ISSN:0112-1642    

DOI:10.2165/00007256-198401010-00001

出版商:Springer International Publishing    

年代:2012

数据来源: ADIS

ISSN:0112-1642    

DOI:10.2165/00007256-198401010-00002

出版商:Springer International Publishing    

年代:2012

数据来源: ADIS

摘要:

SummarySynopsis:Biological functions show characteristic circadian (≈ 24h), circaseptan (≈7-day), circalunar (≈ 28-day) and circa-annual rhythms. Accurate biological clocks are important to the precise timing of both internal and external events, and also contribute to control processes. Various physiological and psychological factors affecting competitive performance influence the 4 classes of biological rhythm. Normally, there is a synchronisation with external signals (Zeitgebers), but such synchronisation can be upset by rapid time shifts (as in international travel), sleep deprivation, unusual work schedules, use of oral contraceptives, and total environmental control.Sports scientists need to examine both normal times of optimum performance and the rate of adjustment after disturbance ofbiorhythm. Regular, moderate physical activity has surprisingly little influence upon the course of such adaptation.Biological Rhythms:Biological rhythms are important in timing competitions and in arranging travel schedules for athletes. Many biological functions show characteristic circadian (≈ 24h), circaseptan (≈ 7d), circalunar (≈ 28d, in the female) [Minors and Water-house, 1981; Moore-Ede et al., 1982; Webb, 1982], and circa-annual rhythms. Some are truly endogenous, while others are secondary to changes of wakefulness and core temperature, or a response to environmental indicators of time (Zeitgebers). If normal time clues are removed, different individuals develop circadian cycles varying in length from 24 to 26 hours. Normally, cycles become synchronised with the solar rhythm of illumination and social Zeitgebers. The primary oscillators lie in the hypothalamus (supraoptic chiasmata and ventromedian or lateral nuclei).Functional Importance:Biorhythms provide an internal clock that enables the coordination of rapid physiological processes and the precise timing of external events. Both attributes are vital to the skilled competitor. Longer intervals, e.g. the duration of sleep and (in animals) seasonal cycles, are also estimated with remarkable accuracy. High frequency oscillations provide the basis of fine control in many functions, ranging from focus of the eye and maintenance of balance to the adjustment of ventilation to increased CO2production; however, it is less certain that circadian cycles contribute to normal control processes.Changes of Physiology and of Performance:Arousal is maximal in the afternoon, with associated improvements in pattern recognition, reaction speed and muscle force. Perceived effort falls, fatigue is lessened and all-out effort is better tolerated. Because international competition is itself arousing, laboratory findings may not indicate any real advantage of competitive performance. Body temperature peaks in the late afternoon. Although this is in some respects the equivalent of a ‘warm-up’ it does not influence thermoregulation when exercising in the heat. Heart rate follows arousal and core temperature, so that PWC170and predicted maximum oxygen intake reach a minimum in the afternoon. Respiratory responses to effort are also less in the afternoon. Metabolic efficiency changes little if allowance is made for diurnal variations of body mass. Any diurnal changes of maximum oxygen intake are small, and even their direction is disputed. Most authors find competitive performance is best in the late afternoon. Physical working capacity as predicted from heart rate (PWC170) shows some circaseptan variation, with the lowest values on Saturdays.In women, the rise of core temperature in the second half of the oestrous cycle has little impact on maximum oxygen intake or anaerobic threshold; indeed, body temperature rises more if exercise is undertaken in the luteal phase. The premenstrual increase of body hydration has a small adverse effect on physical working capacity. Associated sensations may impair both skilled and all-out performance, although muscle force is often increased. Competitive results are uninfluenced by menstruation in the majority of athletes. Primary concerns are hygiene during the early stages of menstrual flow, and the risks of accidents or poor teamwork during premenstrual tension.Humans show few well-established circa-annual rhythms; if the climate is severe, curtailment of activity in the winter can lead to some loss of fitness, while in some cultures seasonal changes of performance can be traced to participation in specific sports programmes.Disturbances of Biorhythm:Diurnal rhythms are disturbed by shifts of time zone (latitudinal air travel) and sleep deprivation. Because circadian cycle length usually exceeds 24 hours, east to west travel is tolerated better than the reverse. There is difficulty in adjusting to a shift>5 hours, and at least 7 days should be allowed for resynchron-isation. Arousal is generally poor until adjustment is complete, and visiting athletes are at a particular disadvantage in the afternoons. Prior desynchronisation and Zeitgeber reinforcement speed adjustment, while short-acting sedatives that do not interfere with REM sleep may help re-establish appropriate cycles of wakefulness.Sleep deprivation is stressfulper se, but additional effects may arise from physical fatigue and emotional stress. Resting heart rate and respiratory rate fall, while the resultant acidosis causes some expansion of plasma volume. The heart rate response to submaximum exercise is reduced, but so also are Harvard step test scores, all-out performance, and maximum oxygen intake. Muscle tension tends to decline unless the subject makes strenuous efforts to sustain performance, and there is some decrease of isokinetic strength.Psychomotor performance shows occasional lapses of attention. Accuracy is lost in team events, and self-paced tasks are performed more slowly; psychophysiological tests may also reveal a greater expenditure of effort in order to sustain normal performance. Athletic times usually deteriorate, although it may be difficult to distinguish the effects of sleep deprivation and fatigue. There also seems to be a progressive dampening of normal circadian rhythms.The compression of the working week, use of oral contraceptives and the elimination of seasonal changes in man-made environments undoubtedly disturb circaseptan, circalunar and circa-annual rhythms, but there has been little investigation of functional consequences. The fluid retention resulting from regular oral contraceptive use may help cardiovascular performance, but muscular strength is apparently worsened.Interactions with Exercise:Moderate physical activity should theoretically help synchronisation with new Zeitgebers, particularly if arousal is stimulated at appropriate times during the day In practice, added exercise has little impact upon physiological responses to sleep deprivation, while some authors have actually seen a worsening of psychomotor performance when the effects of sleep deprivation were compounded by vigorous physical activity.Cycles of heavy physical activity play a large part in creating circaseptan rhythms. On the other hand, endurance training may suppress normal menstrual cycles.Conclusion:Physiological and psychological biorhythms have sufficient influence upon performance that they merit close study; indeed, the rapid time shifts associated with translatitudinal travel have already influenced the outcome of some major international competitions.

