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Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry. March 1957 |
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Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry,
Volume 81,
Issue March,
1957,
Page 161-250
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摘要:
NEW PERIODICALS AND REFERENCE BOOKS The market for scientific and technological literature is by no means swamped certainly not flooded. Scarcely even have science and technology a true literature of their own as have the fine arts. If one looks at any comprehensive press guide the proportion of scientific literature is still relatively small-apart from the mass of research records familiarly known to scientists as the literature. There are several thriving scientific periodicals in the U.S.A. for example that have no counterparts in this country. Certainly we should not seek to produce new publications in imitation of others or without good reasons of our own but on the other hand all well-conceived attempts to fill acknowledged gaps in a manner suited to our particular circumstances should be welcomed.TECHNOLOGY On such grounds we were happy to record the advent a few months ago of the New Scientist. In this issue we congratulate The Times on the introduction of Technology the new monthly ‘review of training and education for industry,’ and on the spirit that has motivated it. The forum has been provided but the challenge for its inspiration has been passed to industrialists and teachers who are its potential contributors and correspondents. We were pleased to notice that two of the four introductory voices heard in exhortation of this new venture were those of well-known members of the Institute Mr John A. Oriel c.B.E. President of the Institution of Chemical Engineers and Dr P. F. R. Venables Principal of the Birmingham College of Technology both of whom offer excellent advice to the new publication.The outlook of Technology is succinctly expressed in the inspiring words of the leading article : “In Tudor times we were drawn across the oceans; in the nineteenth century our best young men were trained to administer the world. Today the path is different but as plain. Scientific manufacture is our business the source of our power and the means of our livelihood. The Times with its resources and tradition can be relied upon to do this job well. It is the splendid vocation of our time.” PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY The publication of the first number of the Proceedings of the Chemical Society in its new guise is an event that deserves special mention here.It will soon become familiar to all chemists and will no doubt win many friends and many new Fellows to the oldest national chemical society in the world. 16 162 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Some years ago one of the Honorary Secretaries of the Society-, who later became its President remarked “It’s a grand Society to serve.” Those who recall its unequalled record of devotion to chemistry through the Journal and Annual Reports and through the Memorial Lectures-so stimulating to young chemists-and who appreciate the unique opportunities it offers to Fellows for the publication of their work will endorse that tribute. In the January number Professor E. L. E r s t remarks that ”the Proceedings of the Chemical Society at one time occupied a much inore important place in the Society’s publications than has been the case in recent years.” Between 1885 and 1914 it was customary to publish in the Proceedings preliminary accounts of work later to appear in the Journal.Abstracts of papers read before the Society and the discussions were also included and important and funda-mental work often appeared there for the first time. “The Proceedings will contain . . . notices of forthcoming meetings.” I t is not intended apparently to revive the method of notification customary before 1914 when titles of papers to be read at the Thursday meetings at 8.30 were announced in the top left-hand corner (or was it the right hand ?) of the front page of the Morning Post. Those who remember that pillar of the British Constitution will believe that it was the right-hand corner.One of the chief features of the January issue was the account of the visit of the President of the Royal Society and his party to Moscow last May. I t was a step towards better understanding and many will endorse Professor M. Stacey’s conclusion while regretting that each hope of improved relations is followed by some corres-ponding retrogression. It was appropriate that soon after the visit, the Chemical Society should publish an issue of Quarterly Reuiews in which all the contributions were by Russian chemists. This act of courtesy has served to bring some modern Russian work to the notice of chemists in other countries. REFERENCE BOOKS Our sympathies go out to those of our correspondents who lack the services of good libraries and information officers and have to do the greater part of their searches of various kinds in the course of their daily work.Much energy and time often seem to be wasted through lack of suitable reference books and here publishers can be of great service in ascertaining what information is required by various groups of people and in planning works to meet new needs. There can be no doubt as to the dearth of books dealing with technical education and industrial training facilities and this must have caused much duplication of effort in many offices in order to answer enquiries of this character 19571 NEW PERIODICALS AND REFERENCE BOOKS 163 The Year Book of Technical Education and Careers in Industry,” which has just appeared will prove invaluable to all who have any con-siderable dealings in any part of this field.The information it contains-and quickly yields-could previously be found only by reference to a long row of books calendars and pamphlets dealing with certain aspects of this vast subject. We have already adopted the habit of looking there first particularly when answering telephone enquiries for despite its more than a thousand pages the index is at the front and it is simply arranged. In fact it is difficult to avoid a tendency to expect too much of it and it can easily be forgotten that education and training rather than research is the subject. Thus ‘Seale-Hayne’ will be found indexed under itself and under Newton Abbot but ‘Rothamsted’ and ‘Long Ashton’ are not in it.The first part gives details of training facilities available at universities and colleges and of a great number of national statutory and voluntary organisations. The second part deals with careers in industry. Then follows a third part giving details of government and industrial training schemes. The 58th edition of an old-established book Scientijc and Learned Societies of Great Britain,? has also recently appeared. I t is concerned with research rather than with education and is thus to some extent complementary to the former volume. However it does not seem such good value as the other which has about five times the number of pages and far more information at less cost. Considering that the British Council has a hand in its compilation as indeed it has in the production of that very useful compendium of detailed informa-tion Scientijc Research in British Universities, (originally Scientijc Research in Britain) it is surprising that the introductory section giving particulars of Government-sponsored research only should still bear the misleading and all-embracing title of “Scientific Research in Great Britain.” After this section follows a list of more than 600 societies and professional institutions.I t is a pity that the demand for this book does not seem sufficient to justify annual publication at a considerably reduced price for the information particularly that relating to honorary officers membership subscriptions and publications undergoes rapid change. This has been especially marked since the war and it is unfortunate that only two post-war editions have been published.Presumably because of delays in publication the names of officers other than secretaries have been omitted from this edition. * The Year Book o f Technical Education &’ Careers in Industry 1957. T Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain. ScientificResearch in British Universities 1954-55. Edited by H. C. Dent. Pp. xxxii + 1008. (London Adam and Charles Black.) 25s. net. 58th Edition. Pp. 212. (London George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 1956.) (London H.M.S.O. 1955.) 12s. 6d. net. 35s. net FUTURE TEXTBOOKS ON ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY By K. A. WILLIAMS B.SC. PH.D. A.INST.P. M.INST.PET. F.R.I.C. (Condensed from the Opening Address to the Summer School in Analytical Chemistry London 1956.) The first Summer School in Analytical Chemistry held under the auspices of the Institute and what was then the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists some six years ago was devoted to a number of new physical methods of analysis.I t is interesting to note however that subsequent Schools have been wider in their subject matter and that there are now signs that they will turn more and more to the study of the analytical chemistry required in particular industries. Opinion in the United States of America appears to be turning in much the same direction. There they have come to recognise that no one specialist can hope to master the whole subject of analytical chemistry and they fear that this tends to make a chemist think in terms of his own special method or group of methods.So far has specialisation gone that the authors of some books limit themselves to a description of technique and make no attempt to show how the technique can be applied to analysis generally. I t is thought that the new techniques must remain in the hands of the specialist until they can be established in final form as to instrumentation. ‘But,” says Analytical Chemistry in a recent issue, “when the various techniques are established we should approach the subject of an analysis much as a concert-master approaches the instruments at his command in achieving a final result. Then too, we hope that at least an author or two will appear capable of dealing with the subject of analysis as an integrated and mature part of the scientific method.” The editorial article in which these sentiments appear pursues the matter in a manner that cannot help being of interest in this country.c‘Unfort~nately,7’ it continues “we do not find the climate in our universities conducive to such growth. In fact, specialisation among our young professors is very much the style. Where there is youth there is hope and we do know a few in the field who appreciate the larger problem about which we are con-cerned. Over the years let us not underestimate the importance of this approach to analysis. . . . We trust that some editor-in-chief, as a result of his present experience may in his more mature years have gained sufficient wisdom knowledge and inspiration to write a definitive work on how the various techniques should be integrated 16 FUTURE TEXTBOOKS ON ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 165 in solution of analytical problems so that the most adequate answer is obtained quickly.This is a challenging task but we believe it is not impossible if the writer thinks in terms of analytical chemistry and not as a specialist.” To a limited extent we find the principles looked for today in America already in use here; indeed we have found them of the greatest value for many years. Not only will an industry invent new techniques to suit its needs but once they become known they are examined searchingly by other industries to see if they can be adapted into any form that offers advantages over existing methods. The industry with which I am most familiar that handling oils and fats has operated on these lines for as long as I can remember.I t used classical methods of analysis as far as it could; it was the first to embrace the tool of chromatography and thereby it solved problems that would not yield to other means; it employs infra-red and ultra-violet spec tropho tome try polarograp hy nephelorne try, absorptiometry fluorimetry and radiochernistry ; and it tries every new tool that appears. You will not yet find the latest techniques that have been adopted by the industry in a textbook but that is chiefly because the last book on the analysis of oils and fats was published over six years ago; that book however referred to all that were confidently in use a little before its publication. The approach to analytical chemistry by way of subjects was in use here in the early years of this century.Many books of the period deal with the analytical aspects of industries. Usually it is true the main part of the book is devoted to the technology of the industry concerned but the question of the analysis of the products of the industry was seldom omitted even if it did not receive as much attention as we would nowadays wish. Indeed it was a common complaint of reviewers that the analytical section of a work was meagre and unworthy in comparison with the effort the author had put into the rest of his book. Occasionally though there appeared books whose major interest lay in the analytical side of an industry; and it is the writing of such books in an up-to-date manner that is now advocated.Fifty years ago it was still possible to write a book that attempted to deal with the whole range of analytical chemistry, both pure and applied. Such books have become rarer and may never be written again. At most they are likely to be directed to the student and will give only a bird’s-eye picture; for advanced analysts the specialised work is essential. If we adopt the American view the specialised book dealing with techniques only has a very limited use; but that is not to say that it need no longer be produced. Indeed one might well come to the conclusion that there would be overmuch duplication in a world filled with books of the other type; for there would have t 166 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR be in each a complete description of all the techniques that had commended themselves to the industry under review.Surely the question is best resolved by the production of both types of book. In the first series the techniques would be described in their latest form; and in the second each industry might be taken in turn and a description be given of the application of the already described techniques to each industry. These books would need to include notes on the reasons leading to the choice of the various methods on their limitations under different conditions on the twists that have to be given to each method to render it suitable for the circumstances prevailing on the results that would be obtained with normal and abnormal materials and on the pitfalls that await the unwary.I am sure that this approach is what the American commentator is asking for when he wants the matter reviewed by industries and not by special techniques. How often does one find that when the analytical methods in use in a particular industry are codified by an authoritiative body they stop firmly at a description of how to carry them out. At present many books go no further; and yet the reader wants to know what kind of figures he may expect to find by applying these methods; and if his results come outside the known limits he wants to know to what he can fairly ascribe the cause. I believe that even in England we need to move further in this direction in developing analytical chemistry. 1 am sure that now the Summer School has moved in this direction by considering the methods of analysis used in the agricultural industry similar treatment of other industries will follow.Perhaps this matter may be carried a little further if we consider briefly the fundamentals of analytical chemistry and what it is that analysts try to do and why they try to do it. With Chastoii Chapman we may say that it is no exaggeration to regard analytical chemistry as the foundation-stone on which the greater part of the wonderful superstructure of modern chemistry has been reared yet it is and must for ever remain in a sense the servant of the other branches of our science. Undoubtedly all who practise analytical chemistry are actuated to a greater or less extent by the innate wish common to all men of finding out how a thing works.In early years this does not always arise from mere destructiveness though this has been alleged. After one has grown up it is only the psychiatrists who can say whether boyhood desires still predominate or if more mundane considerations, monetary or otherwise have gained the upper hand. Be that as it may what we still do is to try to find out what makes a thing tick and we delight in pulling things apart for one reason or another but always with the greatest degree of skill at ou 19571 FUTURE TEXTBOOKS ON ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 167 command. We succeed if we find a way to replace a natural material with a synthetic one or if we find that our material contains something that should not be there and if we can relate its defect to the amount of the impurity or if we prove that the material we have been examining has indeed the composition it ought to have.have recently been reminded that the art or science of chemical analysis involves the intelligent application of a large number of techniques which the analyst is accustomed to regard as his working tools. Probably the most comprehensive account of these is to be found in the great volumes produced by the Analytical Chemists Committee of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. in recent months. I t is not too much to say that this work already a classic, provides all that can be given to analysts by way of the fundamentals of their subject; and one may well suppose that it will be taken as the model for future books that set out to deal with fundamentals. Variations of the methods set out will be produced and of course new methods will appear at intervals to replace some of them.But the work is the firm basis for future development and the starting place from which others will do well to journey on. I t is in this way that the more academic side of this branch of chemistry may be expected to go forward in its permanent literature; and we may regard this book and works of similar type some of which will not be comprehensive but rather devoted to fewer aspects of the fundamentals as representative of the first class of analytical books. The second class should deal with particular industries and individual books of this class should serve to introduce students to the industry or to provide the expert with the information he needs for his work.That such books are particularly suitable for teaching cannot be denied and they will be found especially useful in giving a general view of each subject. Clearly their authors should not restrict themselves to treating only of the older and better established methods of analysis tried and proved though these may be but should include either descriptions of the newer techniques or adequate references to works in which these may be found; and furthermore the authors must do this in such a way that the value of the various techniques is apparent in relation to their suggested uses. The techniques themselves must range over the widest ground; no property of a substance can be rejected out of hand as useless in analysis today and one never knows where one is next going to find data that can be turned to account in the solution of analytical problems.This attitude to analysis is valid not only in the more commercial forms of the subject but in the academic laboratory as well. The Americans are right; we need to see our subject not solely from the point of view of techniques but perhaps even pre-dominantly from that of their application in practice. W CHEMICAL ANNIVERSARIES BJ J. H. S. GREEN B.SC. PH.D. A.R.I.C. PART I 1807 In these articles it is proposed to note briefly some significant chemical events in the years 1807 1857 and 1907 and to relate the work and the persons commemorated to the development of chemistry during this period. The eighteenth century had seen the discovery of a large number of substances and elements but perhaps the greatest conceptual advances had been the overthrow of the phlogiston theory and with it the establishment of a new system of nomenclature.The fall of the phlogiston theory had been largely due to the refinement of quantitative technique and the development of methods for the manipulation of gases. A link with this intensive study of gases is provided by the death in 1807 of T. Lane who in 1769 had shown that ‘fixed air’ (carbonic acid) would attack iron. Little is known of Thomas or Timothy Lane (b. 1738); he was an apothecary of Aldersgate St and was elected F.R.S. in 1770. A paper of his describing a new discharging electrometer was communicated to the Royal Society by Franklin in 1767 and he sat on one of the committees concerned in the famous lightning conductor c0ntroversy.l His paper “On the Solubility of Iron in Simple Water by the intervention of Fixed Air’’ (Phil.Trans. 1769 59 216) was supported by Cavendish who two years previously had shown that chalk and magnesia were also dissolved by fixed air. Lane’s experiments demonstrated two of the essential features of the rusting of iron-not only that iron is dissolved to a colourless solution by carbon dioxide but also that this solution deposits a yellow rust on exposure to air.2 He also considered the relevance of this to the impregnation of natural medicated springs, and its application to their preparation and analysis. Two years before his death Lane had published a short paper on the magnetism of the oxides of iron.In 1807 chemistry hardly existed as a separate profession and there were no adequate courses of systematic instruction. Practical instruction was probably given at only three places-Edinburgh by Thomas Thomson who was lecturer on chemistry the EcoZe Poly-technique by Gay-Lussac and Gottingen by Stromeyer whose students at that date included L. Gmelin.3 There were few chairs of chemistry and most of these were occupied by medical men. At Oxford, John Kidd a distinguished physician was the Aldrichian Professor of chemistry to which subject however he made few contributions. 16 William Walker’s engraving “Distinguished Men of Science (The setting is the Library of the Roya Some contemporary French chemists depicted by Lr?.urent in a letter to Cerhardt.lz Above (Zeft to right) Balard Gerhardt Pelouze.Below Dumas (with double-faced mask) L?urznt(?). Thynar CHEMICAL ANNIVERSARIES 169 At Cambridge the Professor of chemistry was the Rev. William Farish who was something of a pioneer in lecturing on “The Application of Chemistry to the Arts and Manufactures of Britain,” with the aid of some demonstration^.^ The Rev. F. J. H. Wollaston brother of Dr William Hyde Wollaston was Jacksonian Professor and he also lectured on chemistry undertaking to show some three hundred experiments in the course. At Glasgow the lecturer in chemistry was R. Cleghorn of whom we are told that “the demands of an extensive medical practice . . . left him little time for original work,”5 whilst the Professor at Edinburgh was T.C. Hope who had pre-viously been joint Professor of Chemistry and Medicine. Though the teaching of G. French the first Professor of chemistry at Aberdeen was characterised by a non-medical approach it appears that “although he acquired a high reputation as a physician in chemistry he was essentially the amateur.”6 Even in 1827 Graham could write ‘‘ . . . there is little competition in this country at the present time . . . in chemistry. . . Most of the chemists are medical men. . . .”’ According to Liebig a similar state of affairs existed in Germany in his early youth-“at most of the universities there was no special chair for chemistry. I t was generally handed over to the professor of medicine who taught as much as he knew of it and that was little enough along with toxicology materia medica etc.”* The two outstanding achievements in chemistry in the first decade of the nineteenth century were due to Dalton and Davy.In 1807 there was published the third edition of Thomson’s A @stem of Chemistry the third volume of which contained the first statement of Dalton’s Atomic Theory and his symbols-a better statement than that of Dalton himself a year later. Thomson had spent a few days with Dalton in August of 1804 and was a strong supporter of Dalton’s theory from this first acquaintance with it, though the account of its origins which he had from Dalton was incorrect.3 It does not belittle Dalton’s achievement to say that if he had not enunciated the chemical atomic theory others would have done so.In fact William and Bryan Higgins came close to it and Thomson himself believed that in the absence of Dalton Wollaston would have been its discoverer.9 This was largely because the essential foundations of the quantitative laws of chemical combina-tion had been laid by the end of the eighteenth century. In par-ticular we may consider the law of equivalent proportions which the work of Richter (died 4 April 1807) did so much to establish. Jeremias Benjamin Richter was born in Hirschberg Silesia in 1762. He spent seven years from the age of sixteen in the army and then studied mathematics at Konigsberg graduating in 1789 wit 170 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR a thesis on “The Use of Mathematics in Chemistry.’’ He sub-sequently worked in a private laboratory and as an assayer and, from 1798 at the Berlin porcelain factory becoming an expert on porcelain colours.All his experimental work and writing had to be carried out in his spare time; “in his short and laborious life he received little encouragement and even after his death his main discoveries were credited to others.”lO Richter wrote three books Ueber die neueren Gegenstande der Chymie ( 1 79 1 - 1 802) ; Anfangsgrunde der Stochyometrie oder Messkunst Chymischer EZemente (1 792-94) ; and a continuation of Ludwig Bourgcet’s Chemisches ~and~orterbuch as well as many papers in the journals. In 1792 Richter observed that “when two neutral solutions are mixed and decomposition follows the new resulting products are almost without exception also neutral.’’ He determined the quantity of various bases needed to neutralise a fixed weight of an acid and found that the ratio of these quantities was a constant, independent of the acid.From this he concluded “that fixed quantitative relations must exist between the constituents of the neutral salts.” E G. Fischer (1 754- 183 1) collected Richter’s values into one table which he included with a summary of Richter’s ideas in his translation ( 1802) of Berthollet’s Recherches sur Zes Zois de Z’aJnitk. This was translated back by Berthollet in his Essai de Statique Chimique (1803) and in this way Richter’s work became better known. All of Richter’s writings are difficult to read; he believed that chemistry was a branch of applied mathematics-though his numerical results were not very accurate-and he adopted a com-bination of phlogistic and anti-phlogistic theories.Fischer said that “the mathematicians are repelled by the chemical content and the chemists by the mathematical dress.” Credit for much of Richter’s work was given by Berzelius to Wenzel (1 740-93) an error which was perpetuated by Dumas amongst others. Richter carried out a great deal of experimental work and recorded a number of miscellaneous chemical observations. For example he proposed the use of calcium chloride for drying alcohol and observed a number of the characteristic properties of colloid suspensions. It was in 1807 on his own testimony that Berzelius on the basis of Richter’s work “formed the project of analysing a series of salts with the idea that it would be superfluous to examine the others.” This was the beginning of Berzelius’s extensive work on the combining weights of elements and compounds.ll The publication in 1800 of Volta’s discovery of the electric pile led at once to enormous interest in the phenomena that could be produced with it.When Humphry Davy went to the Royal Institution a year later he at once built a large pile and began a stud 19571 CHEMICAL ANNIVERSARIES 171 of “the decompositions and chemical changes produced by electri-city.” A summary of this work was given by Davy in his first Bakerian Lecture (Phil. Trans. 