摘要:

The United States has an abundance of energy resources; fossil fuels (mostly coal and oil shale) adequate for centuries, fissionable nuclear fuels adequate for millenia, and solar energy that will last indefinitely. Current fuel shortages reflect a shortage of productive capacity, not the depletion of resources. Shortages can be alleviated by the development of additional mineral reserves and the construction of additional facilities for refining and transporting natural and synthetic fuels. The cost of energy, measured in constant dollars to strip away the effects of inflation, has declined as long as records have been kept, largely through economies of scale and new technology. These cost‐reducing forces are still effective. The constant‐dollar cost of environmentally acceptable clean fossil fuel (refined oil and natural gas now, followed by synthetic oil and gas later) may continue its historic downward trend for several centuries, and the cost of nuclear fuel may follow a down‐ward trend for millenia, before economies of scale and new technology are finally overcome by the effects of depletion.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948462

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Opportunities abound to conserve energy. Losses, many of them avoidable or potentially capable of large reduction, occur all the way from energy resource extraction to ultimate use. Other presentations in this conference touch on ways to conserve energy by increased efficiencies in the energy cycle up to the point of use. Some of the greatest scientific challenges lie in this area. Another presentation in this conference (Mobile Powerplants) covers the important conservation impacts and technological challenges of more efficient engines. In this presentation we therefore focus on energy conservation, other than propulsion engine technology, at end‐use. About half of total U.S. energy is used for heating or cooling buildings or industrial processes. Therefore, any improvement in the technology of both high and low heat transfer materials and processes will help conserve energy. Associated engines (e.g., heat pumps, air conditioners) also offer opportunities for large improvement. Control systems for industrial processes, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning can be improved and have large payoff. Half of our communications, especially lower costs, could enable decreased physical travel. But physicists have a habit of going where the problem takes them, even when it leads seemingly far afield. Thus, a leading figure in energy input‐output economics is a physicist. So too are experts on energy impacts of recycling, modes of transportation, and pollution controls. Physics, as a way of thinking about things, seems ubiquitous in energy conservation activities and has already benefitted from physicists' contributions even though most of them have been in seemingly “non‐traditional” ways. The pragmatist could claim that this is a measure of the power and relevance of the discipline.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948456

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948458

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

The Energy Problem in this country today is a very complex issue which underlies many facets of the operation of our entire society. Energy is the source of this nation's economic growth … that growth over the past decades has been very rapid, and as a consequence, our ability to supply new sources of energy ‐ ‐ growing sources of energy ‐ ‐ has not been able to keep pace with the demand. At this time, there is a very broad spectrum of research programs underway, both supported by the Federal government and by private industry. The three main targets for these research areas are toincrease energy supply, tocontrol energy demand, and toimproveenergy utilization, particularly in minimizing the effect of energy utilization on health and on the environment. A brief overview of the role of R & D in the evolving energy posture of the United States is presented. Among the topics discussed are: ○The present funding situation in Federal and private sector energy R & D, ○The present and evolving role of Federal agencies in energy R & D, ○The formulation and implementation of Federal energy R & D policy, ○Plans for increased Federal R & D support, ○Long‐range energy R & D priorities, and ○A national systems approach to energy R & D.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948466

