ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270402

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractA brief survey is given of the historical development of some of the more stable synthetic pyrethroids from the starting point of the natural pyrethrins. The main physico‐chemical, biological and toxicological properties of the synthetic pyrethroids are outlined as a background for the following papers. The importance of the pyrethroids in modern agricultural practice is stressed and areas of future application and development are discusse

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270403

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractPyrethroid insecticides are characterised by high knockdown and lethal activity, a wide spectrum, good residual activity, together with repellent and antifeeding activity. With these characteristics, pyrethroid insecticides have become widely used for plant protection. Their major use has been for the control of bollworms and leafworms in cotton but they have also achieved widespread use for controlling various species of lepidopterous pests in fruits and vegetables, aphids in cereals, and many other minor outlets. Although the early synthetic pyrethroids suffered from a lack of activity against mites and soil pests, later additions, such as fenpropathrin, have combined high acaricidal activity with insecticidal activity and further pyrethroids are being introduced for use in soil.The extent of pyrethroid use has increased progressively since the first of the ‘photostable’ pyrethroids was registered. In 1986, the market share of pyrethroids reached 25 % of the total insecticide market for plant protection; this figure can be increased in the fut

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270404

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe last 40 years has seen significant evolution of the synthetic pyrethroids from their relatively restricted usage in domestic fly and mosquito control to their adoption in all major areas of public health pest control. The use of the synthetic pyrethroids in national and international control campaigns and in village level self‐help pest‐control schemes for major disease vectors such as mosquitoes, tsetse and blackfly is examined. Their successful introduction into the urban public health sector for control of cockroaches, fleas, bedbugs and lice, etc., is revie

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270405

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractPyrethroids are a class of lipophilic insecticide very easily degraded in the natural environment. The two main routes of degradation, photo‐ and biodegradation, are often superimposed. Pyrethroids developed for use in agriculture are much more photostable than the natural pyrethrins or early synthetic derivatives but they are still sensitive to sunlight, which triggers many alterations such as isomerisation or ester cleavage. The basic pathways of pyrethroid metabolism include hydrolysis of the central ester linkage and oxidation of both acid and alcohol moieties. The rate of these metabolic transformations and the nature of the metabolites depend mainly on the organism involved. Birds and mammals metabolise and excrete more rapidly than insects and fishes. In plants, initial metabolic processes are identical to those known in animals. In soil, pyrethroids undergo the same type of transformation, hydrolysis and oxidation. Neither degradation products nor intact parent compounds are leache

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270406

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe discovery and development of the pyrethroid insecticides represents a major advance in the techniques of crop protection and disease vector control. These compounds combine outstanding efficacy against a broad spectrum of noxious insects with low toxicity to birds and mammals. This paper considers the effects of pyrethroids on other components of the terrestrial non‐target fauna, with particular reference to effects on ‘beneficial’ organisms, including natural pest‐control agents, pollinators, and organisms responsible for the maintenance of soil structure and fertility. This paper uses laboratory and field data to identify which groups of organisms may be potentially at risk from the use of pyrethroids, and draws on extensive field data to consider the significance of such hazards under conditions of normal use. Emphasis will be placed throughout on the evaluation of these compounds under practical conditions, including both crop and non‐crop usages. Limitations to, and opportunities for, the use of pyrethroids are discussed, and the potential for further development is c

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270407

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractUnder laboratory conditions, in water without particulate matter, pyrethroid insecticides have a high toxicity to fish and some aquatic invertebrates. The pyrethroids are of very low water solubility/high lipophilicity, and therefore are rapidly and strongly adsorbed to particulate material. In the adsorbed state their bioavailability to aquatic organisms is greatly reduced. Consequently, under field conditions the aquatic impact of these insecticides is likely to be much less than might be predicted by laboratory acute or chronic toxicity test data.Over the past 10 years a large number of aquatic field studies have been carried out with pyrethroids, in natural farm ponds, streams and lakes and also in mesocosms (experimental ponds and enclosures). Recent investigations, to meet the requirements of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, have been most extensive. These studies, done in replicated experimental ponds of at least 0‐04 ha, each require at least 20 man‐years of effort.Following agricultural applications of the pyrethroid insecticides, spray‐drift or run‐off may cause minor effects upon some aquatic organisms. Algae, microorganisms, annelids, gastropods and fish are all unaffected, but some impact may occur upon certain zoo‐plankton and on aquatic stages of insects. However, with products for which realistic field studies have been reported, the effects are mostly transient and are unlikely to cause adverse changes in the populations or productivity of aquatic e

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270408

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractInsecticide resistance management (IRM) is a component of integrated pest management (IPM) that has the goal of forestalling resistance development to all insecticides. Since the advent of the organochlorine insecticides in the 1940s, an average of about one class of insecticide has been lost every 10 years because of resistance. Effective insecticides are necessary for optimum IPM and are too important and too expensive a resource to be lost so rapidly. By adhering to the principles of IPM and utilizing other IPM components such as biological and cultural control, IRM has the potential of conserving the susceptibility of pests to insecticides. Although initial attempts of IRM appear to be successful, it is imperative that research to undergird IRM be greatly accelerated.

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270409

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractPyrethroid insecticides effect excellent control of a wide range of insect pest species at low cost to the user. In outlets where a broad spectrum of pests occur, alternative compounds are often more expensive and frequently have to be combined to provide an acceptable spectrum of control. The benefits of the pyrethroids have led to their extensive and often exclusive use in many of these outlets around the world. However, such dependency on a single class of chemistry brings with it the attendant threat of resistance. Pyrethroid resistance has now been documented in many species of insect around the world and for several of these, changing to other insecticides has meant large increases in the cost of control programs.Analysis of the US insecticide market has shown that in 1987 the average insecticide cost to a mid‐south cotton grower was $32 acre−1(1 acre = 0‐405 ha). A hypothetical case was examined where resistance to the pyrethroids occurred in one key pest, Heliothis virescens, the tobacco budworm. The level of resistance was defined such that 50 % of the normally pyrethroid‐treated area was now treated with the most cost‐effective alternative. Under these conditions, a mid‐south grower would see the cost of insect control nearly double to $61‐50 acre.Extrapolating such increases to the whole US cotton crop or to global cotton production would lead to increased insecticide costs of $230 × 106and $1‐4 × 109per year, respectively. Making similar assumptions for all crops, the increased global costs of only a moderate amount of pyrethroid resistance could be as high as $2‐4 × W9annually. There is, thus, a very real need to maintain the pyrethroids as effective insect‐control agents f

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270410

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0031-613X    

DOI:10.1002/ps.2780270401

出版商:John Wiley&Sons, Ltd    

年代:1989

数据来源: WILEY