1807 1) and earned him Napoleon’s prize of 3,000 francs for the year’s most important research in electricity. On 6 October 1807 Davy discovered potassium by the electro-lysis of potash and wrote in his notebook “Capital experiment, proving the decomposition of potash.” A few days later he dis-covered sodium by a similar method.He described this work in detail in his second Bakerian Lecture in November 1807. This brilliant work increased still further Davy’s fame and was of great importance in itself. I t also stimulated Napoleon to provide the large battery with which Gay-Lussac and Thenard attempted to surpass Davy’s discovery. Development of the chemical industry came rather late in the Industrial Revolution. In noting briefly the state of the industry in 1807 we may mention G. Macintosh who died in that year for he was typical of those active at that time. George Macintoshl2 (father of the Charles Macintosh (1 766- 1842) who made the name a household word) was born in 1739 son of a Ross-shire farmer.Though he started work as a clerk he soon founded his own boot-making firm which employed 500 people in 1773. His factory at Glasgow for making the purple dye cudbear for wool and silk grew rapidly after 1780. The dye was extracted from a lichen rocella, with ammonia obtained by the distillation of human urine some 3,000 gallons of which were used daily. As was typical of the times, these operations were conducted behind locked doors. This factory actually continued until 1852 also producing Rochelle salt lead acetate and cream of tartar. Macintosh also encouraged the use of dyeing with Turkey red inviting to Glasgow the Frenchman Papillon who came over to teach the method.There being no independent profession of chemistry in 1807, there was no organisation of chemists as a body. An attempt a year previously to form a London Chemical Society independent of the Royal Society had met with little encouragement and from Sir Joseph Banks P.R.s. definite discouragement. In Britain chemical papers appeared in the Philosophical Transactions Nicholson’s Journal ( 1 797- 18 13) and Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine ( 1 798- ) . Outside London there was the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the literary and philosophical societies of some other large towns. The Proceedings of the Manchester society for example frequently carried contributions from Dalton and W. Henry. In France a notable association was the small group including Biot Gay-Lussac and Thenard which gathered from 1807 at Berthollet’s house at Arcueil near Paris.They published thre 172 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR volumes of Me‘moires de physique et de chimie de la socie‘te’ d’ArcueiZ (1 807, 1809 1817). The formation of definite chemical organisations was the work of the next generation of chemists. Robert Warington who was to play an important part in the formation of the Chemical Society, was born at Sheerness on 7 September 1807. Warington was articled to a lecturer and manufacturer of chemicals and for three years from 1828 was in charge of practical classes at University College London under Professor E. Turner. He was later ‘chemical operator’ to the Society of Apothecaries. It was around 1839 that he commenced canvassing for the formation of a Chemical Society, and he convened the meeting in the rooms of the Royal Society of Arts on 23 February 1841 which led to its formation a month later.Warington was secretary of the Society (1 841-51) and vice-president ( 185 1-54; 1862-5). He was elected F.R.S. in 1864 and died in 1867. Finally the work of two French chemists born in 1807 will be considered. Thiophile Jules Pelouze13 (d. 1867) first studied pharmacy going to Paris in 1825 but gave this up to study chemistry. In 1827 he became Prkparateur in Gay-Lussac’s laboratory and in 1830 associate professor at Lille with K. F. Kuhlmann (1803-81), discoverer of the catalytic oxidation of ammonia in the presence of platinum. A year later he returned to Paris as lecturer and deputy to Gay-Lussac at the &ole Polytechnipue.He received high praise from Thenard in the competitive examination for assayer to the Mint and was appointed in 1833. Later he was deputy to Thenard whom he subsequently succeeded in the CoZZdge de France and he afterwards succeeded Dumas at the i!?coZe Polytechnique. Pelouze who is perhaps rather less frequently remembered now than he deserves to be carried out important early work in organic chemistry. In 183 1 he studied the hydrolysis of nitriles and in 1834 prepared ethyl cyanide. He provided the material with which Liebig and Wohler carried out their classic research on oil of bitter almonds and supplied Liebig with samples of aspartic acid and asparagine which Pelouze had himself analysed.In 1836 he visited Germany and with Liebig isolated ‘oenanthic ether’ (probably capric and caprylic acids) from certain wines. He made early contributions to terpene chemistry including investigations of camphor limonene and borneol. Whilst at Lille Pelouze had studied the extraction of sugar from the beet improved the process used and shown that the product was identical with cane sugar. He made many investigations in applied chemistry some connected with the famous plate-glass works of S t Gobain to which he was consulting chemist. His contributions to inorganic chemistry included the determination of equivalents and important analytical work. Pelouze was famous as a teacher 19571 CHEMICAL ANNIVERSARIES 173 and his pupils included Berthelot and E Frdmy (1814-1894) who later taught Moissan.Amongst the workers in his laboratory in 1845-46 was Laurent who unsuccessfully applied for Pelouze’s chair in 1850. Auguste Laurentl* (1807-53) played a most important part in the development of organic chemistry. His name has been invariably linked with that of Gerhardt (1816-56) who undoubtedly owed a great deal to Laurent. After graduating from the School of Mines in Paris in 1830 Laurent became assistant to Dumas and carried out his first research in organic chemistry-the isolation and purification of naphthalene and a study of its substitution reactions. After occupying a number of posts he became in 1838 Professor at Bordeaux, where he remained until 1848 and then returned to Paris. In 1848 he became assayer to the Mint a post he held until his death from tuberculosis five years later.Laurent and Gerhardt first met in 1843 and they kept up a steady correspondence until Gerhardt joined Laurent-in 1848. They spent the next two years in close collaboration. It is clear that this friendship with Gerhardt who was very unpopular-Liebig called him “a man without character and without morality”-did Laurent little good. Laurent’s theoretical contributions to the development of organic chemistry may be summarised very briefly as follows He put forward a theory of fundamental and derived radicals for example “I shall call naphthalene the fundamental radical and the compounds which result from its transformations the derived radicals.” This he later called the nucleus theory.This theory was contrary to the current electrochemical ‘dualistic’ theory of Berzelius who called Laurent’s a bizarre theory. Dumas said “I am not responsible for the gross exaggeration with which Laurent has invested my theory,” but after his discovery of trichloracetic acid he put forward a type theory of his own definitely derived from Laurent’s. Laurent’s aim was to develop a classification of organic compounds based on their properties and reactions with a nomenclature related to this classifi-cation. His ideas were summarised in his Mkthode de Chimie which strongly criticised the dualistic theory and was published after his death (English translation 1855). In an important paper of 1846 he clearly distinguished between equivalents atoms and molecules (which Gerhardt had confounded) and adopted Gerhardt’s atomic weights.15 At the same time he put forward the water type theory, later used by Williamson and Gerhardt.Laurent accomplished a great deal of experimental work much of it with little equipment. It included the discovery of anthracene, anthraquinone pyrene and chrysene. He showed that picric acid was trinitrophenol and prepared isatin and derivatives from indigo. When back in Paris we are told “his laboratory was the rendezvou 1 74 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY for a great number of scientific men; there was no lack of news there; and Laurent had every day some new result to announce or some new idea to develop. . . . Laurent possessed a degree of analytical tact never known before; his researches on naphthalene indigo, bitter-almond oil etc.remain as a monument to a genius for investigation. . .” 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. REFERENCES D. W. Singer Ann. Sci. 1948-50 6 171. T. M. Lowry Historical Introduction to Chemistry London 1936 108. A. Kent (Ed.) An Eighteenth Century Lecturesh$ in Chemistry Glasgow 1950, 176; G. Lockemann and R. E. Oesper J. chemical Educ. 1953 30 202; W. A. Smeaton Ann. Sci. 1954 10 224. K. R. Webb Chem. and Ind. 1955 316. J. W. Cook J. 1953 566. R. B. Strathdee J. 1953 221. Quoted by H. Terrey Ann. Sci. 1937 2 147. W. A. Tilden Famous Chemists London 1921 191. T. E. Thorpe Essays in Historicat Chemistry London 191 1 533. J. R. Partington Ann.Sci. 1951 7 173; L. Darmstaedter and k. E. Oesper, W. M. MacNevin J. chemical Educ. 1954 31 207. N. L. and A. Clow Chem. andInd. 1943 104; A. Kent (Ed.) ref. 3 pp. 120, K. R. Webb Chem. and Ind. 1945 163; H. E. Street and G. E. Trease, C . de Milt Chymia 1953 4 85. J. H. S. Green J. 1956 394. A. and N. L. Clow Ann. Sci. 1956 11 192. J. chemical Educ. 1928 5 785. 153. Ann. Sci. 1951 7 70. NONAGENARIANS Dr C. A. Seyler who has been a Fellow of the Institute since 1895, celebrated his 90th birthday on 5 December in the familiar surroundings of his laboratory at B.C.U.R.A. Leatherhead. To mark the occasion an illuminated vellum scroll signed by his colleagues was presented to him by Mr R. L. Brown Director of the Basic Research Laboratories. A week later Dr Seyler attended a meeting of the Coal Research Club at the Caf6 Royal London where a presentation was made to him by Dr Marie Stopes one of the founders of the Club this took the form of a silver salver engraved with the names of all the members.Later the same evening Mr A. M. Wandless Headquarters Research Depart-ment of the National Coal Board presented to Dr Seyler-on behalf of the International Committee for Coal Petrology of which Dr Seyler was first Hon. President-the first Reinhardt Thiessen medal. This medal was fabricated from coke coal dust and a modicum of tar skilfully compressed and carried a bas-relief of Dr Thiessen on one side. At its meeting on 10 December the B.C.U.R.A. Council expressed its congratulations to Dr Seyler and Dr W.Idris Jones c.B.E. later present-ed him with a volume of his (Dr Seyler’s) collected poems specially bound for the occasion. See also p. 189 BUILDING FOR RESEARCH Design Construction and Layout of Laboratories* H. A. SNOW A.R.I.B.A. superintending Architect Minktry of Works No building can be a success unless its designer has thoroughly understood the essential purpose and function which it is to fulfil. Thus one of the architect’s first tasks is to make a close study of the system or processes involved space plant and personnel require-ments; problems of delivery circulation dispatch and the like. I t may be assumed that much of this information will have been provided by the client but the architect must supplement it by personal observation and enquiry to obtain a clear mental picture of the essential requirements.This initial fact-finding process is complicated for research laboratory design since research is never static; it is constantly changing in both direction and scope and a brief based on immediate requirements would almost certainly be inapplicable when months or years later the building is completed. To overcome this difficulty one should attempt to forecast future developments as accurately as possible so as to assess the stage to which research may be expected to have advanced by the estimated completion date and then base the detailed schedule of require-ments for the building on this assessment. Accurate short-range prediction will thus ensure that the accommodation and facilities provided will fit the pattern of research at the time of completion.Long-term prediction-stated in terms of probable expansion requirements-provides valuable assistance to both architect and engineer in planning the overall building and service layouts. Clearly the director alone can possess the wider knowledge necessary to forecast the course and timing of research development, and it is upon him therefore that the architect must rely for a full and informative brief reflecting expected developments. The architect must accept its terms as authoritative but he should not necessarily follow all its provisions without question. The rapid and continual rise in building and engineering costs brings into sharp relief the need for economy in design and the planners * The paper on which this article is based was presented at the Symposium on the Direction of Research Establishments held at the National Physical Laboratory on 26-28 September 1956 and is reproduced here with permission.The full proceedings of the Symposium will be published later by H.M.S.O. 17 176 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR of research laboratories especially those built with public funds, are peculiarly susceptible to charges of extravagance however ill-founded. It is the duty of both architect and engineer to examine critically the detailed schedule of requirements and to put forward any practical alternatives whereby economies in building or plant costs might be made. It may happen that what was no more than a suggestion by the director for achieving certain desiderata becomes-by the time it reaches the architect’s brief-a firm requirement, which might add materially to the cost of construction if carried out.It is not the business of the director to evaluate the effect of his suggestions upon building costs; he will rely upon the architect for advice in such matters. Real economy begins with the director’s schedule of requirements and from the moment the designer first puts pencil to paper. CHOICE OF SITE Where a new laboratory is planned selection of the site is a matter of prime importance. Many factors-technical financial, social and political-will influence the choice and the director will be well advised to consult his architect at an early stage. A site which may satisfy the special research requirements may be difficult or very expensive to build on incapable of being properly drained, subject to mining risks or otherwise unsatisfactory.Moreover, timely approach to the local authorities may also prevent difficulties arising later over planning or other statutory requirements. In determining the area of land required due provision should be made for growth and development. Too little attention has been paid to this in the past with the result that some of the older D.S.I.R. laboratories for example will shortly reach the physical limits of expansion. They are virtually hemmed in and no more land is available around them. LAYOUT In planning the larger type of laboratory consisting possibly of a number of different divisions the question arises as to whether all principal units should be grouped together in one close-knit block or dispersed into divisional units.Some directors hold most strongly to the view that close-knit planning is essential as only by this means can proper control of the organisation be ensured. The validity of this argument is open to question especially when it is remembered that the larger research establishments such as Farnborough or Harwell appear to function efficiently despite their vast size. The decision in my view should turn on the question of economics and upon what is the most suitable arrangement to meet site conditions. The ope 19571 BUILDING FOR RESEARCH 177 layout is more appropriate to a hilly site; it avoids expensive under-building can be moulded more effectively to the contours of the land and facilitates future extension.Among its disadvantages are longer (and ,therefore more costly) roads paths and services. Whilst the single-block plan may be a more economical pro-position on level ground by reason of shorter services and com-munications it presents technical problems which may well involve extra cost in other directions. The principal objection to this form of planning however lies in the restrictions which it imposes upon future expansion. Whatever form the proposed laboratory may take there is a fundamental lesson to be drawn from past mistakes which architect and scientist alike must heed. This is the supreme importance of preparing at the outset a master plan which lays down the general lines of development for the future.Such a master plan must, above all be flexible; it should not (and indeed could not) attempt to lay down more than the broad outline of future development, leaving details to be filled in as occasion demands. What it does ensure is that development over the years will follow an orderly path and that mistakes in siting new buildings roads and services will be avoided. It may be objected that a research laboratory by its very nature cannot be tied down to a preconceived plan-that its development must be free to flow in any direction circumstances may dictate. Whatever merits this argument possesses the congestion incon-venience and even positive discomfort apparent in certain labora-tories today is the direct outcome of unplanned development in the past.There is no all-embracing formula for the actual process of laying out a new laboratory plan. Technical requirements must naturally predominate but size shape and configuration of the land means of access orientation and various other factors will all influence the designer in shaping his scheme. Fundamental precautions such as the siting of noisy workshops noxious processes, boiler house and so on away from the main body of the laboratory will be taken as a matter of course. Similarly laboratories equipped with balances or other delicate instruments will be located as far as possible from concentrations of heavy plant or traffic. In any development scheme the imaginative designer will be concerned not only to preserve and integrate existing amenities-trees hedges streams and the like-but also to create others so far as lies within his power.Careful attention will be directed to the grouping of the various units distance between buildings in relation to their height formation and layout of permanent open spaces tree planting and so forth 178 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR It should be mentioned in passing that the value of such amenities will be largely lost unless proper care is taken to maintain them in the future. All these considerations may seem obvious when stated but lack of attention to them in the past has led to unfortunate mistakes, the results of which are now only too apparent. The combination of well designed and efficient buildings good layout and pleasant surroundings must inevitably exert a beneficial influence upon the work of the laboratory.DESIGN OF BUILDINGS Assuming that the site has been selected and that the architect has studied the detailed requirements gained a close insight into the functions of the laboratory and given some preliminary thought to the general layout the business of transmuting ‘words figures and descriptions through the intermediate drawings stage into actual buildings can go forward. Where the laboratory equipment involves special engineering plant the architect will wish to consult with his engineering colleagues in the very early stages of design. In such cases there is much to be said for setting up a joint design team consisting of architect engineer and representatives of the director so that all aspects of the scheme can be kept under continual review as design work proceeds.This policy has been successfully adopted by the Ministry of Works and also by various private concerns for whom research laboratories have been built in recent times. However exhaustive the preliminary study it is not to be expected that the first sketch plans will meet with universal approval. From these the director will get his first ‘pictorial’ glimpse of how the written schedules of requirements will appear in building form, and any important omissions from the schedules or misconceptions on the part of the architect will be disclosed. At this stage the director and his staff should scrutinise the sketch plans with the utmost care and thoroughness following which the architect can be given a detailed list of any modifications or additions desired.The director should clearly understand the vital importance of making known at this juncture all basic objections to the sketch plan proposals. If he does so the agreed amendments will be duly incorporated in the final sketch plans to which in turn only very minor modifications ought to be necessary. If, however he asks for further alterations each time an amended set of sketch plans is presented the result is to delay the commencement of building indefinitely besides causing unnecessary drawing work. Once the final sketch plans have been completed and approved no further alterations should be made-the working drawings an 19571 BUILDING FOR RESEARCH 179 details for actual building purposes must be allowed to proceed without hindrance.Above all changes of mind ought never to be indulged in once the building work has been started; not only do they delay the work and bring about a sense of frustration among workmen builder and supervisors alike but they are also apt to be costly and a fruitful source of claims by contractors. An important factor in determining the design principles for any given laboratory building is the degree of flexibility the director may require. In some instances it may only be necessary to ensure that the building can be extended (either laterally or vertically or both) should the need arise. Traditional construction using load-bearing brick external walls brick or hollow tile partitions and concrete floors can suitably be used in such cases although it may be prudent to allow for partitions to be removed if necessary without affecting the structure (see Fig.1). FIG. I . Hydraulics Research Station Wallingford Berks. External view showing temporary curtain walling and staircase Sometimes a much higher degree of flexibility is called for, involving completely demountable internal partitioning benches and fittings; steel or concrete frame construction is then essential. An example of this type of building is the proposed new Chemistry Laboratory for the Building Research Station Watford. The building is planned on a 40-in. grid both horizontally and vertically; the three upper floors (each of 6,400 sq. ft.) are designed as clea 180 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR laboratory space.Light partition panels may be erected at any position on the 40-in. grid; benches fume cupboards and other fittings can be arranged to suit and connections to all services will be available at 10 ft. centres. By means of a heated ceiling, evenly distributed warmth will be provided over the whole laboratory area irrespective of partition arrangements. Demountable lighting panels in the ceiling will ensure that adequate artificial lighting is provided to suit any arrangement of partitioning. This building will normally accommodate twelve sections each in the charge of a principal scientific officer. Should the director at any time require to expand or combine certain of the sections, the necessary physical rearrangement of accommodation could be readily (but not too readily) effected.This kind of flexibility is not necessarily so costly as may appear at first sight since by careful planning initially and using the ‘diversity factor’ which flexibility affords it should be possible to reduce the total floor area below that which would otherwise be necessary. One of the first decisions to be taken in the design of a new laboratory building is the number of floors to be provided. Tech-nical considerations will sometimes rule out multi-storey buildings, but at others (for example the ordinary small-scale physics or chemistry laboratory) two- or three-storey buildings can and should be accepted especially where space is limited. Even where it is not, a degree of inconvenience is no justification for insisting upon single-storey construction which is more costly per sq.ft. of floor space than are two- or three-storey buildings. Economies apart, the careful grouping of single- and multi-storey buildings on the site greatly enhances architectural effect and lends interest to the scheme as a whole. As part of the day-to-day running of a research laboratory there is bound to be considerable movement of materials or equip-ment within individual buildings. If for this purpose trolleys are to be used then door and corridor widths must be suitably chosen and means provided for vertical movement between floors. CONSTRUCTION The form of construction most suited to a particular laboratory building must largely be determined by technical requirements (including the degree of flexibility) cost and architectural con-siderations.For the smaller laboratory load-bearing external walls with concrete floors and roof provide a satisfactory and economical solution especially as by the use of pre-stressed concrete floor and roof units clear spans of up to 40 ft. can be readily provided. The window area however is necessarily limited 19571 BUILDING FOR RESEARCH 181 A system of construction successfully adopted for the new Radio Research Laboratory at Datchet consists of pre-cast concrete posts supporting light tubular steel roof-trusses carrying in turn a steel deck insulated on its upper surface and finished with three-layer bituminous felt. The decking constitutes both ceiling and roof, and an experimental area has been fitted with hot-water pipes to form a heated ceiling (see Fig.2). FIG. 2. Radio Research Laboratory Datchet Bucks. Progress photograph showing concrete posts tubular steel trusses and deck roof The area between the posts of the external walls consists of full width windows-giving maximum daylight to the laboratories-with cavity brickwork below. Internal partitions are brick since no special flexibility was demanded but these are not load-bearing and could be removed very simply if required. This form of construction has many advantages not the least of which is speed of erection; it is not expensive and is particularly well adapted to the requirements of smaller laboratories. For the three-storey main block of the Water Pollution Research Laboratory at Stevenage the system of construction used was a combination of reinforced concrete frame and load-bearing brick walls.The upper floors and roofs were all of pre-stressed pre-cast reinforced concrete units bearing on both frame and walls. The concrete frame or grid was exposed externally the panels being filled in by full width steel windows with vertical cedar boarding below backed by insulating blocks (see Fig. 3 ) 182 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR In both the foregoing examples the electrical gas telephone and hot and cold water services together with heating mains were run in trenches under or in false ceilings over the main corridors. Distribution feeds were carried behind benches to outlet points, FIG.3. Water Pollution Research Laboratory Stevenage Herts. Main building radiators or convectors in the individual rooms. Exhaust ducts from fume cupboards were run partly in specially created vertical casings and partly in false ceilings of corridors to deliver through grilles above roof level 19571 BUILDING FOR RESEARCH 183 For the multi-storey laboratory or where specially high structures are necessary to accommodate large-scale plant fully-framed con-struction will probably have to be adopted using either reinforced concrete or steel. The projected Chemistry Laboratory at the Building Research Station at Watford (previously described) will be steel-framed. This was decided upon because the steel lattice girders supporting laboratory floors offer the maximum clear opening through which the network of service pipes (a product of flexibility) can be con-veniently threaded.The floor construction will consist of accurately cast concrete panels removable where required to give access to services. Con-sideration was given to making the services accessible from below, but since this would have meant disorganisation of two floors in the event of rearrangement of one the idea was abandoned. The question of what form of roof to adopt in any given scheme must again depend upon various considerations-architectural and technical-and needs no special comment except the advice (to architects) that flat roofs should never be designed to carry more than the minimum superficial load. This will ensure that attempts by scientists to place heavy and unsightly equipment on the roof-thereby destroying any architectural merit the building may possess -will be effectively discouraged.Superficial floor loading for the normal type of laboratory i.e. where no special requirements or apparatus are involved is usually taken at 60 lb./sq. ft. No general rules can be stated for ceiling heights since these must depend upon room area and depth the height of any special apparatus the nature of the work to be carried out daylight and other factors. Normally where no special equipment is required, a height of 9 ft. 6 in. from floor to ceiling would be a reasonable allowance. HEATING Many different heating systems have been used in different types of laboratories ranging from full air conditioning and warming to hot-water pipes fitted with aluminium alloy reflectors.Where ledges or dust pockets have to be avoided e.g. in tracer-element or biological laboratories heated floors and ceilings may provide the best answer. A common arrangement is to install hot-water convectors behind the rear casing of benches so that a current of air circulates over the heated surfaces and passes out through grilles in the bench top. It is important to see that such grilles are not placed horizontally in the working section of a bench where liquids might be spilt into the cavities 184 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Buildings for pilot-scale plant workshops stores and other large rooms of a semi-industrial character where wall radiators may not be suitable or practicable? are more effectively heated by unit heaters suspended from the roof.These have the advantage of being directional and thus can be arranged to cover only those areas where heating is required. An interesting departure from this practice was adopted in the large main hall at the Hydraulics Research Laboratory Wallingford, where a heated ceiling was used so as to leave a clear passage for FIG. 4. Hydraulics Research Station Wallingford. Interior view showing transporters and heated ceilings the four camera transporters (see Fig. 4). This system provides comfortable working conditions although the heating plane is 25 ft. from floor level. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING Artificial illumination in smaller laboratories is now almost universally provided by fluorescent tubes much of the earlier dislike of this form of lighting having disappeared as the result of improvement and development.Glare from fluorescent tubes can be reduced if not eliminated, by the use of louvred or ‘egg-crate’ bafRes. An intensity of from 15 to 20 lumenlsq. ft. at bench level may be regarded as normal in most laboratories but where precisio 19571 BUILDING FOR RESEARCH 185 work is involved the general lighting should be supplemented by adjustable bench fittings. OEce lighting may have either tungsten or fluorescent sources; the fittings should be simple in character but well designed and efficient. In certain rooms (some of which will instantly suggest themselves) it may be appropriate to introduce slightly less utilitarian lighting fittings either specially designed or selected from among the many good standard designs now available.Tungsten industrial-type lighting and fittings are usual in pilot-scale laboratories workshops bulk stores and similar buildings, though here again ‘point’ lighting for precision work may be necessary. Specially designed lighting fittings are required to meet the exceptional conditions hund in research laboratories. Some of these must be capable of withstanding high or low temperatures; some corrosion from acid fumes; others extreme humidity or actual immersion. Lighting fittings for laboratories dealihg with bacteriological or radioactive subjects must conform with the requirement usual in such conditions i.e. that all ledges crevices and other lodgments for radioactive dust must be eliminated.In situations where there is an explosive risk lighting fittings are required to be flameproof or alternatively placed outside the laboratory illuminating it through sealed glass-fronted ports in the walls or roof. In neither case should control switches be located inside the laboratory. A requirement sometimes called for especially in certain physics laboratories is non-stroboscopic lighting usually provided by three-phase current or the two-lamp system. Where for experimental techniques a constant supply is essential, a stand-by lighting system with automatic cut-in must be provided. DRAINAGE The disposal of liquid wastes from laboratories should be con-sidered at the site-selection stage as it can present considerable difficulty.These wastes are often highIy polluting and their discharge direct to water-courses is prohibited by the Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 195 1. Usually the most satisfactory form of treatment is in admixture with domestic sewage on a normal sewage-disposal works but local authorities need only accept these wastes by agreement under the Public Health (Drainage of Trade Premises) Act 1937. Unless the quantity of waste is small and the discharge is to a sewer carrying a considerable flow some form of pre-treatment will be necessary. For this reason chemical wastes should be kep 186 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR separate from other drainage and the volume should be reduced as much as possible to facilitate treatment.Where radioactive waste is involved however no authority would be prepared to receive it unless the degree of radioactivity were very low and then only subject to strict safeguards. The efffuent is therefore segregated from the remainder of the chemical wastes run to special holding tanks and in due season removed by a competent agency for disposal by authorised means.” The collection and conveyance of chemical wastes from the laboratory to the point of disposal needs special attention. Materials that are proof against corrosion from acids alkalis and solvents must be chosen and the choice will depend on the particular waste to be carried. Each case must be studied individually. Stainless steel polythene PVC chemical lead and acid-resisting stoneware have all been used with success.Stoneware pipes have a high degree of resistance to corrosion but are difficult to joint. High ahmina cement has been used for this purpose for mild dilute wastes and resin cements for more concentrated ones but there are many other materials which would be equally successful. Generous ducts should be provided for the pipework within the building and it may be wise with highly corrosive wastes to provide ducts for external drainage also. For any laboratory discharging chemical or other ‘trade’ wastes, the importance of a correctly designed drainage system is obvious, since rapid corrosion would be an extremely serious matter. This subject which covers a wide field is fully dealt with in a recent Paper-? FINISHINGS AND FITTINGS When it is realised that the items coming under this head-plastering wall tiling floor finishings decoration benches fume cupboards and the like-may account for over 20 per cent of the total cost of a laboratory building the importance of a critical approach to their design or selection becomes clear.If standards of finish are pitched too high costs are inflated without adding in the least to the facilities or general efficiency of a laboratory. At the same time standards must not be depressed to the point where they exercise an adverse psychological effect upon the occupants. In what circumstances for example should walls and ceilings be plastered? Clearly it would be inappropriate to do so in bulk * At U.K. Atomic Energy Establishments special arrangements exist for the t R.T. Gillet “Corrosion Resisting Materials in Plumbing and Drainage disposal of effluent. for Chemical Wastes,” J. Instn publ. Hlth Engrs 1955 54 202 19571 BUILDING FOR RESEARCH 187 stores garages workshops and the like but equally clearly there is every justification for a smooth plaster finish to interior surfaces of laboratories concerned