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Exploration for gas or oil involves either detecting changes in some physical parameter which is affected by the hydrocarbons or, more commonly, mapping the configuration of rock layers making up the first thirty thousand feet of the subsurface. Among the quantities measured during the search for hydrocarbons are variations in the earth's magnetic and gravity fields. However, the predominant method of exploration geophysicists is reflection seismology. Only the seismic method combines great depth penetration with reasonable resolution.In reflection seismology, elastic waves are introduced into the earth; and reflections from impedance changes in the subsurface, detected and recorded at the surface. Common sources on land are explosives or large vibrators; marine exploration involves air bursts or gases exploded in an expandable sleeve. 24 to 96 detector stations separated by up to 200 m are occupied simultaneously, each station consisting of a linear or areal array of 12 to 144 detectors. Signals are recorded in digital form on magnetic tape for 5 to 15 seconds. The useful frequency range of 10 to 100 Hz is limited on the low end by surface waves and on the high end by attenuation within earth materials. Data may be accumulated at a daily rate of 100 reels of tape.Processing the data requires computers of the 370/165 size. Among the routine processes are band‐pass filtering, correction for variations in near‐surface material and for non‐zero source‐detector separations, computation of velocity, summing of traces around a common surface point, collapse of sinusoidal events, and return of reflections to their point of origin. Processed data are displayed in variable density or area form as two‐dimensional distance‐depth or distance‐time surfaces. Interpretation by geologists involves theory and experience.Limitations of reflection seismology include unsatisfactory depth resolution, an unknown attenuation mechanism, and interfering scattered energy. Work on going from data to subsurface (the inverse problem) has barely begun. To the solution of these and numerous processing problems physicists can expect to contribute.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948467

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Two different processes were used by the Germans during World WarIIto produce liquid fuels in industrial quantities from coal. One such plant is in operation in South Africa. Discovery in the early 1950s of large Mid‐East reserves that can yield oil at very low costs reduced interest in coal processes.The current shortage of domestic clean energy sources and the very large reserves of indigenous coal have revived interest in the production of synthetic fuels from coal. Several oil companies have conducted sporadic research on proprietary processes in their own laboratories and have supported a joint program on the H‐Coal process of Hydrocarbon Research, Inc. The government‐supported coal liquefaction programs of the Office of Coal Research have concentrated on Project Gasoline and Solvent Refined Coal. The Bureau of Mines has conducted several small‐scale, in‐house coal liquefaction experiments in an attempt to discover lower cost methods for producing low‐sulfur boiler fuel.No recent cost estimates have been published for producing oil from coal by either of the processes used during World WarIIby the Germans but by adjusting previous estimates inflation, costs of over $15 per barrel of oil would be expected. This compared to a crude oil price that had remained relatively stable (until early 1973) at $3.30 to $3.60 per barrel for a number of years. The National Petroleum Council estimates costs of a refinery feedstock at $6.50 to $7.50 per barrel for western coals and $7.50 per barrel using eastern coals. With improvements expected in second generation plants these costs might be reduced to $6.00 per barrel with western coals. Other estimates for refinery feedstocks from coals are higher.One of the most important current needs is to produce a low‐sulfur boiler fuel from high‐sulfur coal. Since the hydrogen requirements and processing conditions for producing a low‐sulfur boiler fuel from coal are less severe than for producing a refinery feedstock, lower product costs should be possible. Unfortunately, less experimentation has been carried out on methods to produce a low‐sulfur boiler fuel than for refinery feedstocks. However, the Bureau of Mines is currently concentrating on development of the Synthoil process to convert coal into a very low‐sulfur boiler fuel and has successfully operated a half ton per day unit (1.5 barrels/day). Estimates of cost of a low‐sulfur boiler fuel are $4.50 to $6.75 per barrel.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948475

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Catalysis presents the physicist with an excellent opportunity to contribute to the technology of energy supply by doing basic research. Recent developments in the experimental techniques for the preparation and investigation of solid surfaces and adsorbates and in the electronic theory of surfaces and of chemisorption quite naturally will provide insights into the fundamental processes of catalysis that were not accessible before and hold the promise of making catalysis an exact science in the foreseeable future. Such knowledge can be expected to promote in a significant way the discovery of new catalysts that will be necessary in the technology of energy production. An analysis of our natural resources reveals that for the next 50 years the major part of our energy supply will have to be provided by fossil fuels. The depletion of oil reserves makes it necessary to transform coal, tar sands and shale oil to convenient fuels that can be burnt without unacceptable pollution of the environment. Chemical processes exist but much progress in efficiency and price could be achieved by the development of novel catalysts. Solid catalysts are generally prepared with high specific surface area. Their catalytic activity correlates roughly with their electronic properties. Metals are mainly used to promote reactions involving hydrogen; semiconductors catalyze charge transfer and oxidation‐reduction; insulators possess surface sites with strongly acid or basic properties and promote skeletal rearrangements of hydrocarbons through the formation of ionic intermediates. Progress in metal catalysis is characterized by the introduction of multimetallic systems. Development in this field will profit from the establishment of a relationship between the physical and electronic and chemisorption properties of alloys.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948476

