chronic renal failure: CRF). Plasma and renal clearance are reduced in patients with CRF and nephrotic syndrome, but are almost unchanged in CHF and DLC. Disease-induced disorders are mainly responsible for the alterations of furosemide pharmacokinetics in oedematous conditions, while the influence of oedemaper seis probably not clinically relevant.The pharmacokinetics of digoxin have been studied in a small number of studies only. In patients with CHF, considerable interindividual differences have been found. Because digoxin has a narrow therapeutic window, this drug should be administered cautiously to oedematous patients.Theophylline has higher bioavailability in patients with oedema, with a significantly higher Cmaxin patients with hepatic cirrhosis and CHF than in healthy volunteers (29 and 22%, respectively). Furthermore, clearance decreases and t½increases in these patients.Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are often administered as prodrugs, and their pharmacokinetic profile could be influenced by the diseases that accompany oedematous states. However, the effect of oedema is difficult to discriminate from that of the disease. Individual ACE inhibitors are affected differently, but importantly the dosage of perindopril should be reduced in patients with CHF, while for most other ACE inhibitors the changes in pharmacokinetic parameters are clinically irrelevant.In conclusion, studies on pharmacokinetic changes in oedema are limited. Besides affecting absorption (after oral administration) and conversion of the prodrug to the active form, probably as a result of the associated disease, oedema has not been proven to cause any clinically relevant changes in pharmacokinetic parameters for individual drugs. However, further studies of this aspect of pharmacokinetics are needed.