ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020402

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractSexually transmitted diseases newly introduced into diverse primitive and isolated populations have behaved differently in clinical severity and seriousness of the epidemics they have caused, because of culturally different sexual practices. Epidemic interstitial plasma cell pneumonia in the 1930s–1950s in eastern and northern Europe, caused byPneumocystis cariniiand accompanied by cytomegalovirus infection, was an unexpected AIDS‐like epidemic which spread slowly, then quickly and inexplicably disappeared. Newly recognized endemic HTLV‐I and epidemic HIV human retrovirus infections are behaving in a fashion similarly difficult to anticipate and pr

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020403

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe evolution of infectious disease can be understood from an ecological model that incorporates information from anthropology, epidemiology, and biomedicine. This model considers variables such as the pathogen, the host population, and the environment. In this model, the role that culture as well as other environmental variables plays in the transmission of infectious disease in human populations is considered. In addition, the sociocultural response and its impact on the disease process can be analyzed. The present AIDS epidemic is placed in an ecological and evolutionary context of the disease in hominid evolution. The interaction between Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and human populations is considered in this perspective. The ability of the virus to survive in semen and blood both increases as well as limits the possibility of transmission. Cultural practices that increase the transmission of blood and semen or increase sexual activity will obviously increase the potential risk of viral transmission. In societies that practice exchange of blood, blood transfusion, and where vaccinations with unclean needles exist or where there is intravenous (IV) drug use, the transmission of HIV by blood is enhanced. HIV which can cause a breakdown of the immunological system is paradoxically a very fragile pathogen. Replication occurs within T‐cells, an important part of the immunological system. Outside of the blood or semen the virus dies quickly. From the perspective of the pathogen's adaptation, the virus has effectively solved the problem of survival. The fragile virus's long incubation period and its ability to survive in the presence of antibodies help to assure its transmission. HIV's ability to suppress the immunological system may assure its immediate survival, but this adaptation may cause the death of its host from other opportunistic pathogens that are usually not letha

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020404

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractEpidemiologic studies indicate that the number of women and children with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection will continue to increase in the next decade. The impact of this aspect of the AIDS pandemic, including increased infant mortality, will be greatest in developing nations. The biologic properties of HIV, a lentivirus, complicate the strategies to alter the course of the pandemic. A long asymptomatic interval between initial infection and the onset of clinical disease, the ability of HIV to evade immune clearance, and the propensity for rapid mutation and selection of viral variants all favor survival of the virus over the host.

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020405

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractHuman Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV‐1) infection which causes the terminal Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is one of the major new pandemics of this millenium. This infection is believed to be a zoonosis which achieved sustained transmission among humans because of recent increases in sexual promiscuity and needle‐sharing drug use. Although the HIV‐1 epidemic is of relatively recent onset, its modes of transmission have been clearly defined: sexual relations, blood injection, and childbirth. Other possible transmission methods such as non‐sexual social interaction and insects have been explicitly excluded. Susceptibility is increased by genital ulcers and lack of male circumcision but probably not by genetic factors or female circumcision. Transmissibility is also increased by genital ulcers and, more importantly, by the stage of disease. Progression by stages to fatal diseases will probably occur in most, if not all, infected individuals, usually within a decade. While HIV‐1 has a direct effect on the intestinal track and the central nervous system, its primary effect is suppression of the immune system resulting in overwhelming secondary infections and, less clearly, cancers. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 infection is incurable and is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. Although life‐prolonging treatments have been developed, a vaccine will likely not be available in the foreseeable future. Like most previous new epidemic diseases, HIV‐1 infection is being and will continue to be modified by changing human beha

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020406

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe epidemiological characteristics of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in Africa are reviewed. Infection rates with human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV‐1) and human immunodeficiency virus 2 (HIV‐2) vary across the continent of Africa with the highest infection rates occurring in East and Central Africa. The primary pattern of infection with HIV‐1 is characterized by high rates of heterosexual vs. homosexual transmission, a low male to female sex ratio of cases, and high rates of pediatric AIDS. Cultural anthropologists have emphasized variation in human sexual behavior as an important factor in understanding the HIV epidemic. These studies have focussed on understanding the range of sexual risk behaviors present in different cultures and the cultural meanings of these behaviors. Biological anthropologists approach the study of human disease with an interest in human biological variation, evolutionary models, and the interface between biology and behavior. A Bioanthropology Research Agenda for AIDS is proposed which focuses on these three areas. Potential research domains for biological anthropologists include: human biological variation and cofactors of infection and disease, the evolutionary impact of HIV infection, and the interface between biology and behavior and the biological impact of behavior. Working with colleagues in other disciplines, biological anthropologists can assist in furthering understanding of the variables of HIV infection and di

