|
1. |
Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry. December 1963 |
|
Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry,
Volume 87,
Issue December,
1963,
Page 405-448
Preview
|
PDF (7827KB)
|
|
摘要:
DIPLOMA IN PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS The regulations for a new DIPLOMA IN PHARMA-CEUTICAL ANALYSIS are published this month (p. 426). The Diploma is a joint venture of the Institute and the Pharmaceutical Society and the regulations are also being published in the Pharmaceutical Journal. The inauguration of a postgraduate qualification of this kind in conjunction with another examining body, is a new departure for the Institute but one that it is hoped will be warmly welcomed both by members of the Institute and by members of the Pharmaceutical Society. For some time the increasing problems of the control of drugs have been engaging the attention of both societies and the subject has received added prominence because of the many recent pronouncements and in view of the impending revision of the legislation con-cerning medicines.At the beginning of 1962 one of the committees of the Pharmaceutical Society reported that the subject of pharmaceutical analysis had reached such dimensions both in importance and complexity, that there was need for the introduction of a standard of competence that would be widely recognized. This recommendation was accepted by the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society and it coincided with the Institute’s own re-appraisal of its system of postgraduate diplomas in branches of applied chemistry. These diplomas arose out of the old Fellowship examinations (abolished in 1956) and the only ones concerned mainly with analytical chemistry are in General Analytical Chemistry (Branch A) and in The Chemistry (including Microscopy) of Food Drugs and Water (Branch E).While the Branch E Diploma serves a very specific purpose and is a statutory require-ment for Public Analysts it was felt that the Branch A Diploma covered too wide a field for the present purposes even though the regulations for it allow for a certain degree of specialization. Accordingly the Council of the Institute agreed in principle with the idea of a Diploma in Pharmaceutical Analysis and in March 1962 a joint committee of the Institute and the Pharmaceutical Society was set up, on which the Institute was represented by Dr D. C. Garratt Dr F. Hartley Dr F. A. Robinson Mr E. J. Vaughan and Dr H. J. T. Ellingham. This committee has met several times and the Institute’s representation on it was subsequently strengthened by the addition of Dr E.C. Wood. The work of the committee (and of its syllabus panel) has recently been completed and its recommendations have been accepted by the Councils of both societies. These recommendations form the basis of the regulations now published. The standard of the Diploma has been deliberately pitched at a high level and it will be open only to Members of the Pharmaceutical Society or to Graduate Members Associates or Fellows of the Institute. 405 Candidates who are members of one society only will be required to pass an examination at degree standard in the other discipline (see Regulations Section I). If sufficient numbers of candidates present themselves it is envisaged that examinations will be held twice a year.R.E.P. SCIENCE TUTORS FOR THE W.E.A. The Workers’ Educational Association has been considering in recent months the best way in which it can further develop its work in the sciences. The Association is over sixty years old and at present is organizing classes in all parts of the country. Last year over 40,000 men and women joined W.E.A. courses: they came from all walks of life and had very varying educational backgrounds. At present science courses constitute only a small part of the total number of classes, and most of the W.E.A. tutors and members of W.E.A. committees have a background in the social studies or in arts rather than in science. At the present stage of historical development there seems to be a real need to look for new orientations in W.E.A.work and to give the sciences a moreimportant place in it. Such orientations would take account not only of particular sciences but of problems of scientific policy and the role of science in society. The most effective way of developing new orientation is to have more scientists directly associated as W.E.A. members with the affairs of the Association. Their active interest in the Branches and Districts of the W.E.A. would enable development plans to be made which would pay proper attention to the role of the sciences in adult education. There is also a need for part-time tutors in science subjects. The opportunities open to them are genuinely interesting although the fees paid are modest. Descriptions of the work and organization of the W.E.A.can be obtained from the General Secretary Temple House 27 Portman Square London W.l. He will be willing to pass on the names of all people interested to their nearest District Office. ASA BRIGGS COMMENT ON ‘ROBBINS’ The main recommendations of the Robbins Report have received wide publicity but since it contains no fewer than 178 recommendations it may be of interest to comment on some of the ‘less popular’ ones with particular reference to those that are likely to affect the Institute as an examining and qualifying body. The terms of reference of the Committee were to review the pattern of full-time education in Great Britain and advise on what principles its long-term development should be based. However many of the recommendations are likely to affect part-time students, especially those in regional colleges and Colleges o 406 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY Advanced Technology following courses leading to a qualification at degree level.A second general comment is one of disappointment, in that there is virtually no reference in the Report to the role of professional institutions in the past or to their functions in the years ahead. Perhaps the second Appendix (Students and Their Education) which is still to be published will give some consideration to the contributions of professional institutions to higher education in Great Britain particularly as many of these organizations submitted evidence (e.g. J. 1961 387). One of the most significant of the individual recom-mendations is the suggestion that the