with for example medical research micro-biology or radioactivity. Between these extremes lies a range of laboratories quasi-laboratories and ancillary buildings where the issue is not so easily decided where each must be considered strictly on its merits and in the light of the processes involved. The rule should be that unless a good case can be made out for it plastering ought not to be used; brick or concrete surfaces should be finished ‘fair-faced’ and treated with gloss paint emulsion paint or distemper as appropriate.Even where individual rooms are plastered it does not follow that corridors or staircases giving access to them need be similarly finished. These may often be left fair-faced and painted or distempered. The selection of floor-as of wall and ceiling-finishes also calls for care and discretion. Industrial-type rooms or buildings (which may be taken to include most pilot-scale laboratories) usually call for no more than concrete or granolithic floor finishes, although in joinery and metal-working shops wood-block flooring is often advocated (as being less liable to damage expensive machine tools accidentally dropped upon it).It is a common complaint, however that wood-block flooring is slippery and therefore dangerous near moving machinery. The average laboratory floor finish is subject not only to normal wear by personnel trolleys and the like but also to attack by spilt chemicals. Probably the ideal flooring is teak but it has a high initial cost. Many makes of jointless flooring are now available, and some of these show considerable promise. Few however can compare in price with good quality linoleum which meets most of the requirements and in the event of serious damage by chemicals, is sufficiently cheap to warrant removal and replacement. Other floor finishes in general use are thermo-plastic tiling terrazzo, granolithic paving and quarry tiling. Advocacy of restraint in the choice of internal finishes is not to say that the buildings must be dull and uninspiring places in which to work.On the contrary by bold and imaginative use of colour in decorative treatment it is possible to create an interesting, stimulating and even exciting atmosphere irrespective of the surface finishes used. This has been well exemplified in various buildings a t the Building Research Station at Watford notably in those sections of the pilot-scale group which are in temporary use as a library. It is impossible in a short paper to discuss all the various special finishes required to meet the exceptional conditions obtaining i 188 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR research laboratories. Such conditions include extremes of tem-perature high humidity X-ray emission radioactivity chemical fumes and corrosive liquids-to mention only a few.All these present their own problems and call for special techniques in the composition and execution of the finishings adopted. The laboratory bench with its associated services is one of the basic tools of research although design and layout must necessarily vary in detail according to individual requirements (see Fig. 5 ) . FIG. 5. Water Pollution Research Laboratory Stevenage Typical bench layout Benches developed for D.S.I.R. laboratories by the Ministry of Works usually finish 3 ft. from floor level to working plane and 2 ft. 3 in. (single width). Skirtings 9-12 in. high at back of bench form a mounting for service outlets and instruments.Pipes wiring and instrument cabling are accommodated in a cavity behind the skirting the top of which is covered by a wood capping arranged where suitable as an extension to internal window sills. Hot air grilles are fitted either into the skirting or the wood capping. Independent cupboard and drawer units can be inserted below the bench tops as required but a continuous 12 in. deep cavity is maintained at the back for heating drainage or other mains. Radiators or convectors may also be located in this cavity spaced between cupboard units. Bench tops are usually of solid oiled teak which stands up well to the demands and hazards of laboratory routine but plasti 1957 J BUILDING FOR RESEARCH 189 finishes on framed or solid blockboard backing are also widely used.A less expensive finish suitable for use in non-chemical laboratories is good quality linoleum based on blockboard. Bench sinks for normal small-scale research may range from fireclay to acid-resisting stoneware but for photographic work lead-lined sinks and drainboards are provided. In exceptional cases stainless steel sinks may be required. Special benches for balances and optical instruments are of slate marble or other dense inert material supported on brick piers and based (where necessary) on independent foundation slabs insulated from the main structure of the building. Fume cupboards vary in form and size but basically consist of a teak frame having fixed plate-glass panels at sides and back and counterbalanced sliding sashes at front.These when raised should not be less than 6 ft. from floor to underside of sash. Acid-resisting plastic strips cover the internal jointing of the framework; the working bench-usually of slate and pierced for services and wastes -is set 3 ft. from the floor. Fumes are removed by extract fans in the upper part of the cabinet. These fans and any internal lighting fittings need to be specially protected against corrosion. Other fittings and furnishings required include writing tables, glass-fronted cabinets storage racks stools library shelving reading tables desks and chairs. In the selection of these-their design, material colour-as well as in the choice of curtains blinds and carpets the architect should be fully consulted in order that the finished and equipped laboratory may emerge as a single balanced unity of which all the parts are seen to fit together in harmony and in which (it may be hoped) those conditions most favourable to the attainment of further knowledge will have been created.NONAGENARIANS Mr W. Lincolne Sutton Fellow who joined the Institute in 1895, celebrated his 90th birthday on 27 February. He was formerly Public Analyst and Official Agricultural Analyst Analytical and Consulting Chemist Gas Examiner Water Examiner Consulting Chemist to water undertakings and Analyst appointed by the Ministry of Health to examine drugs and medicines. His activities in these directions covered Norfolk, Suffolk and a large area of eastern and central England. See also p. 174 SCHOOLS OF CHEMISTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND XXX-THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL By T.P. HILDITCI-I c.B.E. D.SC. F.R.I.c. F.R.S. Emeritus Prq fessor of Industrial Chemistry The University of Liverpool received its Charter in 1903 but as University College Liverpool it had been in existence since 1881 when with Owens College Manchester and the Yorkshire College, Leeds it was a constituent college of the earlier Victoria University, The desire of the citizens and municipal authorities of Liverpool to possess a college of University standing had been growing steadily during the 1870s and it eventually reached fruition by the establish-ment of the College on a site adjacent to the Liverpool Royal Infirmary the Liverpool Royal Infirmary School of Medicine became the Faculty of Medicine in the new University College which also included Faculties of Arts and Science and (somewhat later) Engineering and Law.In 1867 James Campbell Brown came from the University of Aberdeen to the Royal Infirmary School of Medicine as a lecturer in Experimental Science and in the course of the next eight years became Public Analyst for the City of Liverpool the counties of Cheshire and Lancashire and the Isle of Man. In 1877 he became chairman of the Royal Infirmary School of Medicine and also joint secretary of the body which was then formed to promote the creation of University College. He was one of several ardent spirits who were foremost in raising funds for the establishment of the College, and when it came into being in 1881 he became the first holder of the Chair of Chemistry which had been endowed by Mrs Grant.He occupied the Chair until his death in 1910. In 1884 a typical Victorian building (which later came to be known as the “Old Chemistry Building”) was provided for the School of Chemistry. By present-day standards it is in some respects antique in design and certainly small; but it was extremely well built and for its date well equipped with laboratories lecture theatres and private rooms. Up to the early years of the present century with a large teaching laboratory added in memory of William Gossage in 1886 it was appropriate to the needs of the comparatively small but active chemistry school the number of Honours students in which was normally not more than half-a-dozen in each session with corresponding and somewhat larger numbers 19 XXX-THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL 19 1 in the more junior and elementary years.In the latter of course, instruction was also given to students from the Faculties of Medicine and Engineering and to science students who had chosen physics or biology as their main subjects of study. Small by comparison with the present chemistry departments, the infant school of chemistry at Liverpool must have been a pleasant place and it produced men who later made their mark in academic or in industrial chemistry such as the late Professor F. Francis of Bristol and Professor Henry Bassett of Reading; W. H. Roberts, E. Gabriel Jones and J. R. Stubbs in Public Analytical circles; IF. J. Brislee H. W. Brownsdon T. Callan J. T. Conroy G.C. Clayton A. Rule and others in industry. Professor Campbell Brown was aided by a small staff of able lecturers of whom J. Smeath-Thomas and A. W. Titherley survive. Dr Smeath-Thomas left Liverpool many years ago to occupy a Chair of Chemistry in South Africa where he still resides. Dr Titherley is remembered by many old Liverpool students for his outstanding work as a teacher of organic chemistry; indeed until he left the University during the first world war to take an important position with a large firm of chemical manufacturers he was almost entirely responsible for the teaching and development of organic chemistry at the University. In his retirement in the pleasant countryside of Hampshire he is not forgotten by his former students. From the commencement, Campbell Brown and his staff did not neglect research and a steady flow of papers was communicated to the Journal of the ChemicaZ Society and other scientific journals.In 1903 Sir John Brunner endowed a Chair of Physical Chemistry, of which Professor F. G. Donnan became the first occupant. A new building to house the new department of physical chemistry was added at one corner of the main chemistry building in 1906; built to the design of Professor Donnan and named the Muspratt Laboratory of Physical Chemistry it included private rooms a lecture theatre and a library in addition to physico-chemical laboratories which at that date were the best equipped in the country. Here between 1903 and 1913 (when he left to succeed Sir William Ramsay at University College London) Donnan carried out much of his best known investigations and trained a remarkable group of research workers who became distinguished in academic or industrial circles, including H.S. Taylor later Professor at Princeton U.S.A. for many years F. A. Freeth W. Clayton and many others. He was succeeded by Professor W. C. McC. Lewis in 1913. Meanwhile Professor E. C. C. Baly had been appointed to the Grant Chair of Inorganic Chemistry after Professor Campbell Brown’s death in 191 0 and held this position until his retirement twenty-seve 192 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR years later. Baly was already distinguished for his studies in spectro-scopy especially in the direction of absorption spectra of organic compounds in the ultra-violet region of the spectrum.During his period at Liverpool he developed and extended these researches and also became interested in problems connected with the photo-synthesis of carbohydrates. In 1915 later perhaps than the importance of the subject merited, a Chair of Organic Chemistry was founded with the aid of an endowment by Heath Harrison; Professor (now Sir) Robert Robinson returned from the University of Sydney to become its first occupant ( 19 1 5-20). Thus at the time of the first world war the original School of Chemistry of University College Liverpool in 188 1 had expanded into the three conventional Departments of Chemistry each with its own Professor. Moreover in 1903 University College as mentioned earlier was granted a Charter and became the University of Liver-pool.In common with all British universities Liverpool had to cope with a greatly increased number of students of chemistry at the close of the war in 19 18. In respect of accommodation to deal with this large increase the chemical laboratories at Liverpool were in a difficult position except perhaps relatively in the Muspratt laboratories of physical chemistry. Ever since 19 18 until very recently (1955) and in spite of two major building develbpments, working space was very cramped and never caught up with the increasing numbers of students (undergraduate and postgraduate) and the ever-increasing complexity of equipment which demands space for its operation. The overcrowded conditions never caused any relaxation in effort or results.Marked and consistent expansion in the numbers of research workers led to greatly increased contribu-tions to the scientific journals whilst at the time of the onset of the second world war the Honours School of Chemistry usually included 25-30 students in the main chemistry division with up to about 10 Honours students in the separate School of Biochemistry (u. infir.). Throughout this period too much credit cannot be given to the staff of lecturers in all three Departments for their endurance over many years of almost intolerable conditions of overcrowding with lack of quiet. In several instances two or even three lecturers of some seniority shared the same small room for office and tutorial purposes, whilst private rooms for research by the staff were extremely limited.The first rush of ex-service and other students after the 1914-18 war was coped with to some extent by the temporary provision of wooden army huts as additional teaching laboratories and about 1923 a wing of a projected permanent new building to house all the chemistry departments was completed. This consisted of fairly large laboratories on three upper floors with other research room Older Chemistry Building University of Liverpool The original Chemistry Building ( 1884)-gabled structure The ‘Gossage’ Inorganic Laboratory ( 1886)-left The ‘Muspratt’ Physical Chemistry Laboratory ( 1906)-The new ‘Donnan’ Laboratory of Inorgani 19571 XXX-THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL 193 in the basement of the building. It eased the position temporarily, but in a few years overcrowding again became acute.It also became clear that this building as designed was not well suited to the modern needs and developments of chemistry teaching and research and, shortly before the second world war it was decided to relieve con-gestion by the provision of an entirely separate building for organic chemistry. Fortunately this was begun before war broke out and completed after some delay in 1942. I t is an excellent example of up-to-date provision for teaching and research and has added much to the efficiency of the school of chemistry particularly the organic division. To bring the story of accommodation up to date it should be stated that within the past two years the greater part of a new block of buildings for iiiorganic and physical chemistry has been completed in a new university precinct which will in course of time house all the departments of the Faculty of Science.This building com-pleted late in 1954 was formally opened by H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh as the Donnan Laboratories of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry. I t contains four spacious and admirably designed laboratories for teaching purposes with abundant accommodation in research laboratories and private rooms for lecturers and professors; it remains to be completed by the addition of lecture theatres and provision for a Department of Industrial Chemistry. It is intended that eventually the Department of Organic Chemistry will be transferred to a site near to the Donnan Laboratories but this is at present a rather remote prospect; so that although the accommoda-tion of the chemistry departments is now very satisfactory for a long time the two main chemistry buildings will lie a considerable distance apart.It is unforturzate if unavoidable that at present separation by physical distance will be added to that intellectual separation which sometimes seems to divide physical chemists from their organic brethren-or uice versa-although this has never been very noticeable at Liverpool where community of interest between members of the staffs of all the departments in the School of Chemistry has always been well maintained. I t remains to give some personal records of the individual sections of the Liverpool chemistry school since 1918. In the Department of Inorganic Chemistry under Professor Baly research (as already remarked) was mainly cowerned with spectroscopy and its applica-tions; Dr R.A. Morton one of his assistants gave much attention to the use of absorption spectra in the assay of vitamin A and of carotenoids and thus became interested in many biochemical problems so much so that later on biochemical interests became his main preoccupation and since 1944 he has been Professor of Biochemistry at Liverpool 194 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Professor Lewis who had succeeded Donnan in 1913 led an active school in studies of chemical kinetics during his first decade in the Brunner Chair and later gave much attention to the physico-chemical behaviour of natural colloids especially proteins. In investigations of kinetics and of photochemical problems he had able colleagues in Dr R.0. Griffith and (the late) Dr A. McKeown who was unfortunately one of the first casualties in the Liverpool air raids of 1940-41 whilst the late Dr W. J. Shutt was responsible for electrochemical research; he has been succeeded by Dr A. Hickling, at present Reader in Electrochemistry. When Professor Baly retired in 1937 it was decided to merge the Departments of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry and Professor Lewis became the Grant-Brunner Professor of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry until somewhat before the normal age declining health led to his retirement in 1948. Professor C. E. H. Bawn was then appointed to the dual Chair and under his energetic direction the numbers and activities of research workers have steadily grown, although much of his time was necessarily given for a considerable period to the design and construction of the new Donnan laboratories for teaching and research.Bawn has continued the interest of the physical chemistry school at Liverpool in reaction mechanisms and kinetics bringing with him a distinguished reputation in the field of chemical reactions that operate by a free radical mechanism; his work on this subject especially with reference to the principles of the production of high polymer molecular systems of various types, is carried on in collaboration with increasing numbers of postgraduate workers. Meantime the equally important side of undergraduate instruc-tion has never been neglected and now after many years practical teaching to junior and Honours students can at last be given in the new laboratories under conditions suited to the importance of the subject.While no specific reference will be made to the more recent members of the staff who give equal service to that rendered by lecturers in previous decades it is appropriate to name a few of the teachers who bore the burden of the less favourable conditions of accommodation between 1920 and 1950. Of the physical chemistry staff Drs Griffith McKeown Shutt and Hickling have already been mentioned in connection with their research activities. The inorganic school had the good fortune to possess for many years four outstanding teachers who are gratefully recalled by many generations of undergraduates.These were Messrs F. C. Guthrie J. T. Nance, D. hl. Edwards all now retired and Mr V. J. Occleshaw who after many years of service especially to the first-year students is still with the Department in its much improved location in the new Donna 19571 XXX-THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL 195 laboratories. The Professors of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry in the past thirty years would one feels be the first to support this tribute to the eight lecturers in question. Turning now to the other main department organic chemistry, it will be recalled that a Chair of Organic Chemistry was not created until 1915. In 1920 Professor (now Sir) Ian M. Heilbron succeeded Professor R. Robinson and remained at Liverpool until 1933 when he was translated to Manchester and subsequently to Imperial College London.His research at Liverpool dealt mainly with natural products including the constitution of the hydrocarbon squalene present in quantity in some shark-liver oils the nature of vitamin A and its relation to carotene and of vitamin D and its relationships with ergosterol and other sterols. His interests in the latter fields led him later to wide surveys of the naturally occurring members of the carotenoid and steroid groups. Professor A. Robert-son who has occupied the Chair since 1933 is well known for his work on other kinds of natural products notably rotenone and other naturally occurring compounds with insecticidal properties and on the constitution of colouring matters and other substances (frequently of a flavone or flavonol structure) produced in the barks of certain trees and again in numerous species of moulds and fungi.In addition to his scientific work Professor Robertson served for five years as Pro-Vice Chancellor of the University and is at present a member of the University Grants Committee; he will retire at the end of the current session and will be succeeded in the Heath Harrison Chair by Dr G. W. Kenner. Other members of the Organic Chemistry Department who have contributed prominently to research are Dr A. McGookin and Dr W. B. Whalley; the latter, after a period with Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. returned to academic work and has with Drs R. J. S. Beer and F. M. Dean been very active on the research side in recent years. As in the inorganic and physical chemistry departments teaching of organic chemistry was carried on in difficult conditions in the inter-war years; but the position was relieved earlier than in the other departments by the provision of the new building and excellent lecture theatre for organic chemistry which became available in 1942.The design and erection of this building occupied a very great proportion of Professor Robertson’s time and energies during the first few years of his work in Liverpool. During the period 1920-40, the teaching of organic chemistry owed much to the devoted work of the three lecturers of that time Dr F. W. Kay Dr McGookin and Mr W. Doran. Dr Kay after a brilliant early career at the Univer-sities of Manchester and Geneva spent the greater part of his life in the organic chemistry department at Liverpool where his work is recalled with affection by very many past students; he retired som 196 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR years ago but not infrequently visits the scene of his long career.Dr McGookin and Mr Doran still in the department have given equally devoted service in teaching organic chemistry to under-graduates over many years and with Dr Kay share their esteem. A fourth department that of Industrial Chemistry came into being in 1926 as the result of a bequest of Professor Campbell Brown, who left a life-interest in his estate to his widow after which it was to be offered to the University of Liverpool to endow a Chair and Department of Industrial Chemistry under specified conditions. These were that the Chair should be held by a Professor who was to study with postgraduate students the fundamental aspects of some field of chemistry which was of importance to some branch of chemical industry.The particular field to be selected by the University would not always be the same but could be varied as time went on. The work of the Campbell Brown Professor was to be exclusively research except for a limited amount of lecturing to Honours students and for consultation with industrial interests related to his field of study. On Mrs Campbell Brown’s death in 1923 the University accepted the endowment and decided that it was appropriate having regard to the industries of Liverpool and Merseyside that the field of research first selected should be fats and oils.The first Campbell Brown Professor was T. P. Hilditch who occupied the Chair of Industrial Chemistry for twenty-five years from 1926 and was joined by a succession of postgraduate students of Liverpool and from overseas (especially India) who desired to study the fundamental chemistry of the fats. From 1938 Dr M. L. Meara was lecturer in the Department assisting in the researches in progress and also developing a series of investigations of his own on the composition of certain natural fats and the con-figurational aspects of individual natural mixed glycerides. The general work of this Department may be summed up as the development of more refined methods than those current in 1925 for the determination and characterisation of the mixed fatty acids in natural fats and (to some extent) of the mixture of glycerides present therein.Interesting relations were found between the composition of the fatty acids in fats from related biological species of plants or animals whilst on the other hand the general pattern of glyceride structure over a wide range of natural fats became evident although much remains to be done in this respect before a fully complete picture can be reached. Two of the former students of the Depart-ment have proceeded to academic careers. Dr F. D. Gunstone is lecturer in Organic Chemistry at the University of St Andrews, where he has already built up a research team engaged in the investigation of fats and Dr J. P. Riley is lecturer in Chemica 1957) XXX-THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL I97 Oceanography at the University of Liverpool where he is applying modern analytical techniques to the determination of inorganic constituents of sea water.After Professor Hilditch retired the work of the Department on fats was brought to a conclusion and up to the present the future field of activity of the Chair of Industrial Chemistry has not been settled. This completes the description of the central Schools of Chemistry in the Faculty of Science at the University of Liverpool but the record would be deficient if no reference were made to two depart-ments in other faculties which are essentially concerned with chemistry. These are the Department of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Medicine and the Department of Metallurgy in the Faculty of Engineering. The Johnson Chair of Biochemistry created in 1902 was the first Professorship of Biochemistry to be founded in this country and was occupied by the late Professor Benjamin Moore from 1902 to 1914.He was succeeded by Professor W. Ramsden whose interests were largely in physico-chemical problems related to living tissues and who retired in 193 1. For the next ten years the Chair was held by Professor H. J. Channon and in this period the numbers of the School expanded rapidly with the increasing interest and importance of the subject. Professor Channon developed an active research school in which attention was largely given to several biochemical aspects of the functions of lipids in living organisms. Channon had the assistance of several lecturers who later proceeded to important positions elsewhere-Dr J.A. B. Smith now Director of the Hannah Dairy Research Institute Ayr Dr S. J. Folley now head of the Physiology Department at the National Institute for Research in Dairying Shinfield; Dr R. Gaddie now head of the Biochemistry Department Birmingham General Hospital; and Dr J. V. Loach, who became Assistant-Registrar in the University of Liverpool and is now Registrar of the University of Leeds. In 1944 the present Professor of Biochemistry R. A. Morton was appointed and the Department has continued to expand steadily in teaching and research up to the present time. I t was mentioned earlier that Professor Morton’s interest in biochemical problems arose from his spectroscopic studies when he was a lecturer in the Depart-ment of Inorganic Chemistry; whilst he has continued to extend the use of spectroscopic aids (especially absorption in the ultra-violet region) to the solution of analytical and constitutive problems in biochemical materials (notably vitamins A and A, and the retinenes) he has directed research with his students on various aspects of the metabolic changes in animal organs and tissues and the work of the School of Biochemistry at Liverpool continues to cover a wide and expanding field.Professor Morton has had th 198 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY help amongst other lecturers of Dr A. L. Stubbs now in industry in South Africa Dr J. Glover who is interested in work with radio-isotopes and still in the Department Dr T. W. Goodwin, who is one of the recognised authorities on the carotenoid pigments.In the Faculty of Engineering the Henry Bell Wortley Chair of Metallurgy was endowed in 1920 the first Professor being (the late) C. 0. Bannister who retired in 1941. The Department of Metallurgy is not so large as most of the others described in this article but its work has chiefly been on the more chemical aspects of the subject at all events in Professor Bannister’s time. The amount of original published work has also been less than in some of the other chemistry departments but a considerable amount of advisory work was carried out. Professor Bannister was assisted as Lecturer by Dr S. J. Kennett who for many years has given valued help and when the Chair was left vacant for ten years after Professor Bannister’s retirement carried on the work of the Department as its Acting Head.Professor E. C. Rollason was appointed to the Chair in 1951; he left recently to take a similar position in the University of Birmingham. This review has been devoted almost entirely to the personnel of the Schools of Chemistry at Liverpool and the accommodation provided for the study of chemistry and chemical research during the lifetime of the original University College and of the present University. Except for a few references to chemical industrialists, such as Brunner Gossage and Muspratt no acknowledgment has been made of the munificent help made from time to time by the industries of Merseyside and further afield to the development of the chemistry schools. Although more and more the finances of the University are largely provided from Government sources through the University Grants Committee private firms still continue to help the work materially more especially nowadays by the provision of grants and Fellowships to maintain postgraduate research workers.I t is also appropriate to mention that a University Appeal for L500,OOO was launched in 1956 to assist in the provision of funds for future developments in the University as a whole and that by the end of the year the sum of &650,000 had been given or promised in contributions from industrial firms and private benefactors, including past and present members of the University staff and many of its graduates BOOK REVIEWS What is Science? Edited by James R. Newman.21s. net. Pp. viii + 493. I t is perhaps significant that this book made up of essays by twelve very distinguished scientists is called “What is science ?” rather than “What science is.” Nowadays it is commonplace for leaders of the community to point out to us and to each other that this is a scientific age. But when they press for more scientists to be trained and educated, it is because they want them for what science does and not for what science is. A telephone is a product of modern science but the two ladies who conduct an interminable conversation by means of a telephone are not necessarily influenced by scientific considerations. A savage can quickly learn to use modern scientific weapons. What then do we mean by science? It is clearly a way of thinking, but of thinking about certain topics only.Beauty whether of colour, form music drama words or movement is not included in Mr Newman’s ambit. But even excluding these matters the separate aspects of science dealt with cover a wide range of subjects of direct concern to civilised people. Each author then has taken the branch of science in which he is expert and has set out to describe it in terms designed to be comprehensible to the ‘general’ reader. I t should be said at once that the reader had better not be too ‘general’ or he will have a hard time with some of the essays. But the purpose of the book is more than to supply an ‘owner-driver’s manual’ of how anthropology or astronomy-or for that matter chemistry-works. Each author has attempted also to use the material of his own speciality to explain what science is.Clearly this has been a difficult task and some contributors have succeeded better than others. Sir Edmund Whittaker writing on mathematics emphasises the amazing intellectual vitality of the period from Boole’s new algebraical interpretation of events in 1847 to the present day after two thousand years of standstill in logic since Aristotle. And now we have the mathe-matical laws of probability controlling the newer physics of the spon-taneous break-up of a radium atom. The exciting twentieth-century renaissance in thinking in which we are now participating if we would only realise it is most strikingly painted in Hermann Bondi’s paper on astronomy. Here is described in eminently comprehensible language, the logical evidence that modifies the law of conservation of mass by permitting a continual creation of matter at the rate of one atom of hydrogen per cubic foot of space every few billion years.The speed of the forward march of our understanding of the material nature of the universe is sharply illuminated by Dr Edward Condon’s account in his contribution on physics of Albert Einstein’s delighted surprise as he sat, as an old man at a Princeton seminar and heard a graduate student report on the energy of nuclear reactions based on his own original conception, The book falls roughly into two halves. Mathematics physics, astronomy and chemistry-gracefully handled by Professor John Read in his characteristically urbane style-are balanced by sections on biology, biochemistry anthropology genetics and-perhaps the least satisfactory chapters-psychology.Those who read What is science? will be well 199 (London Victor Gollanz Ltd. 1956.) Neither is happiness love or fun 200 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR rewarded. And if they do not find a definitive answer to the question set they will get at least a first approximation. MAGNUS PYKE They will gain fresh and illuminating ideas. Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry. Volume 11. Sub-Groups of the Periodic Table and General Topics. H. Remy. Translated by J. S. Anderson. Edited by J. Kleinberg. Pp. xxviii + 800. (New York Elsevier Publishing Company; London Cleaver-Hume Press Ltd. 1956.) 105s. net. The German edition of Professor Remy’s treatise first appeared in 1931 and since then it has become well established as a standard text on the Continent.The English translation which has been admirably carried out by Professor J. S. Anderson is based on the latest revision of the German text. This volume is described by the author as dealing with the sub-groups of the Periodic Table and with general topics. The former include Groups IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA and VIII; that is to say the transition metals together with zinc cadmium and mercury. The lanthanides and actinides are also included. The presentation of the chemistry of these elements follows lines which have now become very familiar. The occurrence extraction and properties of each element together with the chemistry of its compounds are described in turn.The treatment is largely descriptive and the theoretical background of the subject is not much in evidence. Nevertheless a great deal of useful material has been collected and it is well set out and easy to read. This is so for example in the sections on carbonyls iso- and hetero-poly acids the rare earths and the transuranic elements. The discussion of the chemistry of the transition elements would have been improved if there had been more emphasis on comparative chemistry within the various su b-groups. The general topics discussed cover a wide range and in my opinion, the chapters vary considerably in usefulness. The two on colloids and surface chemistry and on catalysis and reaction kinetics seem out of place in a book of this kind especially as their contents are not directly related to inorganic chemistry and are readily available elsewhere.Their inclusion may reflect the different approach in German universities to the teaching of inorganic chemistry. Others of the general chapters however contain much that is both new and interesting. Here special mention may be made of the chapters on metals and intermetallic phases on reactions in solids and on geo-chemistry where Professor Remy has gone well outside the usual compass of textbooks of inorganic chemistry. His chapters on isotopes radio-chemistry and nuclear chemistry are also a useful introduction to these subjects and contain a good deal of valuable new material General references are given at the end of each chapter though none to original papers are included.The production of the book leaves nothing to be desired; one’s only regret is that the price is necessarily high and that on this account it may fail to reach some of the many students who would find it useful. As a reference book for teachers it will be of the greatest value. H. J. EMEL~U 1957) BOOK REVIEWS 20 1 Oxine and its Derivatives. R. G. W. Hollingshead. Volume I. Oxine-Part 1. Pp. x + 322 Index (10). Volume 11. Oxine-Part 2. Pp. vi + 323-616 Index (19). Volume 111. Derivatives of Oxine-Part I. Pp. 6 17-896 Index (16). Volume IV. Deri-vatives of Oxine-Part 2. Pp. v + 897-121 1 Index (41). (London : Butterworths Scientific Publications 1954-4-6-6.) I t is over two years since the first two volumes of this work appeared, and there has therefore been considerable delay before it has been possible to consider the work as a whole.The volumes may only be purchased as sets as each two parts form a complete unit. Here one concludes we have everything on 8-hydroxyquinoline (at least up to 1955). Primarily of course the books are intended to appeal to analytical chemists although the early chapters of Volume I deal with the preparation physical and chemical properties of the reagent, Chapter 34 (Volume 11) deals with non-analytical applications of the compound and Chapter 46 (Volume IV) with its antibacterial and anti-fungal action. The remainder of the work is primarily a series of extended abstracts containing according to the judgment of the author more or less everything that has been written about the analytical chemistry of 8-hydroxyquinoline (Volumes I and 11) and of its derivatives (Volumes I11 and IV).The literature on the subject is so extensive that it would undoubtedly be difficult-indeed impossible-for one individual to evaluate it. Those who refer to this series will therefore obtain only as much information as if they had undertaken an ordinary literature survey since little or no attempt is made at critical presentation. Naturally an enormous saving of time results from having all this information presented compactly to the enquirer without his having to seek it out himself. One wonders, however whether sufficient people will require the information in sufficient detail to repay the author for the laborious painstaking and extensive work that must have gone into the preparation of these volumes.It is hoped that collation of all the methods for say aluminium will induce other workers to examine these critically. Then the mass of literature might ultimately be boiled down to something reliable accept-able and concise-not indeed to a single method since such ideal simplicity is not of the analyst’s world. Such an outcome would indeed make the work worthwhile; and this has undoubtedly been in the author’s mind since he refers to the unreliability of much of the early work on the reagent and indicates a clear need for re-examination and re-appraisal. Mr Hollingshead is to be congratulated on his presentation in orderly form of so much information; so that any particular aspect can readily be found-be it the gravimetric determination of vanadium the titri-metric determination of thorium or the behaviour of the mono-halogen derivatives of 8-hydroxyquinoline.Volume I and Volume I11 contain their own indexes Volume I1 contains a combined index to Volumes I and 11 and Volume IV contains an index to the complete series. One is sometimes a little surprised however at the tiny tailpieces to chapters which mention non-analytical applications and which might well have been consigned to the chapters specifically dealing with these. Thus it is probable that few who consult Volume I for information on aluminium will be particularly concerned by the knowledge that “mice infected with Aspicu2ari.s tetraptera were not cleared of worms by the oral administration of aluminium oxinate.” CECIL L.WILSON 168s. net 202 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR The Condensed Chemical Dictionary. Fifth Edition. Revised and enlarged by Arthur and Elizabeth Rose. (New York Reinhold Publishing Corporation; London Chapman and Hall Ltd. 1956.) 100s. net. I t is claimed for this publication that it is “a practical book for busy chemists engineers consultants purchasing agents executives-for anyone . . . who needs accurate up-to-date chemical information.” This claim appears from a careful inspection of the entries to be well justified, with the proviso that generally the information applies specifically to chemicals and chemical products manufactured or available in America. At the beginning of the book is a numbered list of 355 manufacturers who have supplied information concerning their products ; with perhaps half a dozen exceptions these are all American and the few exceptions are firms having strong American connections,’such as I.C.I.Ltd. and I.C.I. (Pharmaceuticals) Ltd. The products of the different firms given in the Dictionary under proprietary trade names or chemical names are identified by quoting the number of the firm in the above list. The information given about individual products is in many instances, comprehensive including chemical formula alternative chemical names, physical properties including specific gravity volatility and solubility, sometimes source or method of manufacture grades available containers used uses hazards and shipping regulations.The Dictionary covers both inorganic and organic products (for instance it is very informative regarding nuclear fission and new trans-uranic elements) but every page is witness to the enormous expansion in recent years of the scope of industrial organic chemistry and of the range of compounds formerly of purely academic importance in which the industrialist is either immediately or potentially interested. Synthetic fibres resins plastics waxes silicones surface-active agents and the compounds leading to all these are comprehensively covered and par-ticular attention seems to have been given to medicinal chemicals. There is less information on dyes though a few of the better known ones and some prominent intermediates are given. The only error discovered relates to a dye; the entry “crystal violet” refers the reader to “methyl violet” which however has no entry.The higher aromatic hydrocarbons such as naphthacene chryserie and picene are missing and pyrene appears only as the name of the fire extinguisher. These omissions are surprising in view of the large number of complex compounds included which are only of research interest at present. One of the longest entries is a two-column account of antibiotics a model of concise informative statement. Indeed the book’s outstanding attributes are the clear unambiguous language in which information is conveyed good writing and good editing. The reputed 30,000 entries are by no means all concerned with individual manufactured products or chemical compounds.The busy American executive can also find here clear definitions of many chemical and physical terms information about useful (botanical generally New World) plants descriptions of processes (Solvay process Fischer-Tropsch process and others less well known) and may learn that “petrol” is the term used in the British Empire (sic) except in Canada for gasoline. Although the dictionary is primarily of value for American users or for those interested in the American market there are few practising chemists in this country who would not be glad on occasion to have it at hand for reference. Pp. xix + 1,200. E. H. ROD 19571 BOOK REVIEWS 203 Laboratory Administration. E. S. Hiscocks. Pp. xvi + 392. Anyone who had the good fortune to attend the recent Symposium on the Direction of Research Establishments held at the National Physical Laboratory and who heard Mr Hiscocks will realise how near to his heart is the subject of his book.To him laboratory administration is an important subject in its own right. The 300 or more pages of text and 22 appendixes carry the imprint of the author’s conviction. The growth of research laboratories and research expenditure have made the problems of research management of comparable importance with those of business management. I t is perhaps surprising therefore, that little authoritative literature has appeared hitherto on the problems peculiar to the administration of science. Mr Hiscocks’ wide experience in this field ensures that his book will help to fill the gap. A professional scientist turned administrator his whole working life has been spent in the study of laboratory administration.It is therefore not surprising that although he has a proper sense of its importance he does not as a professional administrator might regard it as an end in itself. His conception of the responsibility of administration which must surely commend itself to all laboratory workers is that “the organisation and administration of the laboratory must be designed so as to give the utmost reasonable scope to the staff both collectively and as individuals.” Probably only Mr Hiscocks himself and the directors of large laboratories know how difficult it can be to satisfy collective and individual needs at the same time. Every major function of administration is dealt with adequately as each affects other aspects of the organisation from buildings to staff from recruitment to retirement from juniors to directors from finances to patents.At the same time the author’s thesis is severely limited. This book does not set out to show how to direct research nor even how to direct a laboratory. Mr Hiscocks is concerned to bring together frorn the breadth of his experience the best ways in which to perform routine administrative tasks in every laboratory of whatever size. As becomes a successful administrator part of whose task is to get his administration accepted Mr Hiscocks’ writing is pleasingly free from jargon. Indeed on occasions he shows an attractive ability to turn a phrase and make his point all the more clear.The following examples will suffice. “The ability to ask the right question is rarer than the ability to find the answer.” “Research in the immediate past has been an expanding industry with a buoyant market.” “It is only the really outstanding individual who creates his own opportunities and archangels always were in short supply.” If the book has a fault it is that too much space and weight are given to the procedures of the Scientific Civil Service. One gets the impression, occasionally that the author is writing an internal paper seeking sometimes to improve and sometimes to defend the organisation of the Service. It is true that the Government is now the biggest employer of scientists. I t does not follow that it is the best and much of the detail of the book, such as “the battle for uniformity” which could profitably have been (London Macmillan & Co.Ltd. 1956.) 36s. net. The chapter headings reveal the scope of the book 204 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR omitted serves only to reveal the shortcomings of the Scientific Civil Service. This is an important book which marks a great step forward in the efforts now going on all over the world to achieve the efficient organisation of scientific resources. I t should be read by scientists who fancy they suffer under administration; by directors of laboratories who cannot fail to learn from it; and by industrialists and others who are responsible for laboratories. The administrative functions which are essential to all laboratories may be performed well or badly.Mr Hiscocks is to be congratulated on showing how they may be performed better in every laboratory. D. W. HILL Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Curnming and Kay. Eleventh (Edinburgh The tenth edition of this textbook appeared in 1948. The fact that it has run to an eleventh edition gives some indication of its popularity and instructional value particularly in universities and technical colleges. Since the book is well known and the present revised edition follows the plan of earlier editions changes alone will be emphasised. The volume is divided into eight parts and comprises general principles, volumetric analysis gravimetric analysis photometric methods systema-tic quantitative analysis examples of complete analysis including simple ores and alloys gas analysis and physico-chemical methods.The main alteration is the inclusion of the section giving short accounts of physico-chemical methods commonly used uic. radioactivity polaro-graphy chromatography solvent extraction electrolysis at a mercury cathode and controlled potential automatic gravimetric analysis, emission spectroscopy flame photometry and high frequency titration. Each topic is dealt with in a general way but contains sufficient suggested reading matter to encourage a ‘follow-up.’ The appearance of this section is to be welcomed but some claim could be made for the inclusion of a short account of thermogravimetric analysis the editor may indeed have had this in mind because suggested reading on the subject appears at the end of the section without relevant discussion in the text.Further, the outlined procedure for the determination of sulphur in pyrites on p. 505 under chromatography would be better placed on p. 429 as a modification of the procedure mentioned there because as it stands it seems out of place. At the beginning of the section on gravimetric analysis a brief discussion of precipitation processes co-precipitation post-precipitation and the purification of precipitates has now been added. Under the heading of ‘complex-forming processes,’ two pages of text describe the use of disodium ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid as a volumetric reagent and this part might with benefit have been expanded to include some of the other important determinations by this procedure.The only detailed example given is the determination of magnesium. Part 4 re-named ‘photometric methods,’ has been re-written and expanded and contains something of the theory of colorimetry. Pro-cedures for the determination of chromium antimony cobalt molyb-denum and silicon are now incorporated in this part but vanadium (in steel) has been omitted. In the index, p. 533 the reagent a-benzoin oxime is wrongly listed as a-Benzoic oxime. Edition revised by R. A. Chalmers. and London Oliver & Boyd 1956.) Pp. xvi + 541. 30s. net. A new appendix contains data on sintered crucibles 19571 BOOK REVIEWS 205 Although the book contains the additions mentioned it is only eight pages larger than the previous edition owing to the exclusion of the section on water analysis.Alterations revision and the inclusion of suggested reading matter have improved this book-a first-class textbook on quantitative inorganic analysis. Despite an increase in price from 18s. 6d. to ~ O S . continued and widening use will be made of it. ROBERT J. MAGEE Introduction to Structure in Organic Chemistry. C. K. Ingold. This volume is a reproduction of the first four chapters of Professor Ingold’s larger treatise Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry (London G. Bell & Sons Ltd. 1953) which has now become a standard work of reference to all students and workers in the realm of physical organic chemistry. The reprinted chapters which in the larger treatise were followed by others discussing reaction processes are each so com-prehensive that even this new book gives far more than the introduction to the subject that its title would suggest.Several books concerned with the structures of organic molecules have in recent years been written by mathematically or physically minded chemists of note and one may well ask therefore why Professor Ingold should have been encouraged by colleagues to present separately this first portion of his larger work. To this query a clear answer can be given namely that there is a fundamental difference in outlook between the experimental organic chemist and the physicist in that the former is interested not only in molecules as individuals but in the inter-actions that occur between and within them. Chapter I1 of this volume deals thoroughly with this subject and gives the clear exposition of those electrostatic and electrokinetic interactions that is so necessary for the interpretation of all reaction processes.This important subject is not dealt with in volumes that treat molecular structure in terms of the wave mechanic theory only yet a clear understanding of it should be an essential part of the theoretical training of every organic chemist. One hopes therefore that Professor Ingold’s present book will be a publisher’s success. Pp. vii + 200. (London G. Bell & Sons Ltd. 1956.) 20s. net. W. A. WATERS Introductory Chemistry. 0. W. Nitz. Pp. viii + 520. (New York D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc.; London Macmillan & Go. Ltd., 1956.) 42s. net. This book is an American introductory textbook to cover a one-year course “intended for use by all students taking chemistry for cultural purposes or pursuing a college program other than a chemistry major or a scientific pre-professional training in which a more rigorous course is necessary.” The result is that assuming no previous knowledge of the subject the student is conducted on a rapid and broad survey of chemistry in most of its aspects.The author presents rather than develops the basic facts and laws of chemical theory in about 150 pages. Included in this section are dis-cussions of atomic and molecular structure the kinetic theory chemica 206 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR equilibrium and electrochemistry and industrial and everyday applica-tions are constantly referred to here and throughout the book.About the same amount of space is given to the chemistry of some twenty of the more important elements but the treatment is often brief and much of the factual and descriptive matter usual in British textbooks is absent. There is a chapter on “Nuclear Transformations and Atomic Energy” and another in which the various classes of organic compounds are introduced. Most of the remainder of the book gives a rapid survey of the organic chemical industry chapters being devoted to petrol plastics, rubbers detergents and foods. Digestion and metabolism are included for the benefit of home economics students. The final chapter is an unusual and useful one on “Common Dangerous Materials.” Each chapter finishes with a combination of summaries suggestions for further reading and exercises.The book is well written coherent and generously illustrated with photographs and diagrams but its cultural value would have been improved by a fuller discussion of the somewhat factual chemical history which is included as it is part of the book’s object to impart appreciation of the scientific method. This is partly because of the drab dust cover which hides a much brighter binding the reproduction of the photographs which leaves much to be desired and the diagrams which are not as eye-catching as they should be in a volume of this kind. On closer acquaintance much of value is to be found although it is difficult to see what place the book could fill in this country at present. I t could serve as a supplementary text for useful information on the applications of chemistry but such a limited use would hardlyjustify paying the high price.In general this is a typical American introductory textbook although it differs from many others in being written especially for those who have no intention of becoming chemists. I t has the familiar direct approach which cuts out much that is purely factual and concentrates on the irnportan t principles and applications. The popularity and apparent SUCC~SS of this approach in the United States does seriously suggest that we should ask whether there is room for such books in this country. One or two have found favour in some quarters but would not the many grammar school students who now waste their time with General Science, be much better occupied in working through a book of this nature and may not the continuous and rapid development of chemical theory and applications force us to accept some such similar treatment before long? At first sight the book is not attractive.A. G. CATCHPOLE Metallurgy of the Rarer Metals. No. 5. Molybdenum. L. North-cott. Pp. xii + 222. (London Butterworths Scientific Publica-tions 1956.) 40s. net. Molybdenum has risen rapidly from the ranks of the rare elements to become one of growing industrial importance in its own right and earlier books on the subject are therefore to some extent out of date. This volume is the fifth number of the series “Metallurgy of the Rarer Metals,” which has appeared during the past three or four years. The book is essentially metallurgical in character and apart from a brief discussion of the occurrence of the ores and the extraction pro-cesses used to prepare molybdic oxide and calcium molybdate there is not a great deal to interest the chemist who is primarily concerned wit 19571 BOOK REVIEWS 207 the chemical properties of the element.Indeed the author takes care to point out that recent publications specifically dealing with the chemistry of molybdenum and its compounds are available. Those investigators whose work brings them into contact with the metallic state will find that the author has collected a great deal of valuable information on the physical metallurgy properties and production of molybdenum and its binary and ternary alloys. Thirty-two binary and nine ternary alloy systems are described in the text and equilibrium diagrams are given for a considerable number of the more important systems.The physical and mechanical properties of pure molybdenum together with the effects of various alloying elements are also fully treated and this subject rightly occupies about one quarter of the volume. The high-temperature properties of molybdenum base alloys are given considerable attention, for it has already been shown that certain alloys promise to be superior to existing materials when strength is the criterion. The major dis-advantage of many of these alloys is that they suffer from serious oxidation when heated in atmospheres containing oxygen and the many researches which have dealt with this peculiarity are given careful treatment by the author.The development of methods for the protection of molyb-denum is an essential preliminary to its use at high temperatures in any environment other than high vacuum and the versatility of research in this direction is emphasised by the fact that no fewer than seven basic methods of surface protection are detailed. The obstacles to obtaining sound engineering welds in the fabrication of molybdenum are many and the author’s summary of the position in this field is a useful pointer to those processes which have industrial promise. Much of the information presented in the book will be of great value for reference purposes as it has been collected from world literature on the subject. Almost all the diagrams have been copied directly from the original papers and this has led to some lack of uniformity in the units in which the data are presented.In general the literary part of the book is clear and the information is presented in a concise manner. However it is unfortunate that sentences were found in which both Centigrade and Fahrenheit temperatures were used indiscriminately ; some consistency in the use of units would have been more suitable in a work of this standard. The accumulated data contained in this book and the correlation carried out by the author during compilation make it a valuable contribution to the literature of molybdenum. The book is well produced and the illustrations are of high standard. R. GENDERS Biological Treatment of Sewage and Industrial Wastes. Volume Edited by J. McCabe and W.W. Ecken-(New York Reinhold Publishing Corpora-This volume is the first of a series in which the whole field of biological treatment of liquid wastes is to be reviewed. It comprises thirty-three papers which were presented at a conference on the subject held in New York during 1955 and in the list of authors are the names of many authorities in the sphere of waste treatment; all except two are workers in the U.S.A. The material has been classified into four groups and it is probably true to say that no previous collection of papers has ever been presented in 1. Aerobic Oxidation. felder. Pp. vii + 393. tion; London Chapman & Hall Ltd. 1956.) 80s. net 208 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY WAR which the theory and design considerations of the activated sludge process have been so deeply and successfully investigated.As one might expect, much of the material is considered from the standpoint of American practices which differ appreciably in certain respects from that in Britain. There are several reasons for this but two of the most important are that water consumption per capita and the size of rivers generally are much greater in the U.S.A. than in this country. Because of these factors American sewages are on the whole easier to treat and as a rule it is not necessary for their purification to be taken quite so far as in Britain. The book presupposes that the reader is familiar with the general terminology and principles of sewage and waste treatment although the contribution by Lackey and Smith gives a very clear exposition in general terms of what takes place in biological processes and might well have served as the introduction to the first group of papers.In the section on aeration theory and design some ingenious experi-ments to measure the absorption of oxygen from bubble aeration are described but it is interesting to note that Gaden concludes from these that air bubbles have distinct limitations as agitators. The performances of several aeration devices are discussed but it is rather surprising that there is no mention whatever of the mechanical systems of aeration developed in Britain and Holland which have proved so successful in many full-scale plants dealing with waste waters of all kinds. On the other hand several papers are devoted to a consideration of various mixing impellers and other novelties such as Penberthy injectors which are virtually unknown here.The papers dealing with sewage treatment are very good and rightly stress the importance of factors such as sludge re-aeration solids con-centration return sludge capacity and sludge age. Only one contribution, however is devoted to the subject of biological filtration. Considerably more space could have been devoted to this subject and also to the section giving details of the actual treatment methods adopted for certain industrial effluents. Interesting developments mentioned on which work is also being carried out in England are the thermophilic activated sludge process and dispersed growth aeration. Within the covers of this volume is contained a wealth of information which is not available in any other single book on the subject written in the English language and it is a reference work which ought to be in the hands of all engineers and chemists concerned with the design and operation of plants for the biological purification of sewage and industrial emuen ts.J. MCNICHOLAS Gas Works Ef3uents and Ammonia. A. Key. Second Edition. Revised and enlarged by P. C. Gardiner. Pp. 197. (London: The Institution of Gas Engineers 1956.) 