ISSN:0112-1642    

DOI:10.2165/00007256-198401010-00003

出版商:Springer International Publishing    

年代:2012

数据来源: ADIS

摘要:

SummaryPerformance in endurance sports is affected by a variety of factors, including exercise-training habits, nutrition and other lifestyle components. Endurance performance can also be seen as a multifactorial phenotype influenced by genetic and non-genetic factors. Current models in quantitative genetics and experimental data available in the sport sciences literature suggest that the effects of genetic variation on endurance performance can be observed as (a) the consequence of a character highly determined by the genotype which is correlated with endurance performance, (b) inherited differences in endurance performance exhibited by individuals of a sample or population, and (c) genotype-dependent individual differences in the response to endurance training.This review considers the evidence for genetic effects in several determinants of endurance performance, namely: body measurements and physique, body fat, pulmonary functions, cardiac and circulatory functions, muscle characteristics, substrate utilisation, maximal aerobic power and others. Moreover, the response to aerobic training of indicators of aerobic work metabolism and endurance performance is reviewed, with emphasis on the specificity of the response and the individual differences observed in trainability.It is concluded that there are considerable interindividual differences in the level of endowment for endurance performance. This genetic effect remains, however, quite modest when compared with other phenotypes, such as the skeletal dimensions of the body. Moreover, while trainability of the capacity for endurance performance is quite high on the average, there are important individual differences in the sensitivity to endurance training. Recent data suggest that this sensitivity to aerobic training is largely genotype-dependent.