present National Council for Technological Awards which is responsible for administering the Dip.Tech.scheme should be immediately replaced by a Council for National Academic Awards covering the whole of Great Britain. This new body would be responsible for awarding degrees to students following approved courses in certain regional and area colleges and would be concerned with business studies languages and other subjects as well as science and technology. These new degrees would be of pass as well as of honours type and in the view of the Committee the new range of pass degrees might soon render the existing two-year full-time or three-year sandwich Higher National Diploma courses super-fluous. This new system of degrees would be additional to the conferment of technological university status on existing Colleges of Advanced Technology and the development of five ‘special institutions’ for scientific and technological education and research.If such degrees were available to part-time as well as full-time students the recommendations would have major repercussions for the Institute as an examining body. The number of candidates for the external Grad. R.1 .C. examination might well decline considerably and even the need for a Part I examination might sub-stantially disappear. Instead membership of the Institute at Licentiateship and Associateship grades could become essentially a matter of satisfying the academic requirements by suitable exemptions rather than by direct examination and one of the Institute’s tasks in the future might be to ensure that adequate standards are reached in establishing new degree courses in chemistry and applied chemistry.These and other relevant matters such as the special-relationship scheme, will require careful debate by Council and its Com-mittees in the next few months. D. G. C. OK QUIZZERY It appears that originally a quiz was an odd or eccentric person and later an odd-looking thing. In course of time it became a practical joke a hoax a piece of banter. By easy stages our American friends turned the word to mean an act of interrogation or the oral examination of a student or a class. The Institute has about 20,000 members any one of whom may from time to time have a problem of the nature of a quiz question to which he has failed to find an answer.We are listed in so many reference books (not to forget the Telephone Directory) that we also attract numerous odd and knotty questions to which members of the general public seem to think that we ought to know the answer. Some inquirers are displeased if told that there is no answer to their question and imply that such a reply is a cloak for ignorance-which of course it may be on occasion. Sometimes telephone conversations take on an educative aspect as when a caller asks for the formula of Formica or ultramarine or the atomic weight of element 103. At other times it gives the staff some satisfaction to find the exact answer often to the gratitude or the relief of the inquirer who may be suspecting that the name he has been given is itself an old-time quiz.Thus POPOP is not a breakfast cereal but an abbreviation for phenyl-oxazolyl-phenyl-oxazolyl-phenyl. No one has yet asked what that is. One inquirer appeared to have a load removed from his mind when informed that Phlogopite far from being the pen-name of an 18th-century chemist was a mineral that had been given the formula KMg,A1Si,OIo(OH) 2. Copeel is not an angling term but a removable protective coating. And so it goes on. Requests for reprints of scientific papers are usually intended for the Royal Institution. And the soft answer to the wrathful question ‘If the R.I.C. in Russell Square isn’t you who is it?’ is simply ‘Try the Radio Industry Council at No.59.’ Abbreviations indeed frequently cause trouble. For example we can imagine that a message has been left in the office to the effect that the S.M.A. is asking for the name of a consultant who will act for them as an expert witness. Was it the Sausage Manufacturers Association the Salmon Merchants Association or the Saw Manufacturers Association? The first two are in London and the third in Sheffield; but there is still the Screw Manufacturers Association in Wolverhampton, even if the nature of the inquiry shows that the Shuttle Manufacturers Association of Manchester is unlikely and the Soap Makers Association in London improbable. And yet a lingering doubt persists-The Society of Marine Artists may be in difficulties or the Solder Makers Association or the Superheater Manufacturers Association in Manchester.In despair the person dealing with the inquiry would turn to Patricia Millard’s Trade Associations and Professional Bodies of the United Kingdom and would find not only that all these are listed there but that the Superphosphate Manufacturers Association in Russell Square where the inquiry ori-ginated had been completely overlooked. Fortunately the S.M.A. we used to know is now the A.S.E. and so far as we can ascertain no other associa-tion or professional body with which we are likely to come into contact lays claim to these initials. Often he will pass it to us UNITS AND STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT By P. H. BIGG B.SC. F.INST.P. Standards Division, National Physical Laboratory Teddington Middlesex INTRODUCTION Measurement is essentially a process of comparison resulting in the expression usually in numbers of the magnitude of one quantity in terms of another.Some-times this comparison yields a ratio pure and simple, but more usually one of the magnitudes a reproducible one is regarded as a reference magnitude-this has the advantage that comparisons made at various times and places may be related one to another-and in this case the reference magnitude is referred to as a unit of measurement and the comparison yields a value in terms of that particular unit. Thus a unit of measure-ment is ideally a precisely defined and invariable quantity of a particular kind in terms of which the magnitudes of all other quantities of the same kind can be stated.The units of measurement are many and various. But just as dimensionally complex quantities can be expressed in terms of a few simple independent dimen-sions (for example speed = distance divided by time), so can measurements be founded on a minimum number of independent units. Moreover for the simplest and most orderly systematization of our bases