21s. net. The first edition of this book dealt with the composition treatments and disposal of gas liquors. It was based mainly on British and German practice and included an authoritative account of the large amount of research in this field which had been carried out under the auspices of the Institution of Gas Engineers.It gave a very complete and well-balanced picture of what was known of the problem in 1938 the date of publication and has always had a high reputation. The new edition contains most of the material of the first substantially in its original form 19571 BOOK REVIEWS 209 but it has been enlarged and brought up to date in an attempt (to quote the Preface) “to give a broader overall picture of the problem from the practical aspect.” In this it can hardly be said to have succeeded for the description given of the large amount of research carried out since 1938 by the gas and coal industries and by other organisations is by comparison with the earlier volume disappointingly meagre. There is, for example only a brief reference to the important work done at the University of Leeds where with chromatographic and spectroscopic methods most of the organic constituents of a gas liquor have been identified and determined-a major step in planning any new form of treatment.The commonest method of disposing of gas liquors is to discharge them into the domestic sewers but the account given of the large amount of experimental work done since 1938 on the practical question of the effect of these liquors on the treatment of sewage-most of it by or in collaboration with the gas industry-is decidedly sketchy. Accounts of some recently introduced chemical processes of treatment (including deionisation and oxidation with nitric acid) are included among the new material and two memoranda one by the Institute of Sewage Purification on admission of gas liquors to sewers and the other by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government on the framing of by-laws by River Boards to control pollution are reproduced as appendixes.In preparing the new edition the aim seems to have been to alter the original text as little as possible. To give an adequate account of the present position however a much more thorough re-writing would be necessary to include an assessment not only of recent work specifically on gas liquors but of much other research (toxicity of constituents; mechanism of high-rate biological treatment and so on) that has a bearing on the subject. B. A. SOUTHGATE BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED Annotated Subject-Heading Bibliography of Termites 1350 B.C.to A.D. 1954. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections Volume 130. Thomas E. Snyder. Pp. iii + 305. (Washington The Smith-sonian Institution 1956.) Journal of the Ramsay Society of Chemical Engineers 1956-57. Fourth Journal. Pp. 112. (University College Gower Street, London W.C. 1). 2s. (2s. 36. post free.) Contains articles on production of synthetic hydrocarbons in the Union of South Africa; disposal of radioactive wastes; moving bed cata-lytical cracking and its development ; flame radiation ; some applications of gas turbines in the chemical industry; the application of pure oxygen to the Bessemer process of steel manufacture; methods and uses of costing in the chemical industry; what makes a detergent; recovery of power and waste heat in pressure oxidation plants for manufacture of nitric acid ; some modern techniques in lubricating oil refining ; gas-dispersion and non-Newtonian behaviour of liquids in mixing operations.British Standards.-1121 1957. Methods for the Analysis of Iron and Steel. Part 1A Sulphur in steel. Pp. 8. 2s. net. Part 37 Nickel in iron and steel. Pp. 11. 2s. 6d. net INSTITUTE AFFAIRS ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING 5 APRIL 1957 As already announced the Seventy-Ninth Annual General Meeting of the Institute will be held in the Senate House University of London, W.C.l at 10.45 a.m. on Friday 5 April. The formal notice of the meeting and relevant papers (including proxy forms) are being sent to corporate members under separate cover. ANNUAL CONFERENCE 4-6 APRIL 1957 Numerous applications have been received to take part in the events, and the two visits are already fully subscribed.A few tickets may be available for the Annual Dinner and larger numbers for the I.C.I. Reception and the Dance at Queen Elizabeth College. Members who wish to attend any of these events are asked to apply without delay on the appropriate form (sent with the February Journal) but no guarantee can be given that it will be possible to meet their wishes. GRADUATE MEMBERSHIP EXAMINATION JUNE 1957 Part I (a) and ( b ) An Examination for Graduate Membership (Part I (a) chemistry written papers and Part I ( b ) German translation test) will be held on Monday and Tuesday 3 and 4 June 1957 in London. The Examination may be held at other centres outside London provided that there are sufficient numbers of candidates and that satisfactory arrange-ments can be made.Candidates for the whole of the Part I Examination who have not yet been accepted and who wish to present themselves in June should obtain from the Assistant Registrar without delay the prescribed Application Form so as to allow ample time for obtaining the necessary signatures certifying that they have complied with the Regulations concerning their courses of training. Candidates who have passed Part I (a) or been exempted therefrom and wish to present themselves for Part I ( b ) need apply only for an entry form. The completed Application Forms must reach the Institute not later than Monday 1 April. No applications will be considered if received after that date.Entry Forms will be sent as soon as they are ready to all accepted candidates. The last date for the receipt of Entry Forms is Wednesday 24 April. No entry will be accepted if received after that date. PART I1 EXAMINATION FOR GRADUATE MEMBERSHIP JANUARY 1957 PASS LIST BAYS Leonard Richard College of Technology Hull. BEST Philip Anthony College of Science and Technology Manchester , BISHOP Edward Charles Woolwich Polytechnic London. BLEARS Michael John Royal Technical College Salford. ENTWISTLE Norman Royal Technical College Salford. and Royal Technical College Salford. 21 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 21 1 GILES Alan John B.SC. (LOND.) College of Technology Birmingham. GRADY Arthur Edwin College of Technology Liverpool. HENDEY Ronald Albert Norwood Technical College London.HICKMAN Leslie Stanley Wolverhampton and Staffordshire College of Technology Wolverhampton and Northern Polytechnic London. HOOKE George Frederick College of Technology Liverpool. JEFFS Peter Walter Luton and South Bedfordshire College of Further Education Luton Northern Polytechnic London and North-ampton Polytechnic London. JOHNSON Frank College for Further Education Stockport. LANE George Rutherford College of Technology Newcastle upon Tyne. LAWS Alan Rutherford College of Technology Newcastle upon Tyne. LELEAN Peter Michael South West Essex Technical College Waltham-LEWIS Thomas George B.SC. (LOND.) College of Further Education, MCINTYRE Peter College for Further Education Stockport. PLATER Dennis College of Technology Chesterfield and Nottingham and District Technical College Nottingham.POTTER John Anthony Chelsea Polytechnic London. RAMSEY John Alexander B.SC. ( LOND.) Municipal Technical College, RILEY Brian Joseph Francis B.SC. (LOND.) Royal Technical College, SHARPLES William Gibbard Technical College Bolton. STEELE David Anthony College of Technology Art and Commerce, Oxford and Royal Technical College Salford. SYMONDS Donald Charles Woolwich Polytechnic London. TICKLE Trevor Cyril Kenneth Technical College St Helens. TIMPERLEY James College of Science and Technology Manchester and POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA EXAMINATIONS stow. Widnes. Blackburn. Salford. College for Further Education Stockport. Branch D. 1 .-Clinical Chemistry. Branch E.- The Chemistry including Microscofiy o f Food Drugs and Water.CUMMINGS Alan Jarman B.SC. (LOND.) . HOLLIDAY Peter John George B.SC. (EDIN.). PHILLIPS Anthony Rhys BSC. (WALES). RANKEN Michael David B.SC. TECH. (MANC.) . TAME David Alan B.SC. (LOND.). DIPLOMAS IN APPLIED CHEMISTRY (BRANCH E) Attention is drawn to the new Regulations for the Award of the Diplomas in Applied Chemistry issued to Graduate and Corporate Members in January and particularly to the syllabus for Branch E. It must be emphasised that the syllabus is only a guide and the examiners will not be precluded from setting any exercise relating to the work of a Public Analyst. However it will be noted that the syllabus has been amended particularly by the deletion of the special knowledge of the pharmacological action and the therapeutic value of drugs.This is intentional and the candidates will not be examined in these topics other than their implication in the detection of poisons. It is also the intention in making the revision that the new examination for the Diploma shall be an integrated whole and not two distinct parts as hitherto 212 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR SIR GEORGE BEILBY MEMORIAL AWARD 1956 The Administrators of the Sir George Beilby Memorial Fund repre-senting the Institute of Metals the Royal Institute of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical Industry have made an award from the Fund for 1956 of 150 guineas to : R. W. KEAR F.R.I.c. M.INST.F. in recognition of his work on the behaviour of fuel impurities in combustion processes with special reference to the role of sulphur chlorine and alkalis in corrosion and deposit formation by flue gases in combustion appliances.Awards from the Fund are made to British investigators in science as a mark of appreciation of distinguished work particularly in such fields as fuel economy chemical engineering and metallurgy in which Sir George Beilby’s special interests lay. In general the awards are not applicable to more senior investigators but are granted as an encourage-ment to relatively young men who have done independent work of exceptional merit over a period of years. The Administrators are free, however to interpret this general provision very widely in specific instances. R. W. KEAR was educated at Enfield Centyal School and Tottenham Polytechnic.On leaving school in 1938 he joined the laboratory staff of Enfield Rolling Mills Limited as an assistant and was soon engaged on the analysis of non-ferrous metals for A.I.D. specifications. In 1941 he volunteered for flying duties with the Royal Air Force but in late 1942 he was invalided out and returned to his former post at Enfield. In 1945 he was drafted to Dysons and Company Enfield ( 19 19) Limited under the Essential Works Act as a works control chemist for the inspec-tion of light alloy die castings. After his release from the R.A.F. Mr Kear studied chemistry at Battersea Polytechnic and the South-West Essex Technical College. While at the latter college he carried out, under the direction of Mr H. Holness a series of investigations on the use of tannin as an analytical reagent in the analysis of minerals and refractories.In 1946 he joined the British Coal Utilisation Research Association as a member of a team engaged on a study of the fouling and corrosion of large water tube boilers and began his collaboration with Dr G. Whittingham who also received in 1950 an Award from the Sir George Beilby Memorial Fund. About this time B. C.U.R.A. were developing techniques to assess and measure the corrosivity of flue gases. One method involved the measure-ment of the formation of acid films by the electrical conductivity method, and Mr Kear provided early evidence of his experimental skill and ingenuity by producing a method which greatly simplified the manu-facture of the glass detection elements on which the method depended and laid the foundation for a commercial instrument which is now widely used by industry here and overseas.He however soon recognised the need for fundamental studies of corrosion caused by flue gases and developed a simple but elegant tech-nique for measuring corrosion by the use of cooled steel probes. This technique is now widely used in the study of flue gas corrosion by labora-tory and field investigators. A series of papers then followed describing his investigations on the corrosive effects of flue gases containing sulphur trioxide and hydrogen chloride and on the influence of carbon smokes on corrosion. This work was later extended to include a study of the rol 19571 INSTITUTE AFFAXRS 213 of sulphur dioxide in the corrosion mechanism the use of coal tar bases as inhibitors of the corrosion of metal surfaces by condensed films of acid, and the reduction of SO by cokes prepared from a wide range of coals.This phase of the work coincided with a marked expansion in the use of pulverised fuel firing in the electricity generating industry. It was decided to investigate on a pilot scale equipment the effect on corrosion and deposition of burning coals containing increasing amounts of alkalis. Mr Kear designed and developed a small pulverised fuel furnace to burn 5 lb of coal per hour and carried out a comprehensive study of corrosion and deposit problems with powdered fuel firing and devised a physical method for the determination of finely dispersed alkalis in the flue gases. He also initiated complementary fundamental studies on the behaviour of individual coal minerals during combustion and was responsible for forming a group to investigate the flue gas constituents from domestic fires and boilers and their contribution to atmospheric pollution.Mr Kear was made Head of the Corrosion Section of B.C.U.R.A. early in 1954 and was a member of the Technical and Advisory Panel of the Boiler Availability Committee. Although his work was primarily concerned with problems in power station boilers he has made a con-tribution to the development of the solid fuel fired gas turbine and the complex problem of atmospheric pollution. He has recently left B.C.U.R.A. and joined the Oil Products Develop-ment Department of the Shell Petroleum Company Limited.PERSONAL NOTES Honours and Awards Mr W. T. Elwell Fellow has received the Sheffield Metallurgical Association’s annual award for his paper “Recent trends in metallur-gical analysis.” This award of twenty guineas is made in conjunction with the directors of Iron and Steel to the author of the best paper sub-mitted during the session. Mr Elwell’s paper was delivered in Sheffield last November as a conjoint lecture to the Sheffield Metallurgical Association and the Sheffield South Yorkshire and North Midlands Section of the Institute. Professor J. A. Prescott Associate has had the honorary degree of Doctor of Agricultural Science conferred upon him by the University of Melbourne. Post-Doctorate Awards in Canada. The following Associates have been awarded Post-Doctorate Fellowships by the National Research Council of Canada :- K.E. Bharucha M. G. Hampton I. Husain and V. A. Williams. Educational Professor K. N. Bagchi Fellow Professor of Organic and Biochemistry, Calcutta National Medical College Calcutta has been appointed Principal of the College (in addition to his present duties) with effect from July 1956. Mr S. Graham Associate has relinquished his appointment with British Nylon Spinners Ltd. to become lecturer in inorganic chemistry at the Glamorgan Technical College. Dr G. E. Trease Fellow has been granted thc title of Professor of Pharmacognosy by the University of Nottingham 2 14 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Professor F. H. H. Valentin Fellow has been appointed to the Chair of Chemical Engineering at the University of Natal.Dr W. B. Whalley Fellow has been appointed Reader in Organic Chemistry at the University of Liverpool as from 1 October next. Societies and Institutions Mr A. K Hobbs Fellow assistant general manager Sigma Co. Ltd., Melbourne has been elected a Fellow of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute. Professor T. Wallace c.B.E. M.c. F.R.s. Fellow delivered the Fern-hurst Lecture to the Royal Society of Arts on 6 March his subject being “Trace Elements in Plant Nutrition with special reference to Crops.” Public and Industrial Dr S. G. Abrahams Associate is resigning from his Imperial Chemical Industries Research Fellowship in the University of Glasgow in May to join the staff of the Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc.Murray Hill, New Jersey. Commander W. J. Copenhagen o.B.E. Fellow research officer of the Water Corrosion Unit National Chemical Research Laboratory South Africa is on a visit to this country to study corrosion and allied problems. Mr R. A. Dalley Fellow has been appointed City Analyst Leeds in succession to Mr C. H. Manley Fellow. Mr C. L. Evans Fellow has been appointed production director, Brotherton & Co. Ltd. Dr C. M. Fletcher Associate has been appointed chief chemist of the Manchester factory of Brown & Polson Ltd. Mr H. R. Forman Associate has been appointed assistant process manager of the Clydach Refinery of the Mond Nickel Co. Ltd. with effect from 1 January. Dr J. S. Gourlay Fellow formerly joint managing director of the Plastics Division of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd.has been appointed Chairman of the Paints Division. Sir Ian Heilbron D.s.o. F.R.s. Fellow has been appointed to the Board of Management of the Arthur D. Little Research Institute, I nveres k . Mr A. L. Hilton Associate has joined the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and is carrying out chemical investigations on the Geothermal Project at Wairakei New Zealand. Mr C. J. Keattch Associate has relinquished his appointment at the British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association to take up the position of chief chemist H. J. Enthoven & Sons Limited Rotherhithe. Mr P. J. March Fellow formerly manager of the Egham Technical Service Laboratory of the Shell Chemical Co. Ltd. has been appointed marketing manager (industrial).Dr F. R. Smith Fellow research manager of T. & H. Smith Ltd., has been appointed to the Board. Mr G. F. Sommerville Associate formerly of the Trinidad Oil Go. Ltd. has joined Laporte Chemicals Ltd. as a plant manager at Luton 19571 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 215 Mr I. C. Twilley Associate has resigned as senior chemist Micanite & Insulators Ltd. to take up an appointment at the Nylon Plant of the Du Pont Company of Canada Ltd. Kingston Ontario. Mr M. Viviani Associate has been appointed Work Study/Pro-ductivity Officer to the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers as from I April. Dr S. G. Willimott Fellow formerly senior chemist (soils) Federation of Malaya has been appointed temporary acting director West African Institute of Oil Palm Research Nigeria.Mr H. Winning Associate of 39 Brightwalton Newbury Berks. will shortly commence consulting work in the field of engineering plastics in the name of Herbert Winning and Associates. Dr F. N. Woodward Fellow has been appointed director of the Arthur D. Little Research Institute Inveresk and also a member of the Board of the Institute of Seaweed Research. In consequence of the reorganisation of the Laboratory the following appointments have been made Dr E. B. Hughes Fellow chief chemist; Mr C. A. Bassett Fellow and Dr J. H. Bushill Fellow deputy chief chemists (administrative and scientific respectively); Mr W. A. Waygood Fellozo Mr C. H. F. Fuller Fellow, and Mr D. H. F. Clayson Fellow assistant chief chemists (administrative, chemical and microbiological respectively).Dr L. H. Lampitt Fellow, continues to be director in charge of the Scientific Department. Ministry of Housing and Local Government Standing Techni-cal Committee on Synthetic Detergents. The following members of the Institute have been appointed to the Committee Chairman Mr H. W. Cremer c.B.E.; Members Dr E. A. B. Birse Dr A. H. Cook, F.R.s. Mr H. R. Galleymore N r W. E. Hamer Dr G. C . Hampson, Dr S. H. Jenkins Dr J. Longwell Dr B. A. Southgate, J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. Retirements Mr J. I. Crabtree Fellow has retired after 43 years’ service with the Eastman Kodak Company Research Laboratories Rochester N.Y., U.S.A. In 1956 he received the Progress Medal the highest award of the Photographic Society of America.Mr E. T. Williams Associate has retired from his position as chief chemist of Lever Bros. Ltd. Port Sunlight on reaching the age limit SECTION ACTIVITIES BELFAST AND DISTRICT At a meeting held jointly with the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry on 29 January in the Agriculture Lecture Theatre Queen’s University Mr T. R. Bullett of the Paint Research Station Teddington, delivered a lecture entitled “Paint Research-Electron Microscopy and Related Techniques.” When the Paint Research Station was instituted in 1926 much was already known about paint but little about its chemistry and physics. The fields of research are now many and varied but one subject of considerable interest is the study of the inter-relationship between com-position of components and the finished product.A very important factor in these investigations is the determination of the size of particles. In this connection the optical microscope with its limited resolving power is of restricted use for studies on particles in paint but the electron microscope with a resolving power that enables particles as small as 0-01 p to be seen is a valuable tool. The lecturer showed the application of this instrument to paint studies, illustrating each point with a wide range of slides. He explained how the electron microscope has revealed the importance of pigment particle size as a factor in the quality of the paint considering in turn white, black and coloured pigments and outlined the metal shadow technique as a means for determining particle height.Mr Bullett then discussed applications of electron microscopy and its related techniques to synthetic resin emulsion paints film formation studies and the changes during weathering of paints and concluded by showing the investigations carried out on cellular mottle. After a discussion in which many members of the audience took part, Dr E. M. Reid proposed the vote of thanks. Paint Research-Electron Microscopy and Related Techniques. BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLANDS Recent Progress in Coal Chemistry. In his lecture given on 12 February at the College of Technology Gosta Green Birmingham Dr H. A. Standing of the N.C.B. Research Establishment Stoke Orchard, Gloucester emphasised that during the last decade progress had been so rapid that he could only deal satisfactorily with two topics which have been under investigation by the N.C.B.-the structure of coal as elucidated by X-ray and infra-red techniques and the factors affecting the coking properties of coal.The early X-ray patterns of coal showed similarity with that of graphite with its layers of condensed aromatic rings. Recently Hirsch, working at Cambridge under the auspices of N.C.B. has re-examined the X-ray patterns and has been able to calculate the number of layers in a stack and its height as well as the orientation of the rings within the layer. Hirsch’s work has revealed that the stack height is less than was previously thought and that the diameter of the layers does not vary greatly with the carbon content of the coal except in the case of anthra-cite i.e.where the carbon content is greater than 89 per cent. I t was found that coals with 80 per cent C showed little evidence of order or ‘stacking’ and were termed to be of ‘open structure.’ Between 80 and 2 1 SECTION ACTIVITIES 217 89 per cent coals showed localised stacking or ‘liquid structure,’ and at higher carbon contents there was a reversion to a more open structure with a high degree of stacking. In support of this classification Hirsch has shown that coals having a ‘liquid structure’ have a lower porosity than either of the other two groups. Attempts have been made at Stoke Orchard to identify the nature of the substituents on the rings by means of infra-red techniques using the ‘Bromide disc’ method of mounting the finely ground coal whereby it has been shown that ethylenic double bonds are absent.Work carried out at the British Coal Utilisation Research Association by Weiss has led to an estimate of the number of hydroxyl groups that are present and has enabled Dryden to suggest 4-ring compounds in coals with C contents of less than 90 per cent and of 7-ring compounds in anthracite coals. Dr Standing described the behaviour of coking coals on carbon-isation pointing out that they passed through three successive stages, fluid + plastic 4 coherent mass (semi-coke) during the process. The capacity to develop plasticity is of vital importance in assessing the suitability of a coal for the production of coke and the Geisler modification of the Couette viscometer for measuring this property was described.The reasons for the development of plasticity were discussed by Dr Standing who gave an account of Fitzgerald’s work on the kinetics of the two competing first-order reactions to which the plasticity is believed to be due. The result of the study of the increased chloroform solubility of carbonised coals was considered and Dr Standing concluded that all that could be said at present was that the rate of formation of chloroform soluble material was greater than that at which plasticity developed. Dr Standing terminated his account of recent work with a review of the pronounced effects on coal of mild oxidation. These effects can be summarised as increasing the hardness reducing solubility in pyridine and preventing the distortion on subsequent carbonisation.Com-mercially the last effect was probably the most important as it provided a method of producing smokeless fuels from coals with relatively high volatile contents which would not otherwise be suitable for this purpose. Of more academic interest it has been found that an appreciable fraction of the oxygen taken up was retained in a chemically bonded state and that water predominated in the gaseous products from mild oxidation. The effect of such oxidation was believed to lead to rupture of C-H bonds followed by cross linking. No evidence of ether bonds had been found. BRISTOL AND DISTRICT On 31 January with Professor W. E. Garner c.B.E. F.R.s., in the Chair Dr A. H. Phillips spoke on “Explosives in the Service of Man” to a large audience in the lecture theatre of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Bristol.The lecturer outlined the history of high explosives and explained how their controlled use in quarrying and mining had led to the production of a special range of detonators and blasting compositions. The development of ‘power cartridges’ to give brief bursts of high energy was described and their use illustrated by the humane cattle-killer and the Cox gun. Among the demonstrations were a self-heating soup-can and jet pro-pelled toys all examples of the moderate combustion of potential ex-plosives. After a short film Dr E. B. Maxted proposed the vote of thanks which was carried with acclamation. Explosives 218 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR On 14 February Professor D.H. Hey F.R.s. delivered a lecture entitled “Free Radical Chemistry A Survey” in the Chemistry Department of the University of Bristol. Professor W. Baker F.R.s., was in the Chair. After describing the early work of Gomberg and Paneth Professor Hey went on to give a clear and comprehensive survey of reactions in which free radicals are known or believed to participate. These included addition and substitution reactions methylation (using acetyl peroxide lead tetra-acetate or phenyl iodosoacetate) hydroxyla-tion (Fenton’s reagent) the mercuration of nitrobenzene and phenylation with a variety of reagents. Partial rate factors for aromatic substitution were also discussed in a number of cases. Professor Hey also discussed the Kolbe reaction and gave examples of its use in the synthesis of perhydrobixin and stearic acid.He men-tioned the importance of free radicals in fluorocarbon chemistry and for such industrial purposes as the production of glycerol and hexoestrol. Finally a neat route was suggested for the synthesis of phenol from benzene via cumene and the free radical and subsequent hydrolysis of cumene hydroperoxide. Reaction mechanisms throughout were shown on excellent slides. Dr A. R. Battersby proposcd the vote of thanks and hoped that the many students in the audience would make good use of the notes they had been so diligently taking. Free Radicals. CUMBERLAND AND DISTRICT Mechanisms of Chemical Change. The Section held its annual joint meeting with the Liverpool Section of the Society of Chemical Industry on 18 January at Seascale.Mr K. D. Wadsworth hon. secretary of the S.C.I. section delivered a lecture on “The Mechanisms of Chemical Change.” Mr Wadsworth introduced the subject by summarising the concepts of the collision theory of reaction rates and went on to draw examples of reactions whose kinetics appeared to contradict the predictions of the theory for instance first order reactions third and fourth order reactions (3- or 4-body collisions having an almost negligible probability) , and reactions of fractional order. He then proceeded to expound a ‘principle of maximum simplicity’ by which all reactions occur in a number of simple steps each of which involves only internal electron re-distribution or electron transfer or atom transfer and is consistent with collision theory.The kinetics of the overall reaction are given by summation of the steps. Mr Wadsworth illustrated this concept with many examples in which complicated kinetics arose from essentially simple mechanisms and concluded with an explanation of the kinetics of reactions of carbon in terms of two distinct types of reaction sites in the lattice. The lecturer’s enthusiasm for the subject was communicated to the audience and a lively discussion followed. DUNDEE AND DISTRICT Reduction by Metal-Ammonia $ystems. Professor A. J. Birch of the University of Manchester spoke on “Reduction by Metal-Ammonia Systems” at the meeting held on 15 February at St Andrews. The Chairman was Mr D. M. G. Lloyd. Professor Birch began his lecture with a general account of metal-ammonia systems and emphasised the facts that ammonia is a highly polar substance that it is highly hydrogen-bonded and that it is a weak acid 19571 SECTION ACTIVITIES 219 He pointed out that reduction in metal-ammonia systems is of theo-retical importance since in this method it is possible to distinguish the phases of the reduction and gave naphthalene as an example.The lecturer said that production of synthetic steroids depends on metal-ammonia reductions since this method usually gives the most thermodynamically stable isomer which is usually also the most active biologically. A lively discussion followed after which Dr F. D. Gunstone in pro-posing the vote of thanks complimented the speaker on the lucid and entertaining manner in which he had delivered the lecture.Some Aspects o f the Geochemistry of Uranium. At a meeting held on 25 January Professor C. F. Davidson gave an extremely interesting and entertaining account of the hunt for uranium. His lecture was inter-spersed with many humorous anecdotes and when he concluded his audience was disappointed that there was not more to come. Professor Davidson said that the production of uranium in the free world this year was likely to be 15,000 tons worth over LlOO million. The reagents necessary for this production provide a useful market for the chemical industry. Formerly the main sources of uranium were the deposits in the Belgian Congo and in Arctic Canada. These deposits had a minimum concentration of 0.5 per cent of U,O,.Anion-exchange resin techniques however now allow low-grade ores to be worked economically. As a result the low-grade fields at Witwatersrand in the Transvaal and at Blind River on Lake Huron are now the main sources of uranium. Professor Davidson gave a fascinating account of the reasoning which led to the discovery of the Blind River deposit. Confirmation of the deposit led to 14,000 claims in an area roughly 20 miles square. The reserves are estimated to be sufficient for 40 years. A lengthy discussion followed after which Mr I. R. McGregor proposed the vote of thanks. EAST ANGLIA Food Legislation. On 24 January Mr C. A. Adams c.B.E. addressed the East Anglia Section on “Food Legislation Since 1939.” After a brief historical introduction Mr Adams discussed the trends of changes in food legislation during and since the war.He showed how the emphasis had shifted from the prevention of gross adulteration to the raising of the general level of nutrition by the inauguration of food standards wfiere none had previously existed. The general public are now protected in other ways also e.g. by the compulsory declaration of ingredients of pre-packed food and the proposed prohibition of all but a very few additives. Mr Adams throughout his talk compared food legislation in this country with that in the United States and closed with a reference to the forthcoming visit of U.S. food