ISSN:0112-1642    

DOI:10.2165/00007256-198401010-00004

出版商:Springer International Publishing    

年代:2012

数据来源: ADIS

摘要:

SummaryIn recent years, epidemiological studies of the iron status of athletes involved in heavy training have suggested that these athletes may be prone to iron deficiency. Several investigators have observed a high prevalence of iron deficiency among athletes, particularly endurance runners, based on serum ferritin levels, which accurately reflect the size of the body’s iron stores. Furthermore, earlier reports on iron status in athletes frequently noted low haemoglobin values in those involved in heavy endurance training. In addition to iron deficiency anaemia, a condition known as ‘sports anaemia’ has also been described, in which the athlete experiences an increased destruction of erythrocytes and a drop in haemoglobin as a result of an acute stress response to exercise.Whether iron deficiency in athletes is due to an inadequate dietary intake of iron, an exercise effect on iron metabolism, or a combination of both, has yet to be determined. Certainly, it is questionable whether adequate iron is consumed in a typical Western diet, particularly by females, who already have an increased requirement related to menstruation. In addition, recent evidence strongly suggests that exercise may impose a significant iron ’cost’ on the athlete. This additional iron cost may be the result of the increased destruction of red blood cells, increased elimination of iron, or possibly an impaired iron absorption.Regardless of the cause, however, iron deficiency, with or without anaemia, is an undesirable condition for athletes. An essential constituent of haemoglobin, myoglobin and several iron-containing respiratory enzymes, iron plays a vital role in energy production. With only minor decrements in haemoglobin, anaemic subjects have been shown to have impaired physical performance. More recently, iron deficiency without anaemia has been examined and this condition has also been shown to reduce physical work capacity and lead to excess lactate production.Therefore, regular monitoring of the iron status of athletes is recommended to ensure optimal performance ability. This should include routine examination of serum ferritin and haemoglobin levels in addition to periodical dietary analyses of the athlete’s nutritional intake. If an iron-deficient condition is detected, prompt intervention involving nutritional counselling and/or iron supplementation is necessary.

ISSN:0112-1642    

DOI:10.2165/00007256-198401010-00005

出版商:Springer International Publishing    

年代:2012

数据来源: ADIS

摘要:

SummarySome sports carry a 50% chance of physical injury during one year. In contrast, the risk of an adult sustaining a cardiac emergency while exercising is very small, and even if such episodes cannot be prevented, the prognosis is still improved by an increase of physical activity.Since all adults should be encouraged to become more active, cost considerations dictate that simple procedures be used to screen the majority of potential exercisers.The Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) is reasonably successful in predicting undesirable acute outcomes to exercise, with the exception of abnormal ECG responses. However, about 20% of adults fail the PAR-Q test, mainly because they have received an erroneous report that their blood pressure is high. The Canadian Home Fitness Test offers some objective basis for a personally adjusted exercise prescription; however, day-to-day variations of maximum oxygen intake and interindividual differences in the energy cost of physical activities are such that even costly laboratory prescriptions of intensity must be monitored by the individual while exercising. Accompanying this test are suggestions for specific additional precautions that should reduce exercise risks.Clinical evaluation is still far too variable, different published series showing exercise exclusion rates of 0.7 to 15.8%. There is a need for a fuller understanding of how cardiac risk factors are modified by exercise, both in the middle-aged adult and the ‘postcoronary’ patient. Sophisticated laboratory tests are not particularly helpful in the average adult; application of Bayes’ theorem shows that more than 70% of abnormal exercise ECGs are misdiagnoses relative to an angiographic criterion. Even in the high risk adult, a stress ECG will not predict the individual who will suffer an exercise-induced cardiac catastrophe. It may help in setting an intensity of exercise that the patient can tolerate, but even for this purpose the prescription will need fine tuning on a daily basis.

ISSN:0112-1642    

DOI:10.2165/00007256-198401010-00006

出版商:Springer International Publishing    

年代:2012

数据来源: ADIS