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

All types of energy systems for transportation produce pollutants. The different types of energy systems available for transportation use are reviewed and the types of pollutants each system puts out and the effects of that pollutant are indicated.The effect of pollutants on individuals is via the respiratory tract. The characteristics of the respiratory tract are discussed. The effect of the individual pollutants on the respiratory tract and on the individual are discussed. Data on air quality standards for a particular pollutant are presented together with typical concentrations of pollutants found in urban atmospheres. The effect of the different pollutants on individuals at different levels are presented.The automobile is next looked at as a source of pollutants and the different places where pollutants are formed and emitted are discussed. The advantages and problems of devices that have been used and are proposed for use to reduce these pollutants are discussed. A variety of energy sources have been proposed for use in transportation. The advantages and disadvantages and the emission characteristics of these different types of energy sources are presented.Emission controls have been accused of contributing to the energy shortage. The effect of present and proposed emission controls on fuel economy is discussed. Comparisons are made of changes in fuel economy due to emission controls with changes in fuel economy due to vehicle weight, type of transmission, air conditioning, etc, Trends of engines and fuels for the future as affected by the conflicting need for energy conservation and clean air are presented.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948477

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Before the emissions and energy crises were upon us, it was enough that automotive engines worked. We could develop in a leisurely way our basic understanding of engine combustion problems. It is now obvious that the current automobile engine's problems of high emissions and deteriorating fuel economy must be rapidly solved. It is likely that new engine concepts must be developed to satisfy the demand for improved air quality and better fuel utilization. To solve these problems effectively, we need a better analytic framework for our applied research and development efforts. Combustion modelling can provide this framework by improving our understanding of the engine combustion process, and then by developing predictive techniques which relate engine design and operating parameters to emissions and performance characteristics. This paper describes two engine combustion problems in some detail to demonstrate both the potential value of such modelling efforts, as well as the substantial gaps that exist in our current understanding of basic engine phenomena. The first problem is nitric oxide formation in conventional spark‐ignition engines. The kinetic mechanism responsible for nitric oxide formation, and the coupling of this kinetic mechanism with the thermodynamics of the burnt gases during the combustion process are reasonably understood. The trade‐off between engine performance and emissions can now be quantified sufficiently accurately for it to be useful to the engine designer. The second problem discussed is the combustion of a fuel spray injected into the engine cylinder as occurs in stratified charge or diesel engines. A complex sequence of processes— atomization, fuel droplet vaporization, fuel air mixing, ignition, flame propagation through a nonuniform mixture—must all occur before the fuel is fully burned. While we can currently quantify some of these processes in simpler geometries, our understanding of real engine processes is poor. Yet these types of engines probably offer the best fuel economy at given emission levels for automotive applications. Combustion modelling which leads to a better understanding of the details of these combustion processes will greatly assist the engine developer.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948451

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Alternative power plants, emission control systems and control systems for optimizing performance of internal combustion engines have focused increased attention on automotive applications of high temperature materials. Ceramics and related materials are receiving particular attention. This paper presents an overview of some of the high temperature materials developments associated with catalytic devices for emission control systems, sensors for engine feedback control systems, small high‐temperature gas turbines and solid electrolytes and ion transport ceramics for batteries and energy conversion systems. Opportunities for research in physics and solid state science, arising from the technological problems involved in these high temperature materials developments, are presented.

ISSN:0094-243X    

DOI:10.1063/1.2948452

出版商:AIP    

年代:1974

数据来源: AIP