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020407

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe spread of HIV through a population is influenced by many factors. These include the frequency and type of sexual activity, age distribution of the population, use of intravenous drugs and behaviors associated with their use, the pattern of infectivity of the virus during the several stages of the infection, geographic location, and the patterns of interaction among individuals and the context in which those interactions occur. A number of questions about the natural history and epidemiology of AIDS remain unanswered. Since the disease has only recently been recognized, historical data are unavailable to aid in answering these questions. Mathematical models provide one approach that can be of use in understanding the spread of the disease. Because of the complexity of the biology and epidemiology of AIDS, useful models must focus on specific aspects of the disease. In addition to a brief review of existing models for the spread of AIDS, a new model which incorporates the effects of social context operating at the time of a sexual encounter is described. The model considers the spread of the disease in a population of homosexual men divided into groups based on relative risk for the disease. Individuals are assigned to a specific group on the basis of their normal sexual activities, but they may take on the characteristics of a different risk group temporarily given the conditions operating when they engage in a sexual encounter. Results from preliminary analyses of the new model indicate that the major effects of incorporating social context include a decrease in the number of cases of the disease, sometimes by an order of magnitude or more, delayed spread of the disease, and a decreased impact of the disease on low and medium risk groups.

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020408

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractA hypothesis is developed that circulatory exposure to alloantigens found on lymphocytes triggers a series of events leading to suppression of the cell‐mediated arm of the immune system and, therefore, that such alloantigenic challenge can be an important cofactor promoting infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and development of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) following infection. The explanatory model that is developed is based in large part on current knowledge of the results of fetal lymphocyte alloantigenic challenge of the maternal immune system. It is our contention that the maternal response which leads to suppression of cell‐mediated immunity is a mechanism promoting survival of the fetal “allograft,” and that this mechanism is an evolutionary adaptation in humans and other placental mammals. We also hypothesize that circulatory exposure to these same alloantigens leads to an immunosuppressive state which enhances survival of HIV in an exposed individual and augments the immunosuppressive action of HIV in promoting progression to clinical AIDS. Findings from studies of individuals who are at risk for exposure to lymphocyte alloantigenic challenge and from HIV infected patients are reviewed and discussed in light of this hyp

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020409

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractHuman T‐cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV‐I), the first human retrovirus to be isolated, is the cause of endemic tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP). Originally, this chronic neurological disorder was described as a disease seen among blacks of low socioeconomic status living in tropical countries, and thus for many decades TSP remained a little known curiosity outside the endemic regions. The link between HTLV‐I infection and TSP was made fortuitously, when antibodies to HTLV‐I were found in serum and cerebrospinal fluid of TSP patients in Jamaica, Colombia, and Martinique. Soon thereafter a similar disorder, designated HTLV‐I associated myelopathy (HAM), was reported from southern Japan. This broadened the geographic and ethnic boundaries of this chronic myelopathy and the disease has now been reported in multiple ethnic groups from more than 40 countries, in both tropical and temperate regions. The name TSP/HAM is now used to include all patients (regardless of race or country of origin) who have HTLV‐I‐positive endem

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020410

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractHigh prevalences of antibodies against human T‐lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV‐I), as confirmed by Western immunoblot, were found in several remote indigenous populations of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu and in some isolated populations of New Guinea that had no contact with Japanese or Africans and little contact with Caucasians prior to our bleedings. By contrast, zero or very low prevalences of HTLV‐I infection were found in Guamanians and Carolinians, despite more than 30 years of intense contact with the Japanese. A total of 1,601 sera, collected between 1963 and 1981 from 21 population groups in the Western Pacific, was tested by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for IgG antibodies to HTLV‐I. By ELISA, prevalences of antibodies against HTLV‐I ranged from zero to 50%. Seropositivity could be confirmed in only 12.5% of 48 ELISA‐positive sera selected for testing by Western immunoblot. However, the confirmed HTLV‐I seroprevalences in some Melanesian populations were still as high as those found in HTLV‐I‐endemic regions, such as southwestern Japan and the Caribbean basin. HTLV‐I prevalences were similar among males and females, and acquisition of antibodies increased with age. Our data indicate that infections with HTLV‐I or a related retrovirus have been widespread in the southwestern Pacific for over 25 year in populations with minimal outside contact, while some populations which had extensive Japanese contact have no evidence of infection. Furthermore, based on the high frequency of indeterminate Western immunoblots, we conclude that in Melanesia this may represent either incomplete specific reactivity to HTLV‐I or the existence of an antigenic variant of HTLV‐I, distinct from prototype Japanese, American,

ISSN:1042-0533    

DOI:10.1002/ajhb.1310020411

出版商:Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company    

年代:1990

数据来源: WILEY