legislators to this country which should prove of great value. A number of local public health workers had been invited to attend the meeting and Mr Adams’s witty and provocative talk stimulated a discussion which had to be cut short after an hour.At the close of the meeting Dr E. C . Wood proposed and Dr H. Edgar seconded the vote of thanks to the speaker 220 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Film Show and Discussion. A meeting of the East Anglia Section was held at the Oriental Cafit Ipswich on 7 February. Three films, “Choicest Ceylon,” “The Titanium Pigment Story” and “Analmatic : the Automatic Laboratory,” were shown and greatly enjoyed. After the show there was a discussion for corporate members on the controversial subjects which were brought into prominence by the recent Special General Meeting of the Institute. It was felt that to obtain 20 supporters for a motion to be discussed at the A.G.M.might prove too big a task for a member in this or any other similar section. The number of active members accessible to any one individual is little more than 20. A possible solution put forward was that a motion should only be dis-cussed at the Institute A.G.M. if it had been previously passed at a Local Section meeting. Members felt that the individual proxy vote should be retained but should be in the hands of a delegate from the Local Section and that the Section should have discussed the matter in the presence of their delegate before the meeting. It was also suggested at this meeting that the Section should arrange meetings with headmasters careers masters and personnel officers from industry to discuss the regulations for Institute and university examinations.EAST MIDLANDS At the College of Art Derby, on 13 December some ideas on the future of preparative organic chemistry were presented by Dr G. Baddeley of the Faculty of Technology, University of Manchester in a lecture entitled “The Steric Control of Chemical Reactivity.” With the aid of some simple examples Dr Baddeley illustrated the dependence of reactivity upon molecular geometry and suggested how, by suitable choice of reagent the velocity of a reaction could be increased by as much as ten thousand times. The interest of the audience in this entertaining lecture was shown by questions concerning the application of these ideas to specific problems. Mr L. S. Bark proposed the vote of thanks. Professor F. W.Spiers Depart-ment of Medical Physics University of Leeds gave a lecture on “Radia-tion Hazards of the Atomic Age” at the Leicester College of Technology on 10 January at which the Chairman of the Section Mr R. Betteridge, presided. Professor Spiers briefly discussed the mode of action and the effects of radiation on living tissues pointing out that bodies can be irradiated externally and internally the latter being very harmful indeed even with sources of radiation of low intensity. He showed how the experience gained with X-rays and radium illustrated the nature of the hazards to persons using ionising radiation. The lecturer considered the problem of protecting both the radiation worker and the general population from the possible dangers of the development and use of atomic energy and gave the principles on which permissible radiation levels are set.He then described the most recent methods used for detecting small increases in the normal radioactivity of the body. In answer to a question, Professor Spiers said that no agent had yet been discovered which would remove radium or WSr once it had been taken in by bone ; to say however, The Steric Control of Chemical Reactivity. Radiation Haardr of the Atomic Age. The lecture stimulated a lively discussion 19571 SECTION ACTIVITIES 22 1 that the gOSr would remain in the bone for the rest of a lifetime was not true since it must be eliminated from bone as are all other elements in the seven years’ turnover; he added that neither of these radioactive elements were found in the keratins.In answer to other questions Professor Spiers pointed out that radiation sickness was due to the production of toxic substances and that whilst it had been found that intravenous injection of cysteine into rats had increased toleration by a factor of two it seemed highly improbable that some such treatment could be successfully used as a prophylactic by human beings. He agreed that the level of activity in uranium mines is high and pointed out that the main hazard was inhalation of radon; in the Portuguese uranium mines the radon content had been vastly reduced by ventilation systems installed as a result of suggestions from the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. Finally in answer to a question about the increase in background radioactivity during the last few years Professor Spiers pointed out that, from the amount of radioactive fission and other products liberated in atomic and thermonuclear explosions (assuming that the fall out is evenly distributed) the total amount is less than 1 per cent of the natural radio-active background.Professor L. Hunter expressed the thanks of all present to Professor Spiers for his most interesting and stimulating lecture. EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND This joint event with the local sections of The Chemical Society and The Society of Chemical Industry was held in the Royal British Hotel on 17 January with Mr Louis Fletcher the Chairman of the Section presiding. The principal guests were Sir Hugh Watson Dkputy Keeper of the Signet of Scotland and Lady Watson and Mr J.N. Toothill General Manager of Messrs Ferranti Ltd. and Mrs Toothill. Sir Hugh proposed the toast ‘The Three Societies’ to which Dr A. M. Smith replied and Dr E. A. C. Chamberlain proposed ‘The Guests’ and Mr Toothill replied. This very pleasant social occasion is finding good support within the Section and the speeches which this year were again of a very high standard demon-strated once more that scientists are not necessarily inarticulate. I t is hoped that many more of these successful dinners will be held and we express gratitude to Mr J. Saunders for the organisation of these functions over the past years. It is learnt with real regret that he is unable to continue as organiser. At a joint meeting with the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry in Edinburgh on 14 February Professor A.D. Walsh of Queen’s College Dundee, spoke on “Lead Tetraethyl as an Engine Anti-knock.” Mr Louis Fletcher Chairman of the Section introduced Professor Walsh who began his lecture with an historical account of the discovery of the anti-knock properties of lead tetraethyl at the end of the first World War. He said that between the two World Wars our under-standing of the anti-knock action had advanced very little. At the end of the Second World War it was shown that gaseous lead tetraethyl, when oxidised produces a fog of solid lead monoxide particles; that the lead monoxide so produced causes an acute inhibition of hydrocarbon combustion; that the inhibition is due to the surface properties of solid Annual Dinner.Anti-Knock Agents and Combustion Mechanism 222 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR lead monoxide; and that this inhibition appears to account for the anti-knock properties of lead tetraethyl. Subsequent work has been designed to elucidate the nature of the surface reactions occurring on lead monoxide. The combustion of methane was found to obey one of two kinetic laws depending upon the nature of the surface of the reaction vessel in which the combustion is carried out. Acidic (proton-donating) surfaces give rise to fast oxidation rates and one kinetic law; metallic oxide and metallic halide surfaces give rise to slow oxidation rates and a different kinetic law. The second explosion limit of the hydrogen-oxygen reaction also obeys one of two kinetic laws depending upon the nature of the reaction vessel surface; and the division of surfaces into two categories is the same as in the combustion of methane.Partly from this and partly from the details of the action of PbO-surfaces on the combustion of the higher paraffins it was deduced that the various surfaces affected particularly the fate of HO radicals and H,O, molecules. On acidic surfaces H202 molecules are preserved while HO radicals have a proton donated to them and eventually emerge as H,O molecules. On metallic oxide and metallic halide surfaces both H,O molecules and HO radicals have an electron donated to them and eventually emerge as oxygen and water. All the oxide and halide surfaces destroy HO radicals readily; but the surfaces differ in the ease with which they destroy H,O molecules.These conclusions explain the two kinetic laws referred to above. Additional experiments confirm the correctness of the conclusions and their applicability to engine combustion. The ideal anti-knock is likely to be a substance which gives rise in the engine to a fog of solid particles whose surface properties are such that both HO radicals and H,O molecules are destroyed with maximum efficiency. I t is thus theoretically possible to devise a better anti-knock than lead tetraethyl; the noble metals in particular are better anti-knock agents but of no direct commercial interest. The lecture was illustrated by several interesting demonstrations, and in the lively discussion which followed topics touched on included the mechanism of the H,O decomposition reaction and the economics of improving petrols by additives such as lead tetraethyl.Professor K. G. Denbigh then thanked the lecturer for his most interesting talk and expressed the audience’s appreciation of Professor Walsh’s brilliant account. The vote of thanks was carried with acclamation. HUDDERSFIELD On 15 January the Section met at 32 John William Street to hear Dr R. L. Smith give an account of the problems which have been overcome by the judicious choice of sequestering agents in industry and agriculture. Dr W. R. H. Hurtley was in the Chair and the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr W. R. Baker who has now taken over the duties of Hon. Treasurer from Dr J. King who will shortly be leaving the district.&‘fluent Treatment. On 14 February before a large gathering of members and their friends Mr J. McNicholas of the Manchester Rivers Department gave an interesting account of the many aspects of effluent disposal and treatment. He outlined the legal obligations of manufacturers relating to the nature and volume of waste products they may be permitted to dispose of by drains. He referred to particular problems that had developed in Sequestering agents 19571 SECTION ACTIVITIES 223 recent years for example the difficulty that was being encountered with effluent containing detergent. The talk was illustrated with slides depicting modern emuent-treatment plant. Members were particularly impressed by a novel method of disposing of waste cyanide liquors that had been developed in America.Some interesting observations were made in the subsequent discussion. Dr H. H. Goldthorpe in thanking Mr McNicholas mentioned a certain document written in fluid taken from one of the local water-ways at the turn of the century still preserved in a local museum. Happily the state of our rivers today was ample proof of the considerable efforts that local authorities and the River Boards had made to overcome the problem. LEEDS AREA The Annual Open Meeting for members and their guests organised jointly with the Yorkshire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry was held on 7 February in the large ballroom of the Queen’s Hotel Leeds. The theme was “Chocolates and Confectionery,” and more than 300 people assembled to sample (literally) what the Societies and their collaborators pIaced before them.It was regretted that the President of the Society of Chemical Industry had not sufficiently recovered from his recent indisposition to take the chair as he had hoped to do but Mr A. G. Lipscomb Chairman of the Yorkshire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry ably deputising, welcomed the guests and introduced the lecturer Dr F. H. Banfield, Director of the British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Asso-ciation who dealt in a breezy manner with the problems that arise in the manufacture of chocolates and sugar confectionery. After mentioning the processing of the cocoa bean to provide cocoa butter he went on to consider the use of high frequency heating for quick melting the im-portance of viscosity control and the catastrophes that can occur when insufficient regard is paid to the hygroscopicity of the final product.In the case of sugar confectionery the essential simplicity of the processes is tempered by the need for quality control and for treatment to prevent crystallisation of the sugar. The lecture was illustrated by a film of the cocoa plantations in which scenes illustrating the growing cutting and pulping of the bean were agreeably interspersed with others depicting the community and family life of the native workers. Professor F. S. Dainton Chairman of the Section expressed the appreciation of the assembled company for a delightful lecture delight-fully chaired which had whetted and stimulated appetites on a subject about which one was never too old to care.Thanks are also due to the exhibitors by whose labour and good will the evening’s enjoyment was enhanced. Before and after the lecture a number of display stalls illustrating cocoa and sugar processing and the manufacture of toffee and con-fectionery were open for inspection. A demonstration of cake icing by the experts of the Food Technology Department of the Leeds College of Technology was a centre of attraction. Although it had not proved practicable actually to show how the letters get into the seaside rock our visitors were able to take away samples which displayed internally the inscription “R.I.C. and S.C.I.” For the ladies there was a competition to identify the flavours of fondants specially manufactured in colours Chocolates and Confectionery 224 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR designed to mislead.No fewer than 10 ladies returned completely correct answers and this evidence of good taste in the Societies was heartily applauded. A buffet supper rounded off a most enjoyable social occasion. A meeting of the Section was held at the University of Leeds on 18 February. Professor F. S. Dainton Chairman of the Section presided and Mr R. Nattrass lectured on “Silicones and their Industrial Applications.” Chlorsilanes made by the direct action of alkyl (usually methyl) chlorides on silicon in presence of copper at 400”C are refined by fractionation to a high degree of purity. On hydrolysis they give dimers, fluid polymers and resins according to whether one two or three chlorine atoms are present in the chlorsilane molecule.These products are characterised by heat stability small viscosity-temperature change high dielectric constant and marked water-repellant properties. They accordingly find a wide variety of uses and are particularly valuable for impregnating the windings of electric motors where heat is generated, and for other insulating purposes. Application to fabrics gives soft handle and the water-repellant qualities prevent staining by inks and drinks. The latter property is useful in many ways; brickwork can be treated to eliminate water absorption and consequent efflorescence of salts while leaving the pores open for ‘breathing,’ cakes and bread can be prevented from sticking to the tins during baking and by coating the interior of phials the last drop of valuable aqueous solutions e.g.of penicillin can be poured out. Silicone rubbers are an important product and the use of the resins as a medium for paints enables the latter to stand temperatures up to 200°C. The lecture was well illustrated by exhibits and demonstrations and provoked many questions. In reply it was indicated that silicones are not themselves good lubricants because of their low film strength but will prevent foaming in ordinary lubricating oils and are useful for impreg-nating oil seals. When applied to textiles a catalyst is used to lower the baking temperature but the nature of the ‘vulcanisation’ catalyst for silicone rubbers was not disclosed. Research is in progress on the effect of varying the hydrocarbon radicals in the silicone molecules.The lecture was followed by a film illustrating in an interesting and effective manner the uses and applications of silicones. In proposing the vote of thanks Dr C. G. Addingley said that the size of the audience testified to the drawing power of a subject in which enormous strides had been made in a short time. Applications of Silicones. LIVERPOOL AND NORTH-WESTERN On 24 January about 120 people attended the first of the Section’s events to be held in Birkenhead where the fine new Technical College provided a suitable and con-venient meeting place. The Vice-chairman of the Section Dr W. B. Whalley presided and introduced the speaker Dr Mansell Davies Senior Lecturer in Physical Chemistry at the University College of Wales Aberystwyth.The title of his lecture was “Infra-Red Spectrh and Molecular Structure.” Dr Davies began with a brief outline of the technique employed in measuring frequencies absorbed by various types of molecules in infra-red spectroscopy. After listing sources of radiation means of dispersion and Infra-Red Spectra and Molecular Structure 19571 SECTION ACTIVITIES 225 types of detectors he explained the optical arrangement of a Grubb, Parsons single-beam spectrometer. He indicated how moments of inertia and force constants could be derived from vibration rotation spectra and used with certain assumptions to determine molecular structure. In this connection special reference was made to hydrazoic acid and the dihalogenoethanes.Spectral characteristics of compounds of unknown structure could be matched with those of known structure. The lecturer referred to a punch-card machine system for printed spectra in which all cards for compounds containing a certain required characteristic absorption would automatically be ejected from the machine. During the discussion Dr Davies said that the Americans were con-sidering the use of micro-wave spectra as an analytical tool. Dr V. Moss proposed the vote of thanks to the speaker. A.G.M. and Lecture Change of Date. The lecture “Biological Syn-thesis of Carbohydrates” to be given by Professor M. Stacey F.R.s. in conjunction with the Annual General Meeting of the Section will be held on Wednesday 3 April instead of 11 April as advertised in the Syllabus.The time and place remain the same. LONDON Photography in Scientific and Engineering Investigation. At En field Technical College on 21 January the Section was welcomed by Mr R. Sheppard and Dr C. Simons took the Chair for a lecture by Dr R. H. Herz. Dr Herz has lectured on several previous occasions to the London Section and it is well known that the great interest of his lectures lies in the innumerable examples of photography which he is able to display. Unfortunately without including these illustrations it is impossible to give an adequate description of the range of subjects covered or the methods employed to use photography as a scientific and industrial tool. During the course of his lecture Dr Herz showed how permanent records of very slow or extremely rapid events could be obtained so that the camera could be used to cover both the large ranges of distance encoun-tered in astronomy and also the tracks of moving particles as small as 1-12 cm in diameter.Dr Herz answered several questions in the discussion which followed, and the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr Sheppard. Some Aspects o f Inorganic Peroxy Compounds. On 30 January Dr C. Simons took the Chair at the South West Essex Technical College, Walthamstow when the speaker was Mr R. Lait. Mr Lait began by classifying the types of peroxy compounds distin-guishing between these and the super oxides. He made the point that the parent compound hydrogen peroxide can be considered as a weak acid with which only the most electropositive metals form salts.Peroxy acids and peroxy hydrates were also discussed. Only elements with an electronegativity less than that of hydrogen form peroxy linkages; the character and bond length of the -0-0- linkage were compared in O, H,O, BaO, KO and similar compounds. In a brief review of the methods of making hydrogen peroxide Mr Lait referred to its formation during the autoxidation of organic compounds e.g. 2-ethyl-anthraquinol. Such methods had possibilities of industrial development 226 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Three methods of manufacture of peroxy compounds were discussed : (1) electrolysis mainly used for the manufacture of H202 but can be used for perborates; (2) direct reaction with H202 used to prepare the peroxy hydrates, such as perborates; (3) direct oxidation used to prepare the salts of H,O, such as Na,02 and BaO,.The great bulk of these compounds are the peroxy hydrates which are used in household washing powders. For this application granular size is of importance. The solid perborates used in this manner are stable losing only one per cent of the available oxygen content over six months at 20°C. Percarbonates and perphosphates are less stable and stability decreases with increase in temperature. There is still doubt as to whether the peroxy hydrates exist as hydrated peroxy compounds or as compounds containing hydrogen peroxide of crystallisation. Chemical X-ray and spectroscopic evidence seems to suggest that in the perborates the -0-0-H group is in the anion but in the other peroxy hydrates it exists as H20 of crystallisation.A joint meeting with the Brighton Technical College Chemical Society was held on 1 February. Mr F. C. Hymas was in the Chair and the lecturer was Professor E. R. H. Jones F.R.S. Professor Jones opened his lecture by pointing out that the predictions of van’t Hoff in 1874 concerning the stereochemistry of the then unknown allenes and cumulenes have subsequently been proved correct. Acetylenes exhibit prototropic mobility under basic conditions as illustrated by the following examples :-Acetylene and AZZene Chemistry. CH,*Ci CR KOH EtOH 170°C ___1_____3 HCi C*CH,R KOH EtOH H2C :C CMe __________j HCi C-CHMe, 150°C The latter is an exception to the statement that allenes are less stable than their isomeric acetylenes.Jacobs demonstrated in 195 1 that the following three hydrocarbons form the same equilibrium mixture in the presence of 4~ KOH in ethanol at 175°C. HC i C*CH,Et .-+ H,C C CHEt -> CH3.C C*Et (1.5%) - (3*5%) - (95%) The preference of an acetylenic linkage for a position next to a terminal methyl group is also observed in long-chain compounds e.g. NaNH, liq.NH, -CH2*Ci C.(CH,)4*CH > -CH,*(CH2)**Ci C*CH, The rearrangements of carboxylic acids of the HC i C* (CH,),*COOH series and the u@-unsaturated acids where the chain ends in the CH, group have been studied and the force responsible for the stability of the CH,*C i C*CH2- system is evidently hyperconjugation of the C i 19571 SECTION ACTIVITIES 227 linkage with five C-H bonds.The shortening of the bond uniting the methyl carbon with the unsaturated group (1-46 A instead of the normal 1.54 A) provides physical evidence of the existence of this electronic interaction. The greater importance of hyperconjugation in acetylenic over ethylenic compounds arises from the nature of the distribution of the unsaturated electron cloud which being cylindrically symmetrical in acetylenic bonds provides opportunity for electronic interaction all the time with the C--H electrons whereas the more restricted distribution in the ethylenic bond limits interaction. The existence of naturally occurring acetylenic and allenic compounds has been brought to light in recent years. These have been found as hydrocarbons and with acid ester and alcohol groups.Among plants the Compositae are prolific polyacetylene producers Typical examples are :-and CH,:CH*CiC.C’:C.CiC*CfC*CiC*CH, CH,C i C*C i C-C CCH CHCOOMe The latter (Sorensen’s C1,H,) has been synthesised and shown spec-troscopically to be identical with the natural hydrocarbon produced by plants of the Coreopsis species. Mycomycin is an optically active acid produced by a micro-organism. It is rearranged (with loss of optical asymmetry) by 1~ KOH to isomycomycin. HC i C*C I CGH C CHCH CHCH CHCH,COOH My comy cin isomy comycin CH,*Ci C*Ci C*C C*CH CHCH CHCH,COOH An interesting point is presented by the polyacetylenes CH CHCH CH*Ci C-Ci C-C f C*CH CHCH,OAc and Ph-CiC-Ci C-CH CHCH,OAc. Both compounds are terminated with a C,H group-one aromatic and the other open-chain.A biogenetic relationship is suggested. Similar relationships seem very probable in the case of the natural products represented by the following schematic formulae :-The lecture was followed by a discussion and finally Mr Hill proposed the vote of thanks to Professor Jones. Ladies’ Evening. On 13 February an innovatory meeting was held which might well develop into one of the Section’s most popular features. For the first time a subject was chosen of special interest to ladies the popularity of which was proved by the fact that of the 140 people present, almost half were members’ wives or lady visitors. Dr C. C. Hall in introducing Dr B. P. Ridge to speak on “Chemical Fibres and the Community,” remarked how pleasingly the rich background of the Royal Institution lecture-hall was enhanced by the unaccustomed attraction and colour of both the lecture exhibits and the audience.Dr Ridge introduced his subject by referring to the increasing world population (at the rate of one per second) and quoting figures showin 228 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR the very large area of agricultural land required to produce natural fibres. As an example he noted that 10-13 acres of land are needed to produce 1 ton of cotton. Natural fibres are always subject to large fluctuations in price and are susceptible to pest and drought. These circumstances coupled with the necessity for finding textiles with properties in some ways superior to those of the natural fibres suggested that the use of man-made fibres was inevitable; otherwise the increased population of the world could not be adequately clothed and the new demands of modern industry would not be met.He gave a review of the more important synthetic fibres-Nylon Perlon Terylene Orlon and semi-synthetic Ardil Rayon and Tri-acetate emphasising their advan-tages and disadvantages. By practical demonstrations and the use of simple display cards he showed some of the factors that are taken into consideration (number of filaments per yarn density elasticity) when assessing the probable life of a stocking. The lecture was a neat mixture of scientific information interspersed with many successful demonstrations and a wealth of practical hints on washing ironing and dry-cleaning given by an expert both in the laboratory and the kitchen! The yellowing of Nylon curtains an unfortunate phenomenon but all too familiar to housewives was explained by Dr Ridge who suggested that the best answer was to change to Terylene or Orlon.He demonstrated the behaviour of various fibres to wet shrinkage and the action of oxidising agents and chlorinated solvents showing that many synthetic fibres had advantages over the natural. The disadvan-tages of dirt being attracted by static were stressed. Although emphasis was not unnaturally placed on an appeal to the more feminine interests the audience was made aware of the many important uses of man-made fibres in industry where their resistance to wear and heat coupled with comparative immunity to attack by many chemical reagents has provided solutions to innumerable difficult problems.An outline of the scientific background to the production of synthetic fibres was also given with clarity in non-technical language. The response to the lecture was evident in the many questions asked by ladies about stain-resistant materials water-proofing shrinkage and wearing properties and even the resistance of nylon stockings to con-centrated sulphuric acid. In the vote of thanks to the lecturer proposed by Mrs Miall stress was laid on the enjoyment given by Dr Ridge’s talk and the hope that the new venture of the ladies’ evening would be repeated. A highly successful film display was held at Norwood Technical College on 15 February at which the following films were shown “Titanium Pigment Story”; “The Rival World” ; “The Extrac-tion of Precious Metals from Nickel-Copper Alloys”; “Welcome to Sulphurland” and ‘ ‘The Automatic Laboratory.’’ Such a large audience was expected for the evening showing that an extra display was held in the afternoon. The films selected for this showing were exceedingly well contrasted, ranging from illustrations of two large-scale processes each devoted to the production of one material to processes on what may be described as large-scale laboratory work. “The Rival World,” a colour film that has won a number of awards described the endless fight for survival between man and insects. It illustrates the advances that have been made Film Display 1957 -J SECTION ACTIVITIES 229 in insect control in recent years with consequent increase in the world’s food supply and improvement in health conditions in tropical countries.During the brief discussion after each film mention was made of the unobtrusiveness of advertising in the British films which compared favourably with the one American example shown. NORTH LANCASHIRE A Chemistry Bared on Fluorine. Dr R. N. Haszeldine spoke at Lancaster on 24 January on “A Chemistry based on Fluorine.” The lecture covered almost the same ground as the speaker’s monograph on “Fluorocarbon Derivatives,” and it is not necessary to refer further here to the subject matter. What must be said is that the large audience were privileged to hear a brilliant exposition of an intriguing subject that will long be remembered by those present.The meeting ended with a warm vote of thanks to the lecturer proposed by Dr H. Gregson. On 21 February Mr A. Carter a metallurgist of I.C.I. Ltd. (Metals Division) spoke at Preston on “Titanium.” The meeting which was well attended was held jointly with the Liverpool section of the Society for Chemical Industry. The speaker began with an historical review of the methods of extracting the metal from its oxide, which is the main constituent of the ores rutile and ilmenite. He stressed the importance and difficulty of eliminating small traces of oxygen nitrogen and carbon which cause embrittlement and a marked reduction in ductility. Mr Carter then turned to the problems to be faced in converting titanium sponge into ingots and subsequent fabrica-tion.The lecturer stressed the unavoidably high cost of production but pointed out that the metal’s highly desirable properties-resistance to corrosion low density high melting point and strength-would enable it to be used economically in many instances. After answering many questions Mr Carter was heartily thanked by Professor T. P. Hilditch, c.B.E. F.R.s. Chairman of the S.C.I. section. Lecture on Titanium. SOUTH-WESTERN COUNTIES The Fourth Annual Science Lecture for Schools arranged jointly by the Section and the Society of Chemical Industry was held on 4 December in the Washington Singer Laboratories, University of Exeter. The Vice-chairman of the Section Dr S. J. Gregg presided over a gathering of some 320 senior scholars from Devon and Exeter grammar schools and introduced Dr P.J. Wheatley of the Department of Chemistry University of Leeds who gave a lecture on “Why we believe in atoms and what we can do with them.” Dr Wheatley reviewed the hypotheses of the constitution of matter advanced by the philosophers of ancient Greece and indicated the importance of the enunciation by Dalton of his atomic theory whereby the laws of chemical combination could be quantitatively explained, The contributions of Berzelius Gay-Lussac Avogadro and Cannizzaro to our understanding of atomic and molecular weights were described. The classification of the elements put forward by Lothar Meyer and MendelCef despite certain anomalies stimulated fresh interest in the nature of the atom. From the investigations of Crookes and Thomson on the nature of cathode rays and the discovery of the existence of electrons there arose the conception of the electronic constitution of the atom and of matter.Annual Lecture f o r Schools 230 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Dr Wheatley further illustrated the complex nature of the atom by alluding to the phenomenon of radioactivity and mentioned the work of Ramsay and Rutherford in elucidating the nature of alpha rays and Rutherford and Soddy’s theory of the disintegration of atoms. The lecturer then spoke on the measurement of radioactivity and on radioactive isotopes. He distinguished between the release of atomic energy for destructive purposes and the controlled release of energy harnessed for the production of electricity.The lecture was repeated on the following day in Plymouth to an audience of 350 scholars from Grammar Schools in Plymouth South Devon and Cornwall the Chairman of the local Section of the Society of Chemical Industry Dr N. 0. Clark presiding. In the Technical College Plymouth on 18 January with Dr F. D. M. Hocking in the Chair Professor E. J. King of the University of London Postgraduate Medical School gave a lecture on “Silicosis.” Examination of silicotic lung tissue indicates that silicosis is caused by particles of silica dust up to 10 p in diameter. The shape and hardness of the particles is of no significance but there is some correlation between solubility of silica tissue reaction and the fact that silica is a known protoplasmic poison.Particles of a size that cause maximum tissue reaction are those that have maximum solubility. Solubility is also related to particle size; it tails off in time and after 20 weeks may be nil. Nevertheless particles which have been found to become insoluble after 20 weeks’ contact with water are still capable of causing silicosis so that some factor other than solubility alone must be involved. Heating of silica particles also increases their toxicity without interfering with the solubility or chemical properties. Silica particles treated with aluminium dust have their solubility and their ability to cause silicosis greatly reduced. Treatment of miners with aluminium dust both for prevention and cure however has been disappointing. Research is now being directed to (a) surface changes in particles with special reference to monomolecular layers ( b ) permeability of mem-branes and entry of substances into the cell and (c) the nature of the combination of silica with living cells as for example in diatoms.In the discussion that followed visitors representing the quarrying and china clay industries took part. Dr L. H. N. Cooper proposed the vote of thanks to Professor King which was accorded with acclamation. Silicosis. Silicates are not soluble and generally do not cause silicosis. NEWS AND NOTES FELLOWSHIPS AND COURSES Ramsay Memorial Fellowships.-The Trustees will consider applications for two Ramsay Memorial Fellowships for Advanced Students of Chemistry in June. One of the Fellowships will be limited to candidates educated in Glasgow who can apply to be considered for either Fellowship.The value of each Fellowship will be A600 per annum to which may be added a grant for expenses of research not exceeding LlOO per annum. The Fellowships will normally be tenable for two years 1957) NEWS AND NOTES 23 1 Full particulars can be obtained from the Joint Honorary Secretaries, Ramsay Memorial Fellowships Trust University College London, Gower Street W.C. 1 Completed application forms must be received not later than 18 April. Borough Polytechnic.-A series of five lectures on Hydrazine will be given in the Department of Chemistry on Wednesday evenings at 6.30-8.30 p.m. beginning 13 March. The lectures deal with the manufacture of hydrazine its chemical reactions and industrial uses.A detailed syllabus may be obtained on application to the Borough Polytechnic Borough Road London S.E. 1. University of Leeds Postgraduate Summer School.-The 1957 Postgraduate Summer School in Polarisation Microscopy and Optical Crystallographic Methods will be held in the Department of Inorganic and Structural Chemistry at the University of Leeds from 2 to 13 September. The course will be generally similar to those held in previous years and the greater part will be devoted to practical work with the polarising microscope. Accommodation is available if required in one of the University Halls of Residence. As it will be necessary to limit the number of students in the School, those wishing to participate should write as soon as possible to the Secretary Department of Adult Education and Extra-Mural Studies, The University Leeds 2 for a form of application.Loughborough College of Technology.-A practical course .in Radiochemical Apparatus and Techniques is being arranged for the period 22-27 July. A Summer Course in Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering will again be held this year from 15 to 27 July. Enquiries should be addressed to Dr R. F. Phillips Department of Chemical Engineering at the College. EXHIBITIONS Atoms and Health.-An Exhibition on “Atoms and Health” is now being presented by the Royal Society of Health in conjunction with the U.K. Atomic Energy Authority in the Society’s Health Exhibition Centre 90 Buckingham Palace Road London S.W.1. It will be open until 31 May Exhibits will include working models and dioramas and films will be shown.Admission is free and the times of opening are 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Mondays to Fridays. Exhibition of Instruments Electronics and Automation.-An exhibition of Instruments Electronics and Automation organised by Industrial Exhibitions Ltd. will be held at Olympia from 7 to 17 May. Two hundred British manufacturers will show the latest advances in scientific instruments and lectures and discussions will take place daily. The exhibition will be open from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. (9 p.m. on 10 and 15 May). Further information may be obtained from the Organisers 9 Argyll Street London W. 1 232 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Physical Society Exhibition.-The 41 st Exhibition of Scientific Instruments and Apparatus will be held at the Royal Horticultural Society’s Old and New Halls Westminster London S.W.1 and will be open as follows: Monday 25 March 10.30 a.m.-7 p.m.(Members and Press only 10.30 a.rn.2 p.m.) Tuesday 26 March 10 a.m.-9 p.m. Wednesday 27 March 10 a.m.-7 p.m. Thursday 28 March 10 a.m.4.30 p.m. The opening ceremony will be performed by Professor P. M. S. Blackett F.R.s. at 11 a.m. on Monday 25 March. Three Discourses will be given during the Exhibition. Sir Harold Spencer Jones will speak on 25 March on “The International Geophysical Year,” Dr E. Mendoza on 26 March on “The Supply and Distribution of Liquid Helium” and Professor E. G. Richardson on 27 March on ‘‘Recent Trends in Acoustics.” All the Discourses will be at 6.15 p.m.and admission will be without ticket. MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES Aslib Winter Meeting.-On 29 March at 6 p.m. Mr H. C. Richardson will speak on “The Reorganisation of a Special Library” at the Royal Society of Arts 8 John Adam Street Adelphi London, w.c.2. Modern Analytical Chemistry in Industry.-The Society for Analytical Chemistry through its Scottish Section is organising a Congress to be held from 24 to 28 June at the University of St Andrews. Lectures and discussions will fall into three main groups Analysis in Modern Industry The Application of Some Newer Analytical Techniques in Industry and Developments in Analysis for New Problems in Industry. Each group of lectures will be preceded by a Congress lecture. Dr James Craik will speak on Analytical Chemistry in Industry Dr L.H. Lampitt on Analysis and Food and Professor G. F. Smith on New Analytical Reagents and their Applications in Industrial Plant Control Operations. The Congress will be under the general chairmanship of Dr Magnus Pyke. There will be an exhibition of modern analytical apparatus and reagents. The Congress Secretary is Mr J. A. Eggleston Divisional Analyst, Boots Pure Drug Co. Ltd. Airdrie Works Airdrie Lanarkshire and registration forms should reach him by 31 March. European Brewery Convention.-The VIth International Congress of the Convention is being held at Copenhagen from 2 to 7 June and a number of British scientists will take part. Registration forms (to be returned by 8 April) are obtainable from the Secretary The Institute of Brewing 33 Clarges Street London W.1. Birkenhead Technical College.-An all-day Chemistry Conference for the staffs of Technical Colleges is being held at Birkenhead Technical College on 30 March. Professor C. E. H. Bawn F.R.s. will speak on GcSome New Macromoleculesy’ and Dr F. D. S. Butement on “Radio-activity and Geological Dating.” It is hoped that the new Study Guide for Parts I and I1 of the Graduate Membership examination of the Institute will be discussed. There is no charge for the Conference bu 19571 NEWS AND NOTES 233 those wishing to attend should contact the Science Department Birken-head Technical College Borough Road Birkenhead so that arrange-ments can be made for lunch. Chemical Society.-The Anniversary Meetings of the Society are being held in Cambridge from 9 to 12 April.Three Symposia will be held during this period “Phosphoric Esters and Related Compounds” ; “Reactions of Free Radicals in the Gas Phase”; “Recent Aspects of the Inorganic Chemistry of Nitrogen.” Programmes of works visits excur-sions and social events have also been arranged. Faraday Society Discussion Amsterdam.-The Faraday Society, in conjunction with the Koninklijke Nederlandse Chemische Vereniging, will hold a General Discussion on “Molecular Mechanism of Rate Processes in Solids” at the Koninklijke Instituut voor Tropen (Royal Tropical Institute) Mauritskade Amsterdam from 15 to 18 April. Full particulars and application forms may be obtained from the Assistant Secretary Faraday Society 6 Gray’s Inn Square London W.C.1. Institute of Metal Finishing.-The Annual Conference is being held at the Grand Hotel Brighton on 9-13 April. Technical sessions will be held on 10-12 April. Programmes can be obtained from The Conference Secretary Institute of Metal Finishing 32 Great Ormond Street London W.C. 1. Institution of Chemical Engineers.--The Thirty-Fifth Annual Corporate Meeting and Annual Dinner is to be held at the May Fair Hotel Berkeley Street London W.l on 30 April. At the end of the business session the Moulton Medal and the William Macnab Medal will be presented. At 12 noon the President Mr John A. Oriel c.B.E., M.C will address the meeting on “Petroleum and the Chemical Engineer.” On 26 April the Graduates and Students’ Section will hold a Sym-posium on “The Impact of Atomic Energy on Chemical Engineering,’ at the Cora Hotel Upper Woburn Place London W.C.1. A registration fee of 17s. 6d. is payable by visitors who should write for further informa-tion to the Institution at 16 Belgrave Square London S.W. l. OCCA Biennial Conference.-The Oil and Colour Chemists’ Association Biennial Conference will take place on 21-24 May at the Palace Hotel Torquay to consider “Catalytic Processes relating to the Surface Coating Industries.yy Further details and forms of registration can be obtained by non-members of the Association from the General Secretary Memorial Hall Farringdon Street London E.C.4. The Scaling-up of Chemical Plant and Processes.-A joint symposium of the Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs (Chemical Engineering Group) the Koninklij ke Nederlandse Chemische Vereniging (Section for Chemical Technology) the Society of Chemical Industry (Chemical Engineering Group) and the Institution of Chemical Engineers will be held at Church House Westminster London S.W.1 , on 28 and 29 May. The programme will cover a wide field and will deal with theoretical practical and economic aspects. The collected papers will represent the greatest available concentra-tion of information on the subject and it is expected that the proceedings of the symposium complete with discussions will provide a standard work of reference for chemical engineers for many years 234 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MJ4R Scientific Film Association.-The Association is organising for the International Scientific Film Association a Conference on Presenting Science to the Public through the Film and Television at the Institut Francais Queensberry Place London S.W.7 from 4 to 6 April.The programme will include contributions from many well-known speakers and three evening film-shows open to non-delegates. The Conference fee is L3 3s. A film season ticket will be available at 10s. 6d. Applica-tion forms may be obtained from the Scientific Film Association 164, Shaftesbury Avenue London W.C.2. The February issue of Scientijc Film Review (price 3s. 6d.) is devoted to films on Bridges Roads Road Transport Road Systems and Road Safety. Second International Congress of Surface Activ&y.-This Congress will take place in London on 8-12 April. The President of Honour is Lord Brabazon of Tara and Sir Eric Rideal F.R.s.is President. The Organising Committee of which Dr L. H. Lampitt is Chairman includes wide representation of industrial and academic interests. A very comprehensive programme of lectures has been arranged by a committee under Dr J. H. Schulman head of the Department of Colloid Science University of Cambridge. A programme of works visits has been arranged by a committee under Mr M. K. Schwitzer and a reception and a banquet have been organised. The 190 papers will be printed and circulated to members of the Congress in advance. Discussion of the papers will take place in groups after a brief introduction by the authors. The membership fee for the Congress is &4 and application forms or further details may be obtained from the Hon.Secretary Second International Congress of Surface Activity 14 Belgrave Square London, S.W. 1. NEW PUBLICATIONS Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy.-This new journal which is to be published by Academic Press Inc. and edited by Dr H. H. Nielsen of Ohio State University will be devoted to the publication of original research papers dealing with molecular spectra in emission and absorption, molecular spectra in the ultra-violet the visible the near and far infra-red, and in the micro-wave region. It will also contain contributions on Raman spectroscopy and radiofrequency spectroscopy (including nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy). It is planned to publish Volume I, consisting of four issues during 1957 Number 1 appearing in May.Subscriptions 80s. per annum should be sent to the publishers, Academic Books Ltd. 129 Queensway London W.2. Loughborough Colleges’ New journal.-The first issue of the Chemical and Chemical Engineering Society’s Journal has recently been published (price 2s.). The Society was formed in November 1955 and the Journal brings together in compact form the lectures presented to the Society over the past year. The founders hope that members of universities technical colleges and industrial concerns will make use of the Society so that it can look forward to an expansion of its activities, both academically and socially 19571 NEWS AND NOTES 235 Scientific World.-The first number of a new periodical with this title has been published by the World Federation of Scientific Workers, 27 Red Lion Street London W.C.1 price 6d.In this first issue are brought together contributions on matters of common interest from the U.K. the U.S.A. the Soviet Union Brazil Czechoslovakia and India. Contributions are invited from all countries and fi-om individuals. “It is the policy of the editorial board that the contributions should present as far as is attainable a balanced reflection of the thought of scientists throughout the world with the aim of expanding the growing region of co-operation in the constructive application of science.” PHARMACY AND POISONS ACT 1933 The Home Office has announced that Statutory Instruments giving effect to recommendations made to the Secretary of State by the Poisons Board are being prepared.It is proposed to make the following changes Poisons List and Rules:-Tropine d~henylmethyl ether its salts will be added to Part I of the Poisons List and to the First and Fourth Schedules to the Poisons Rules. Sodium ~OnoJ~oracetate will be deleted from Part I of the Poisons List and the First Schedule to the Poisons Rules and Juoroacetic acid its salts will be added to Part I of the Poisons List and to the First Seventh Eighth and Sixteenth Schedules to the Poisons Rules. In addition Rule 16 which at present relates to the sale of strychnine will be amended to impose similar restrictions on the sale of fluoroacetic acid and its salts. 1 -Methyl-4-phe~lp~eridine-4-carboxyli~ acid isopropyl ester Norm-ethadone 1 ; 3-Dimethyl-4-~henyl-4-~ro~ionyloxyhexamethyleneimine 3-Hy droxy - N-p henet hy lmo rp hinan 4-Mo rp ho lino- 2 2 -dip heny 1 e t hy 1 b u ty -rate and 4- Dimethylamino- 1 2 -diphenyl-3-methyl-2-propionyZoxybutane : their salts will be added to Part I of the Poisons List and to the First Schedule to the Poisons Rules.The existing references in Part I of the Poisons List and the First and Fourth Schedules to the Poisons Rules to ‘ ‘dithienylal~lamine compounds their salts” will be amended to ‘‘dithienylallylamines; dithienylal~ylal~lamines their salts” Formic acid will be added to Part I1 of the Poisons List and to the Second Schedule to the Poisons Rules with exemption under Group I1 of the Third Schedule for substances containing less than five per cent weight in weight of formic acid. Fluoroacetamide and~~oroacetanilide will be added to Part I1 of the Poisons List and to the First Fifth Seventh Eighth Ninth and Sixteenth Schedules to the Poisons Rules with exemption under Group I1 of the Third Schedule for substances containing them not being preparations for use in agriculture or horticulture or for the destruction of rats and mice and for solutions containing not more than one per cent of fluoroacetamide or fluoroacet-analide in association with acetamide a bitter principle and a dye.Antihistamine substances in Preparations specijically intended f o r the treatment of travel sickness will be exempted from the provisions of the Pharmacy and Poisons Act and of the Poisons Rules 236 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTI’I‘UTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Phenyl mercuric salts in antiseptic dressings on toothbrushes will be exempted from the provisions of the Pharmacy and Poisons Act and of the Poisons Rules.(8) LABORATORY TECHNICIANS’ WORK The value of the science laboratory technician is now generally recognised in this country. But this recognition has come belatedly and mainly as a consequence of the grave shortage of scientists and technologists to whom the well trained laboratory technician can render invaluable assistance releasing them from much routine work for more creative and demanding activities and providing practical skills which few scientists possess. Since 1951 the City and Guilds of London Institute has offered Intermediate and Final examinations in Laboratory Technicians’ Work on the basis of a scheme prepared by that Institute’s advisory committee.This scheme recognises the science laboratory technician as a highly skilled person with a command of a wide range of techniques and competent to provide scientists with the materials apparatus and services needed for their work and with assistance in experimentation, demonstration or teaching. The course for the Intermediate examination covers General Laboratory Techniques and Organisation Laboratory Workshop Practice Specialised Laboratory Techniques and related Science and Drawing. The Final examination includes at a more advanced level Laboratory Organisation and Administration and Advanced Laboratory Techniques. There has been a steady growth of interest in this scheme; the number of candidates has increased from 18 in 1951 to 161 in 1956, and the courses are now being offered at eleven technical colleges.The products of the courses are very highly regarded as valuable members of laboratory staffs but the advisory committee feels very strongly that more general and rapid development is desirable and that in both educational and industrial circles more positive action is necessary in the recruitment and adequate training of laboratory technicians. The establishment of a National Joint Committee for Recruitment and Training of Science Laboratory Technicians (Educational and Kindred Institutions) and its recognition in 1953 by the Minister of Labour and National Service has been a great step forward. This Committee has published a memorandum on the characteristics of approved schemes of craft apprenticeship for science laboratory technicans under which deferment of call-up for National Service may be granted under certain conditions to trainee laboratory technicians.A number of local education authorities have taken urgent steps to make adequate provision of laboratory technicians for the science laboratories in their secondary schools technical colleges and other educational institutions. For example the London County Council has recently adopted a plan to train eighty young men and women aged 15 to 20 for work in school and college laboratories and has established courses in two centres in London. Financial recognition is given to satisfactory completion of the training and the gaining of the Inter-mediate Certificate in Laboratory Technicians’ Work.This Certificate has also been accepted for the purposes of the Civil Service Open Competition (Assistants Scientific) and so far as is known it is the only science laboratory technicians’ certificate so recognised 19573 NEWS AND NOTES 237 In the national interest it is imperative that the country’s laboratories, particularly in educational establishments should be adequately manned with competent laboratory technicians and that training facilities should be established to enable trainee technicians to become qualified. Further information on this important subject can be obtained from the City and Guilds of London Institute Gresham College Basinghall Street London E.C.2. METROPOLITAN WATER BOARD The Thirty-sixth Report on the results of the Examination of the London Waters for the years 1953-54 has recently been published and is the first by Dr E.Windle Taylor as Director of Water Examination of the Metropolitan Water Board. The Deputy Director is now Dr G. Carter. Possibly the section of most general interest to chemists will be that dealing with the traces of surface-active materials surviving from sewage effluents and now found in river waters. Investigations of the effects of storage and of slow-sand filtration show a partial removal. It is concluded that a combination of these two processes under the most favourable conditions would remove about 75 per cent of the surface-active material. Coagulation and rapid filtration were found to be ineffective. In referring to the protection of sources the introduction mentions the additional purification applied to the Luton sewage effluent so that its biochemical oxygen demand and suspended solids are only about one-quarter of the Royal Commission’s ‘General Standard’.The use of copper or galvanised steel service pipes in areas supplied by well waters has given rise to a certain number of complaints associated with corrosion but the traces of these metals entering into solution are not harmful to health. A full description of the use of a mercurial compound for the sterilisa-tion of the jute yarn used for jointing water mains includes the thorough control exercised and the greatly improved bacteriological results obtained. The report illustrates the increasing variety of scientific technological and biological matters involved in the examination and large-scale treatment and distribution of public water supplies under modern conditions.R. C. HOATHER SAFETY IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY All of us concerned with chemical operations whether production executives, chemical engineers plant designers development or research chemists, foremen or plant operators need to be continually conscious of the need for safety. There have been many books and many conferences on this subject; moreover in this country the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers devotes a considerable proportion of its efforts to this subject (described in J. 1957 34-6). At the end of October the A.B.C.M. asked Dr Ing. S. Balke German Federal Minister to talk in London on “Safety in the Chemical Industry.” His lecture has now been published in English and is a readable review of the subject based largely but not entirely on German experience and The price of safety like that of liberty is eternal vigilance 238 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR data.As in many other countries accident figures for the chemical industry in Germany are well below the average for all German indus-tries. Dr Balke stresses the value of the evidence provided by the collec-tion of statistics on properly chosen subjects and makes a plea for inter-national uniformity in the collection of such statistics. New hazards arise continuously in the chemical industry as new compounds are produced and as new manufacturing techniques are developed.Partly to deal with these problems and partly to reduce the accident rate still further there is a continuing need for safety studies. Dr Balke pleads with writers of original papers to make clear what safety precautions they took or would advise being taken in the prepara-tion of new compounds. All too often no guidance on appropriate precautions is given to those attempting to follow the instructions. Worse still is the account in which instructions are misleading leading perhaps to an explosion while dealing with a mixture which “can be safely distilled.” N. BOOTH Industrial Safety Training Centre.-The Birmingham and District Industrial Safety Group have concluded their first course for Chemical Workers at their Training Centre. The subjects included the handling of chemicals inflammable materials and explosives.There were practical demonstrations and detailed instructions on the storage and marking of containers. Other talks dealt with the inspection of and entry into vessels rules for carrying out plant repairs etc. first aid (including the use of breathing apparatus) and the proper use of pro-tective clothing. Further similar courses are planned for 2-3 April and 5-6 November. Further particulars can be obtained from the Manager of the Training Centre 22 Summer Road Acocks Green Birmingham 27. Change of Address ACSIL Library.-The address of the Library of the Admiralty Centre for Scientific Information and Liaison is now Mezzanine Floor Queen Anne’s Mansions London S.W. 1 (Tele. WHItehall 9444).Approved Names.-The General Medical Council has published a list of Approved Names dated February 1957. Communications relating to Approved Names should be addressed to The Secretary British Pharmacopoeia Commission General Medical Council Office 44 Hallam Street London W. I. Arthur I). Little Research Institute.-A new research organisa-tion for undertaking fundamental scientific investigations has been set up at Inveresk and the Government has agreed to its acquisition of the laboratories of the Institute of Seaweed Research at Inveresk Gate, Musselburgh. The organisation is under the joint auspices of the Arthur D. Little Organisation Cambridge Mass. U.S.A. and a number of persons in this country interested in “the furtherance of international scientific relations.” The majority of the staff will be British but it is hoped to make it international by the addition of scientists from the Con tinen t 19571 LABORATORY RISKS AND SAFEGUARDS 239 The Institute of Seaweed Research’s work is still based on the Inveresk laboratories but its main responsibilities in future will be to support fundamental seaweed research at the universities to operate an informa-tion service and to give technical assistance and advice on seaweed utilisation.The Board has been reconstituted in view of the change of emphasis in its work. British Plastics Industry-The industry had another record year in 1956 having doubled its output since 1950 and reached some 335,000 tons Exports of plastic materials-moulding powders resins sheet, rod tube film and foil-amounted to about 98,000 tons (value E26 m.).Australia remained the best market followed by India France the Netherlands South Africa Sweden Italy and Denmark. Thermoplastic materials including PVC polythene and poly-styrene amounted to more than half of the output. Record Exports of Drugs and Medicines.-The Association of British Pharmaceutical Industry reports a new record of almost E36 million in the export of British drugs and medicines during 1956. Antibiotics accounted for nearly A7 million and vitamins for nearly E3 million. The export of sulphonamide preparations aspirin and synthetic anti-malarial drugs barbiturates insulin and anti-histamine drugs also contributed significantly to the total. The value of proprietary medicines exported was more than El0 million.Australia and India were the leading export markets for British drugs, with sales around ic;3 million. Next came Nigeria Pakistan South Africa New Zealand the Republic of Ireland and Burma each taking between 61 and &2 million in drugs. Sales to Egypt were substantially lower but there was a great improvement in sales to the U.S.A. Translation of Russian Journals.-The Consultants Bureau, 227 West 17th Street New York 11 N.Y. is publishing English transla-tions of the following Soviet journals for the first time during 1957 :-Proc. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. Biochemistry Section (6 issues) price $65.00 Proc. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. Physical Chemistry Section (6 issues), Metallurgist (12 issues) price $95.00 per year. per year.price $160.00 per year. LABORATORY RISKS AND SAFEGUARDS DETECTION OF BENZENE VAPOUR We have been asked to point out an error in Methods for the Detection of Toxic Gases in Industry No. 4 Benzene Vapour issued by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (second edition 1955). An error has been found in the standardisation of this test as published which necessitates alteration of the table of concentrations given on page 5 of the booklet. The revised table reads as follows 240 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Concentration of benzene (approx.) I No. of infiations 1 _l__-__l-of aspirator bulb 1 p.p.m. 1 mg/cm 120 60 40 30 24 20 400 200 130 100 80 65 An amended table is to be issued by H.M. Stationery Office and copies will be circulated to all purchasers of the apparatus used in conjuction with this test.I t will be noted that the original table gave higher concentrations of benzene than those actually present so that the error has tended to safety. It is thought however that this revision should be brought to the notice of all persons who might be interested in the test. STRONG ACIDS AND EYE-BATHS (1) The following mishaps are reported in the January 1957 issue of Accidents (H.M.S.O. 1s. 3d.) Some 70 per cent nitric acid was to be transferred from a carboy to a pickling vat by means of a portable electric pump. Unfortunately the operator put the delivery pipe of the pump instead of the suction pipe, into the carboy so that when he started the pump liquor from the vat went into the carboy and the acid was thrown out.The operator was not wearing his goggles and being perhaps afraid of possible injury to his eyes made his way to the ambulance room instead of at once flushing himself down with water. However he made a good recovery from his burns. Two other men who also were splashed by the acid were both wearing their goggles; they merely rinsed their heads in cold water and hosed down their bodies where splashed and were unharmed. The operator had done this job many times before but the two pipes on the pump looked very similar and it was easy to see how a mistake could happen. To prevent a recurrence a flange has been fitted on the end of the delivery pipe so that it cannot now be inserted into a carboy.Another accident involving a carboy occurred at an electro-plating works. A bath containing sulphuric and chromic acids was being used in an acid-etch process in preparation for nickel plating. From time to time it was necessary to remove some of the acid liquor from the bath, and to top up with fresh acid to maintain the concentration. The liquor was removed by means of an electric pump which delivered into a carboy. The hose used was of 2 inches diameter and the necks of the carboys were usually 3 inches in diameter. Occasionally a carboy with a much narrower neck was used and in one of these the 2 inch hose was a rather tight fit. Air could not escape from the carboy as liquor was pumped into it and when the carboy was about half full the build-up of air pressure forced the hose out of the carboy.Acid was flung about on to persons nearby all of whom suffered some injury to face and eyes. In future a hose will be used of diameter small enough to ensure that air displaced by the pumping can escape freely from the carboy 19571 CORRESPONDENCE 241 Neither of the men engaged in this pumping was wearing goggles or eyeshield. In factories to which the Chemical Works Regulations apply provision and wearing of goggles and gloves is compulsory wherever there is risk of splashing by acid. There must also be available means of drenching with water persons splashed with acid and eye-wash bottles for washing out the eyes. Obviously these precautions should be taken wherever corrosive liquids are handled whether Regulations apply or not.(2) The following letter has been received from Mr B. H. Francis, Student Member : May I suggest that laboratories that find it impossible to have a commercial type of eye-bath should store their antidotes for corrosive substances (e.g. 1 per cent boric acid 1 per cent sodium bicarbonate solution) in 8 oz polythene wash bottles suitably adapted with a short straight delivery tube. In this way these solutions can be applied directly to the optic or affected part speedily and efficiently. CORRESPONDENCE FILM ON SEMI-MICRO QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS SIR,-In the November issue (J. 1956 664) Mr D. M. Freeland states that there is an urgent need for an instructional film on “Semi-micro Qualitative Analysis.” What we consider to be a very satisfactory film on this subject has recently been made at the University of Melbourne.This film has been used for three years in teaching semi-micro analysis to first-year students in chemistry. It has enabled a great saving in time and staff required for individual demonstration. It is a 16 mm film of about 30 minutes’ duration and copies are available from the Chemistry Department University of Melbourne. A copy of this film is already in use at the University of Leeds. Chemistry Department, University of Melbourne, Carlton N.3, Victoria Australia. R. D. BROWN, T. A. O’DONNELL, R. A. CRAIG. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF THE CHEMIST-THE NEXT STEPS SrR,-There is much to be learnt from the most interesting discussion published in the December Journal which if put into practice could revivify all our scientific teaching and contribute greatly towards the best use of science in industry.Certainly the technical colleges and universities must eventually offer alternative scientific courses in the final year as Dr Booth suggests, on application rather than discovery. More teachers with industrial experience are required and as Dr Finlayson says more exchange lecturers between industry and college. The call is for men who can apply what is already known and is so urgent that as I see it it can only be met by industry itself through the general adoption of the Sandwich course system. Evening courses are inadequate and gruelling. Wit 242 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR day release results are much better but as a training for industry the Sandwich course is by far the best method providing more adaptable and useful chemists and technologists for industry than university courses can do.The four-year Sandwich course is easily accommodated with alternate six-monthly groups of students in college and works is much more interesting and stimulating to the ordinary student and with the five-day week allows time for social activities. Finally and most important to the young student after his efforts to qualify looms the dark shadow of his service in the forces which is to many more stupefying to the mind than drugs. Total exemption from service in the forces for qualified technologists would be the greatest help both to industry teaching and the individual himself. L.H. CALLENDAR 26 West Lodge Avenue, Acton London W.3. A.G.M. SPECIAL BUSINESS SrR,-It has been brought to our attention that several members of the Local Section to which we belong are being canvassed for their support for resolutions modifying the effect of the By-Law passed at the recent special general meeting concerning the numbers of supporters required before a proposed amendment to the By-Laws can be discussed at an Annual General Meeting. At least two of these motions differently worded have been circulated and if as seems possible there are other opponents of the recent changes acting in a similar way the situation at the next Annual General Meeting can easily become chaotic. We suggest that it would be better for those opposing the recent changes to proceed rather less hastily.One of the resolutions for which our support has been canvassed is apparently going forward in the name of a whole Local Section. Another was being put forward by an indi-vidual corporate member. The former course is obviously more desirable than the latter but if more than one Section put forward a resolution and if these resolutions are in differing terms then difficulty is bound to be caused. Would it not be better for Sections to discuss the matter and formulate proposals for further discussion by the Honorary Secretaries at their Conference? They then might be able to draft a resolution that would be acceptable to most if not all of those Sections whose views are found to be different from those of the Council. I t seems to us that the matter of the correct use of the proxy vote, directed or not is perhaps more important than the question of the number of supporters required for proposed amendments to By-Laws, and should be dealt with at the same time and in the same way.We appreciate that if this course is followed it would not be possible to formulate resolutions in time for the 1957 Annual General Meeting. Nevertheless even if these important problems have to be referred to a special general meeting later in the year or even delayed until the Annual General Meeting of 1958 this would still be preferable to hasty attempts to deal with the matter in an unorganised way now. H. F. BAMFORD E. c. WOOD J. W. CORRAN c/o John Mackintosh & Sons Ltd., Chapelfield Works, Norwich 19571 CORRESPONDENCE 243 CHEMICAL PUBLICATIONS SIR,-May I as a practising chemist and a member of the three principal British societies which publish chemical matter namely the Chemical Society the Society of Chemical Industry and the Royal Institute of Chemistry take up some of your space with some reflections provoked by more recent developments in the publications of those three bodies.With the advent of the Proceedings of the Chemical Society in its elegant new garb it is now possible to address a letter to the Editors of all three of the societies’ news journals-Chemistry and Industry the Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry and the Proceedings of the Chemical Society-in the hope that it will thereby reach members of all three societies.I do not know how many chemists receive all three but I suspect it is around 5,000. They will no doubt bear with fortitude the triple submission and (we hope) appearance of this letter since they will be accustomed to seeing items replicated in many journals both scientific and technical. Do our chemical publications in this country serve the needs of chemists as well as they could ? Are we getting value for money? Are we not moving towards the situation where rivalry and prestige are putting more words into print than we can afford? Is not the situation somewhat parellel to the defence problem of the English-speaking peoples where it has at last been realised that we have more men in uniform than we can afford and that we can probably get better value for money by more rational methods? Now we as chemists see our subscriptions rise steadily just as we as citizens see our taxes rise; but are we not as chemists in a better position to do something about i t ? Need we continue to force our own subscriptions up by competing among ourselves? I t is not merely a question of money but also and more important one of service to the chemists.Every increase in the number and volume of scientific publications is a further incursion on the chemist’s time-whether direct or indirect. It may be he or one of his juniors who has to see yet another journal or it may be that it is just another publication for the library and abstractors to handle. Each alone is not much but the cumulative effect is great. There is no real remedy but I throw out a suggestion which will no doubt he received in the same way as suggestions for surrender of a small measure of National sovereignty.Could not Chemistry and Industry be so transformed as to serve all chemists in all three bodies (and many others outside)? Why should not some pages be placed at the disposal of the Institute for its affairs? Some for Chemical Society affairs? Original communications need not be split between two journals as will now be the case. News items could be genuine news instead of history as they must be if they wait for the appearance of a monthly journal. Similarly the advertisement of jobs in a monthly journal seems particularly futile when the weekly journals and daily press already carry so many of them. The best of the interesting articles in the Journal o f the Royal Institute o f Chemistry and the Proceedings could well displace from Chemistry and Industry the long drawn out serials on the chemistry of bacon anticholinesterases corrosion and the like which could go where they rightly belong in a series of small monographs for the specialists.Chemistry and Industry would then be clear for some top class scientific journalism reporting and interpreting advances in highly specialised fields to the chemists who specialise in other fields. We could then have one good chemical news journal to read once a week. The blunt question I wish to ask is this 244 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR Is not the time ripe for some stocktaking by all three bodies to see if closer co-operation on this and other matters might not be to the interests of all chemists? Might not a tripartite meeting in Belgravia Russell Square or Burlington House be as timely as that other meeting in Bermuda? I realise that this touches on one small part of the whole problem of chemical literature but the part problem might be more easily soluble than the whole.Since I should like this subject treated objectively and dispassionately by the many chemists who may know me may I sign myself Is this an idle dream? ‘ ‘MATTHEW BRAMBLE” OBITUARY Alasdair William Armstrong. B. 2.10.04. Ed. Royal Academy, Inverness ; Nicolson Institute Stornoway; University of Aberdeen, 1922-26. B.Sc. Appointed analytical chemist on the temporary staff of the Rowett Research Institute Bucksburn in 1926.Became a Clerk in Holy Orders in 1927 and served as a missionary in India 1931-36, where his health broke down and he had to return home. Joined the staff of the West of Scotland Neuro-Psychiatric Research Institute in 1937 as a biochemical assistant. Left in 1947 to become assistant chemist to J. & R. Tennant Ltd. and in 1950 was appointed chief assistant to the Chief Chemist of the Cereal Laboratory Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society Ltd. Published several papers on analytical methods. (A. 1941.) D. 18.11.56. William Herbert Barraclough. B. 2 1.2.1867. Ed. Sheffield Gram-mar School. Articled pupil to Mr A. H. Allen Borough Analyst for Sheffield for four years with whom he remained for a short time as laboratory assistant.Later became analytical chemist to Palmers, manufacturers of candles and nightlights. In 1895 was appointed senior analytical chemist to Newton Chambers & Co. Ltd. a position which he held until his retirement to Bristol in 1932. For many years a member of the Sheffield Photographic Society. He was a staunch Wesleyan Methodist. (A. 1889 8’. 1892.) D. 20.9.56. Kenneth Samuel Culloch Bone. B. 25.8.1880. Ed. Paisley Technical College. Appointed chemist to Mechanical Retorts Co. Ltd. 1901, becoming assistant works manager 1908. He left in 1910 to take up the post of manager of the Cornholme Chemical Works of Wilson Bros. Bobbin Co. Ltd. where he remained until the time of his death. (F. 1924.) D. 4.12.56. Sidney Albert Brazier. B. 23.3.1890. Ed. Waverley Road Secondary School Birmingham; University of Birmingham 1908-1 2.M.Sc. After two years post-graduate research at the University of Birmingham and Birmingham Municipal Technical School was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Municipal Technical School in 1912. Lieutenant, R.N.V.R. 19 16- 19. Appointed chief research assistant in the chemical laboratories of the Dunlop Rubber Co. Ltd. later becoming technical manager and local director General Rubber Goods Division. O.B.E., 1948. Author of several papers. ( A . 1917 F. 1923; Council 1935-37.) D. 25.1 1.56 19571 OBITUARY 245 Andrew Dargie. B. 5.12.1881. Ed. Hill Street Public School and Skerry’s College Dundee ; University of Dundee. 3.Sc. He became assistant to G. D. Macdougald Dundee City Analyst in 1900 and was his chief assistant from 1906.On Mr Macdougald’s death in 1916 he was appointed Public Analyst for Dundee and the counties of Angus, Perth and Kinross as well as Official Agricultural Analyst. In 1928 he was appointed Analyst under the National Health Insurance Act (Drug Testing Scheme) for the counties of Angus Fife Perth Kinross and Stirling. He was a founder member of the Dundee and District Section, and its first Chairman. His chief recreation was fishing and he was also a well-known curler. “His countenance reflected a kindliness of heart and a spontaneous friendliness which endeared him to everyone.” (A. 1918 F. 1944) Eric Gordon Davis. B. 1890. Ed. University College London, 1906-09. B.Sc. Appointed assistant research chemist to the Cotton Powder Co.Faversham 19 10. Became assistant chemist in the research department of Curtiss & Harvey Cliffe-at-Woo 191 1 and was placed in control of the works laboratory 1913. He moved to the U.S.A. in 1918 to take up an appointment with Titanine Inc. of which he later became manager and was vice president when he retired in 1944. (A. 1911 F. 1915.) George James Denbigh. B. 7.6.1882. Ed. Grammar School Wake-field Technical School Wakefield ; University of Leeds 1902-05. B.Sc. Appointed assistant chemist to Wakefield Soap Works in 1899 and remained until 1901 when he was employed by the West Riding Rivers Board before entering the University. Lecturer in chemistry and physics at Luton Technical College from 1905. Appointed head of the depart-ment in 1915.In 1917 undertook research work with Brotherton & Go. Ltd. M.Sc. 1919. Appointed works manager in 1918 and remained until his retirement becoming ultimately a director of the company. For many years he was intimately associated with the Leeds Area Section of the Institute and served two terms as Chairman. (A. 1918 F. 1924; Council 1942-45 1947-50.) D. 4.1 1.56. (See J. 60.) Abraham Woolf Greenstein. B. 22.7.03. Ed. Technical High School Durban; Natal Technical College 191 8-20. B.Sc. Appointed assistant chemist to African Oil Mills Ltd. 1920 and employed successively as assistant chemist Illovo Sugar Estates 1924 demon-strator Natal Technical College 1925 manager Ocean Soap Works Ltd. 1926 works manager and chemist African Oil Mills Ltd. 1928, chemist Natal Chemical Syndicate Ltd.1930 chief chemist and pro-duction superintendent with the same firm 1934 and research officer, Acme Box Factory Ltd. 1943. (A. 1934 F. 1947.) D. 1956. Alfred George Holborow. B. 16.4.1880. Ed. Merchant Venturers’ Technical College Bristol ; Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College and School of the Pharmaceutical Society. From 1906 to 1910 he was employed as an assistant chemist successively by S. R. Trotman, Thomas Hughes and W. Lincolne Sutton all public analysts. In 1910 he went to South Africa and was engaged for a few months as a chemist at Nobel’s explosives works. He then became assistant chemist to Alex. Hayman who had a private practice in Johannesburg. Appointed assistant chemist to the Government of Salisbury Rhodesia in 1912, and acting chief Government Agricultural Chemist in 191 5.Returned D. 13.12.56. D. 17.12.56 246 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR to England in 1917 and became chemist in the Health Department Laboratories Somersetshire County Council Weston-super-Mare. Appointed City analyst and bacteriologist Gibraltar 192 1 where he remained until his retirement in 1944 when he again returned to England. (A. 1906 F. 191 1 .) D. January 1954. Robert Karran Matthews. B. 30.3.1899. Ed. Park High School, Birkenhead and the City of Liverpool College of Technology. Private tuition at the Liverpool School of Pharmacy in Therapeutics Toxicology and Microscopy. After a short term of service in the laboratory of C. C. Wakefield Ltd. was employed as a pupil chemist with Evans Sons, Lescher and Webb Ltd.1915-20. From 1920 to 1939 was Chief Chemist to H. J. Evans Public Analyst and consulting chemist. In charge of the laboratory at the Royal Ordnance Factory Kirkby, Liverpool during the early years of the war. In 1943 appointed Govern-ment Analyst and Bacteriologist for the Isle of Man. His part-time appointments included that of lecturer in building science 1935-38 and lecturer in food and drugs microscopy bacteriology and waters in post-graduate course at the City of Liverpool College of Technology 1938-39. Founder and secretary of the Isle of Man Scientific Society and a member of the Society for the Preservation of the Manx Countryside. “He will be remembered for his wide and deep sympathies with all human needs, for his faithful service to the people of this Island for his diligent pursuit of truth and for his loyalty to the Church as layman and preacher.” (A.1932 F. 1935.) D. 2.10.56. Owen Eldred Mott B. 15.12.22. Ed. Berkhamsted School; Univer-sity College London 1940-42. B.Sc. Assistant chemist to Wm. P. Hartley Ltd. 1942 and later appointed assistant in the analytical laboratory of British Drug Houses Ltd. Poole. He was in the employ of this firm at the time of his death. (A. 1944.) D. 16.1 1.56. Frederick Nicholls. B. 14.5.1894. Ed. Gateshead Secondary School; Armstrong College University of Durham 191 1-13. BSc. He was gazetted 2nd Lieutenant Royal Engineers in 1914 but resigned his commission in 1915. Served in the Royal Navy and Royal Naval Reserve 19 16- 19.D.S.M. Appointed senior assistant chemist to Red-heugh Gasworks of the Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Go. Promoted to chemist in charge 1920. He was transferred to Elswick Gasworks, Newcastle in 1935 and remained there for the rest of his working life. ( A . 1920.) D. 12.11.56. Sidney Owen Rawling B. 4.12.1892. Ed. Dunheved College, Launceston ; University College London 19 1 1 - 14. D.Sc. Served in the first world war in chemical warfare and on return to civilian life in 1919 became an assistant lecturer in chemistry at Gordon’s College, Aberdeen and later the same year research assistant in the Chemistry Department of Marischal College Aberdeen. Appointed research chemist to the British Photographic Research Association in 1920 and remained there until the Association came to an end.In 1930 joined the laboratory of Ilford Ltd. later becoming manager of the Technical Service Department. He “was a man of the highest integrity with a strong religious faith and a truly great capacity for friendship.” (A. 1917 F. 1925.) D. 2.11.56 19571 OBITUARY 247 George Stewart B. 2 1.1 1.1890. Ed. Allan Glen’s School Glasgow ; University of Glasgow 1912-1 5. BSc. Became senior chemist Stewarts & Lloyds Ltd. 1915 and was appointed superintending chemist to Nobel’s Explosives Co. Ltd. in 1916. He left in 1919 to become Head of the departments of chemistry and mathematics at Skerry’s College, of which he later became Principal and proprietor first at Glasgow, and afterwards at Edinburgh. He retired in 1948 and spent the remainder of his life in South Africa.(A. 1927.) D. 14.9.56. Harold Taylor. B. 17.1 1.01 Ed. Bacup and Rawtenstall Secondary School; University of Manchester 19 19-22 University of Cambridge. M.Sc. (Manc.) Ph.D. (Cantab.) Joined Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. in 1934 and at the time of his death was Chief Physiologist to the Industrial Hygiene Section of the Medical Department at the Frythe Laboratory at Welwyn. ( A . 1922.) D. 18.10.56. Thomas Thomson. B. 8.3.09. Ed. Kilmarnock Academy; University of Glasgow 1926-33. B.Sc. Ph.D. Afcer carrying out research work at the University of Glasgow was appointed research chemist to Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. Explosives Group and remained with the company for the rest of his life becoming assistant manager Operating Department Nobel Division.(A. 1930.) D. 2 1.1 1.56. APlan George Tyler. B. 5.5.05. Ed. Marling School Stroud; Univer-sity of Leeds 1923-26. M.Sc. Became a Drapers’ Company research scholar in dyeing and evening lecturer in textile chemistry and dyeing at Huddersfield Technical College in 1926. Appointed technical chemist to J. Wardle Ltd. Leek in 1928 and chief chemist in 1933. Took up similar post with S. J. Bromley & Co. Ltd. Nottingham in 1939 and was promoted to dyehouse manager in 1941. Left in 1948 to join the staff of Nottingham and District Technical College as senior assistant in the Dyeing Section becoming senior lecturer in 1951 a position which he held at the time of his death. Served on the Diploma Committee and the Examination Sub-committee of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.Author of a number of papers in technical journals. ( A . 1944 F. 1952.) D. 28.8.56. POSTDOCTORATE FELLOWSHIP IN POLYSACCHARIDE CHEMISTRY St Mary’s Hospital Montreal is offering a Postdoctorate Research Fellowship value $4,000 per year in their recently established Research Laboratory. The major interest of the laboratory is in the field of polysaccharide chemistry particularly the chemical characterisation and structural investigation of mucopolysaccharides and some aspects of their role in biological processes. Applicants should be less than 35 years of age and possess or expect to obtain a Ph.D. or equivalent qualifications of a recognised university. They must also comply with Canadian immigration requirements.One-way travelling expenses to Montreal will be provided (limit $200 Canadian). Application forms should be obtained from the Editor 30 Russell Square London W.C. 1 immediately 248 (EE) JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [MAR THE REGISTER [Bracketed letters indicate Local Sections. For key see page 250.1 NEW FELLOWS DAVIES Austen Emlyn B.SC. PH.D. (P) FRANKE Robert Herrmann DIPJNG., DRAIN David John B.A. (CANTAB.). BIDGOOD Eric A.I.M. (P) MONROE Adam Gregory DIPJNG. (OXON.) (P) PAINE Frank Albert B.SC. (LOND.) BURLEY Louis Theodore Le Gay (OF) PUNSHI Suraj Kishan M.SC.TECH. B.SC. (LOND.) EDWARDS Daniel B.SC. (ABERD.) (Q) RAPHAEL Leon M.SC. (LIV.) PH.D. (GLAS.) F.P.S. (K) RIGBY George Reginald B.SC. PH.D. FAIRLIE Andrew Miller B.SC.(GLAS.) FRASER Robert Alexander B.SC. (OK) ROBINSON John Brian Dudley B.SC. (LOND.) AGRIC. (R’DG) GREENSMITH Denis Eric Bosworth (J) RYLANCE Harold James B.SC. (EDIN.) B.SC. (LOND.) A.M.I.CHEFI.E. (0) SING Kenneth Stafford William, HARMS Alfred Joseph B.A. (CANTAB.) HAYES Edmund B.SC. (LOND.) (C) SMITH Arthur Raymond B.A. B.SC. LLOYD Francis Crawford B.SC. (P) SMITH Ronald Herbert B.SC. (LOND.) PH.D. (LOND.) (OA) SPILLANE Thomas Albert MX. MCDOWELL Professor Charles Alex-ander D.SC. (Q.u.B.) (LOND.) A.R.c.s. D.I.C. DR. ING. (DRESDEN) ASSOCIATES ELECTED TO THE FELLOWSHIP BIRCH Edmund John Huskisson M.A. (Lwow) (PANJ.) PH.D. (GLAS.) A.R.T.C. (LOND.) A.R.c.s. D.I.C. BX. PH.D. (LOND.) M.P.S.I. (OXON.) LOCK Ritchie Hart B.SC. (LOND.) (N.U.I.) F.I.C.I.NEW ASSOCIATES CREMLYN Richard James William (D) MALONEY Maurice Arthur Campbell-Davys B.SC. PH.D. MITTAL Om Parkash M.SC. PH.D. (WALES) PH.D. (CANTAB.) ( DELHI) CRUICKSHANK George John (Q) PAGET Hugh Patrick Dryhurst B.A., DEY Ajit Kumar M.SC. (CALC.) (C) POWELL Brian David M.A. PH.D. DUKE Angus John B.A. (CANTAB.) GRIFFEY Paul Fernall B.SC. (LOND.) (OD) SUBRAMANIAN Ramachandra M.A., IYER Ramchandran Shankaran M.SC. (BOM.) (OG) VARSHNEY Ishwar Prasad MAC., JACK David B.SC. (GLAS.) F.P.S. KHAN Abdul Mayid Muhamed (OG) VENKITASUBRAMANIAN T. A. MSC., B.SC. (CALC.) M.SC. (DACCA) KRISHNASWAMY Kumbakonam Gan-gadhara BSC. (MADR.) DAVIES Isadore B.SC. (LOND.) D.PHIL. (OXON.) ( CANTAB.) B.SC. (MADR.) PH.D. (ALIGARH) PH.D. (MADR.) A.I.I.SC.NEW GRADUATE MEMBERS BRADBURY John B.SC. (WALES) (P) MOUNTFIELD Brian Arthur BSC. CARROLL William Graham A.R.T.C. (LOND.) (GLAS.) (C) PUTNAM Andrew Kenneth B.SC. CONNING David Guy B.SC. (SO’TON) ( BIRM.) COOPE Peter Jackson M.SC. (LOND.) (U) RANDELL DONALD Richard B.SC. A.R.T.C.S. (LIV.) HANCOCK William B.SC. (LOND.) (F) WILSON Richard Kevin B.SC. {N.u.I.) DEATHS Fellows CurTINC Percival Harman. Died (P) SIMONSEN Sir John Lionel K.-I.-H., 1922 F. 1925. AND MALAYA) HON. LL.D. (ST ANDREWS) F.R.S. Died 20 Feb-ruary 1957 aged 73. 23 January 1956 aged 68. A. D.SC. (MANC.) HON. D.SC. (BIRM. F. 1916. (P) ZILVA Sylvester Solomon PH.D. (GIESSEN) D.SC. (LOND.). Died 29 November 1956 aged 72. A. 1916 F. 1920 19571 LOCAL SECTIONS DIARY 249 Associates (OP) COPEMAN Donald Alfred B.SC.(Q) NEWMAN Herbert Samuel M.SC.TECH. (EDLN.). Died November 1956 (MANC.) A.M.C.T. Died 28 aged 56. A . 1927. January 1957 aged 65. A . 1921. INGHAM George M.A. (OXON.) B.SC. (N) WHAMOND Archibald Steele. Died (WITWATERSRAND). Died 22 27 December 1956 aged 65. A . January 1957 aged 85. A . 1921. 1945. (Q) WOLF ArnoId DR.PHIL.NAT. (FRANKFURT). Died 13 February, 1957 aged 51. A . 1946. LOCAL SECTIONS DIARY Sections are glad to welcome members of other Sections to their meetings and social functions except when numbers are restricted as for works visits. Those wishing to attend meetings outside their own area are advised to write to ;he Hon. Secretary of the Section concerned as the Institute cannot accept responsibility for any alterations or cancellation.All times are p.m. except where otherwise stated. Belfast. 29 Mar. 7.15. A.G.M. Agricultural Lecture Theatre Elmwood Avenue Birmingham. 26 Mar. 6.30 A.G.M. College of Technology Gosta Green Cardiff. 22 Mar. 7. Domestic Evening. Two Local Speakers. University College Cathays Chatham. 21 Mar. 7.30. Petroleum Chemicals. Medway College of Technology Maidsto ne Chelsea. 20 Mar. 6.30. Organic Chemistry in the Photographic Industry. Dr D. J. Fry. Chester. 29 Mar. 7. Connective Tissue and Ageing. Dr P. F. Lloyd. Flintshire Technical Derby. 21 Mar. 7.30. Chemistry in Surface Coatings. Dr G. M. Henderson. Derby and Dundee. 22 Mar. 7. Some Chemical Aspects of Drug Action. Dr D. M. Shepherd. Chemistry-- 26Apr. 7. A.G.M. Park. Joint S.C.I.Road. Joint Inst. Pet. The Polytechnic Manresa Road S.W.3. College Connah’s Quay District College of Technology Lecture Theatre Qileen’s College Joint Polytechnic Chem. SOC. ‘) Falkirk. 27 Mar. 7. A.G.M. Chemistry Department Queen’s College followed at 7.30 by : S.C.I. Jubilee Memorial Lecture. Lea Park Restaurant Callendar Road. Huddersfield. 2 Apr. 7.15. A.G.M. 32 John William Street Hull. 1 I Apr. 6.45. A.G.M..followed at 7.30 by Trade Wastes. Dr B. A. Southgate. Organic Liverpool. 3 Apr. 6.15. A.G.M. followed by The Biological Synthesis of Carbohydrates. Prof. Luton. 18 Apr. 8. The Extraction of Germanium and Gallium. A. R. Powell P.R.S. Town Middlesbrough. 20 Mar. 8. Synthesis or Biosynthesis. Dr W. D. Ollis. Constantine Technical Newcastle. 24 Apr.6. A.G.M. followed by Determination of Alcohol in Blood and Urine o f Newport. 3 Apr. 7. The Protection of Structural Steelwork against Corrosion. Dr J. C. Hudson. Nottingham. 11 Apr. 7.30. Writing Wrongs. A. L. Bacharach. Technical College Plymouth. 29 Mar. 4.30. A.G.M. Address by Dr J. W. Cook F.R.S. Technical College Portsmouth. 27 Mar. 7. Chromatography. Dr Tudor S. G. Jones. College of Technology. - 5 Apr. 7. Many-Centre Bonds. Prof. H. C. Longuet-Higgins. College of Technology, - 26 Apr. 7.30. Paint Film Structure and Metal Protection. A. J. S. Rudram. Demonstration Joint Poole and District Tech. Lecture Theatre The University. M. Stacey F.R.S. Hall George Street. College Drunken Drivers and the Interpretation Thereof. Technical College. Joint O.C.C.A.Lecture Theatre New Arts Building The University Joint Luton Scientific Assoc. Dr D. W. Kent-Jones. King’s College Joint S.C.I. Corrosion Group Joint Portsmouth and District Chem. SOC. Joint Portsmouth and District Chem. SOC. Room Southern Gas Board Showrooms High Street Poole. Group Preston. 28 Mar. 7.30. Talking of Cosmetics. Dr A. W. Middleton. Harris Institute Seascale. 26 Apr. Film and A.G.M. Windscale Club Sheffield. 3 Apr. 7.30. Food Tastes and Dietary Needs. A. L. Bacharach. Chemistry Lecture Stockton 10 Apr. 8. Oil Exploration in Great Britain. I. Gillespie. William Newton School, Stowmarket. 9 Apr. 7.30. A.G.M. followed by Radioactivity as a Research Tool. Dr D. F. Theatre The University Brookhill Junction Road Norton Rushman. I.C.I. Ltd. (Paints Division LOCAL SECTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE Section Aberdeen and North of Scotland Belfast and District Birmingham and Midlands Bristol and District Cardiff and District Cumberland and District Dublin and District Dundee and District East Anglia East Midlands Edinburgh and East of Scotland Glasgow and West of Scotland Huddersfield Hull and District Leeds Area Liverpool and North-Western London Manchester and District Mid-Southem Counties Newcastle upon Tyne and North-North Lancashire East Coast North Wales Sheffield South Yorkshire and South Wales North Midlands South-Western Counties (WW) Stirlingshire and District (X) Tees-side (Y) Thames Valley (OA) Malaya ( 0 s ) Cape of Good Hope (OC) New Zealand (OD) Deccan (OE) Madras (OF} Western India (OG) Northern India (OH) Eastern India (OJ) Ceylon (OK) East Africa Hon. Secretary H. G. M. -die PH.D. A.R.I.c. 14 Forbesfield Road Aberdeen A. J. Howard M.A.. F.R.I.c. 5 Cleaver Avenue Belfast G. Tolley MSC. PH.D. F.R.I.c. College of Technology Birming-I). Woodcock M.SC. PH.D. P.R.I.c. University of Bristol Dept. of J. F. Byrne A.R.I.c. Treharne & Davies Ltd. Merton House The J. S. Nairn P.R.I.c. 16 Halsenna Road Seascale Cumberland J. T. O’Herlihy B.SC. A.R.I.c. 21 Collins Avenue Ballymun Dublin T. C. Downie B.SC. PH.D. A.R.I.c. Chemistry Department The Technical College Bell Street Dundee H. F. Bamford M.A.. F.R.I.c. John Mackintosh & Sons Ltd. (Caley Branch) Chapelfield Works Norwich W. C. Garratt BSC. F.R.I.c. 6 Westboume Park Mackworth Estate Derby E. S. Stern BSC. PH.D. A.R.c.s. D.I.c. F.R.I.c. Research Dept., J. F. Macfarlan Br Co. Ltd. Abbeyhill Edinburgh 8 W. Gibb BSC. PH.D. A.R.T.c. A.M.INST.F. A.R.I.c. Department of Technical Chemistry Royal College of Science and Technology, George Street Glasgow C.l ham 1 Agric. & Hortic. Research Station Long Ashton Brisiol Docks Cardiff C. V. Hockey A.R.I.c. 3 Brooklyn Avenue Dalton Huddersfield. P. Bricklebank B.SC. A.R.I.c. c/o T. J. Smith & Nephew Ltd., W.FA. Wightman MA. F.R.I.c. The University Leeds 2 J. Ashley-Jones F.R.I.c. c/o J. Bibby & Sons Ltd. Great Howard A. J. Turnbull F.R.I.c. 120 Pratt Street London N.W.1 R. E. Fairbairn B.SC. PH.D. F.R.I.c. Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd. Dyestuffs Division Hexagon House Blackley Manchester 9 L. C. Thomas B.SC. F.R.I.c. 7 Hilltop Way Salisbury Wilts. W. F. Stones A.R.I.c. Central Electricity Authority North-Eastern Division Room 440 Carliol House Newcastle upon Tyne A. B. Crowther B.SC. DIP.ED. A.R.I.c. 10 Chapman Road. Fulwood, Nr Preston S. McLintock BSC. F.R.I.c. Chemistry and Metallurgy Dept., Flintshire Technical College Connah’s Quay Nr Chester 0. S. Mills B.SC. A.R.I.c. Department of Chemistry University of SheEeld E. E. Ayling M.SC. F.R.I.c. University College Singleton Park, Swansea B. M. Dougall M.SC.AGRIC. F.G.s. A.R.I.c. Chemistry Dept. Seale-Hayne Agricultural College Newton Abbot F. S. Fowkes B.SC. PH.D. A.R.I.c. 28 Learmonth Street Falkirk, S tirlingshire P. Smith BSC. PH.D. A.R.c.s. D.I.c. A.R.I.c. 51 The Avenue, Fairfield Stockton-on-Tees Co. Durham P. F. Holt BSC. PH.D. D.I.c. F.R.I.c. Department of Chemistry The University Reading Neptune Street Kingston-upon-Hull Street Liverpool 3 A. K. Kiang B.SC. PH.D. F.R.I.c. Department of Chemistry Uni-versity of Malaya Cluny Road Singapore 10 H. E. Krumm F.R.I.c. “Sonnenschein,” 3 Leeuwendal Crescent, Cape Town E. S. Borthwick M.SC. A.N.z.I.c. A.R.I.c. Shell Co. of N.Z. Ltd.. P.O. Box 2091 Wellington C. 1 M. R. A. Rao D.SC. F.R.I.c. Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, 3 India K. R. Srinivasan M.A. F.R.I.c. King Institute Guindy Madras 15, S. India J. R. Merchant M.SC. PH.D. A.R.I.c. Institute of Science Mayo Road Bombay 1 India G. S. Saharia M.SC. PH.D. D.I.c. P.R.I.c. Department of Chemistry, The University Delhi 8 India K. B. Sen MSC. F.R.I.c. c/o Bird & Co. Ltd. Coal Department, Calcutta India N. Jayatunge B.SC. F.c.I.c. Department of Government Analyst, Torrington Square Colombo 7 Ceylon R. F. Naylor B.SC. PH.D. A.R.c.S. D.I.C. P.R.I.C. Department of Chemistry Makerere College P.O. Box 262 Kampala Uganda 25
ISSN:0368-3958
DOI:10.1039/JI9578100161
出版商:RSC
年代:1957
数据来源: RSC
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