of measure-ment it is convenient to take advantage of this fact. Thus in the metric system there is no independent unit of velocity but both length (or distance) and time have their own basic quantities or units. Standards of measurement on the other hand are usually physical representations under specified condi-tions of a unit or its multiple or sub-multiple; some-times however they are natural phenomena.For example in the metric system while the unit of length, the metre is a certain number of wavelengths of a stated radiation there are many tangible metre stand-ards these are usually metal length-bars or scales, which represent the metre unit when subject to certain conditions of temperature and support for example. The time of flow of oil in a U-tube viscometer is an example of a natural phenomenon being used as a standard. Of the various systems of units devised by man the metric and the British" systems are by far the most used. Broadly speaking science uses the metric system but much mechanical and aeronautical engineering the world over is referred to the British system. The * The term British is used here to cover systems used in the United Kingdom some countries of the British Commonwealth and in the United States.407 purpose of the present article is to present basic informa-tion on units and standards in these two systems. I t is hoped that chemists will find the information, though presented from the background of a physicist, both interesting and useful. The basic units in the metric and British systems will be dealt with first. THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS The General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) is the authority set up under the Metric Convention1 of 1875 by representatives of 17 nations (there are now 38 member nations of which this country is one) to secure international agreement in the area of physical measurements. It meets every few years (the last meeting was in 1960) and in the meantime details of administration and responsibility for recom-mending proposed actions to the General Conference are the duty of the International Committee of Weights and Measures (CIPM) which now meets yearly and is composed of 18 members each from a different nation.Six advisory committees assist the International Com-mit tee. The following is a translation of the text of Resolution 12 of the Eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures October 1 9602. 'International System of Units The Eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures, considering resolution 6 of the Tenth General Conference of Weights and Measures through which it adopted the following six units to serve as basis for the establishment of a practical system of measurement for international purposes : length metre m mass kilogramme kg time second S intensity of electric ampere A thermodynamic degree Kelvin "K luminous intensity candela cd, current temperature considering resolution 3 adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures in 1956, considering the recommendations adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures in 1958 concerning the abbreviation of the name of the system and the prefixes for the formation of multiples and sub-multiples oi the units, decides 1-the system based on the above six basic units is designated 2-the international abbreviation of the name of this system by the name International System of Units; is 'SI' 408 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEhlBER 3-the names of the multiples and sub-multiples of the units are formed by means of the following prefixes* : Factor by which the Prefix Symbol unit is multiplied 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 tera T I ooooooooo = 109 gigs G 1 000 000 = 106 mega M I ooo = 103 kilo k 100 = 102 hecto h 0.1 = 10-1 deci d 0.01 = 10-2 centi C 0.001 = 10-3 milli m o+ooo ooo 001 = 10-9 nano n 10 = 10’ deca da o*ooo 001 = 10-6 micro P 0.000 000 000 001 = pic0 P 4-the following units are employed in the System without prejudice to other units which might be added in the future : Sufifilementary units Plane angle radian Solid angle s teradian Area Volunie ?Frequency Density Speed Angular velocity Acceleration Angular acceleration Force Pressure (in mech-Viscosity (kinematic) Viscosity (dynamic) anics) Derived units square metre cubic metre hertz kilogramme per cubic metre metre per second radian per second metre per second squared radian per second squared newton newton per square metre metre squared per second newton-second per metre squared Work energy quantity of heat joule Power watt Quantity of electricity coulomb potential difference volt Electric tension, electromotive force Electric field strength Electric resistance ohm Electric capacitance farad Magnetic flux weber Inductance henry f Magnetic flux density tesla Magnetic field strength ampere per metre Magnetomotive force ampere Luminous flux lumen Luminance candela per square metre Illumination lux 1 volt per metre rad sr m2 m3 Hz (I/s) kg/m3 m/s radls m/s2 rad/s2 N (kg.m/s2) N/m2 m2/s N.s/m2 J (N.m) C (As) w (J/s) W/A) P / A ) V /m F (A.s/V) Wb (V.s) H (V.s/A) T (Wb/m2) lm (cd.sr) cd/m2 lx (lm/m2)’ 21” I t should be noted that the abbreviations do not take an ‘s’ in the plural; for example the abbreviation for centimetres is ‘cm’ as for centimetre (singular).Those conversant with the MKS system will realize that the SI system is the former with the addition of three further basic units namely the ampere the degree Kelvin and the candela or unit of luminous intensity. The following remarks are added by way of explana-tion. Length. The metre originally intended to be equal to a ten-millionth part of a meridional quadrant of the Earth was for a long time defined by the separation of two lines engraved on a certain platinum-iridium bar.Since October 1960 it has been defined as the length equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the orange radiation of krypton-86 (6058& spectroscopic designation 2p, - 5&J2 emitted by an Englehard type of krypton-86 hot-cathode discharge lamp4p5 enclosed in a cryostat maintained at the triple point of nitrogen (about 63’K). This is reproducible at least as precisely as 1 part in lo8 whereas measure-ments on the platinum-iridium bar were only reliable to about 1 part in 4 x lo6. It is noteworthy that successive redefinitions of the metre have not altered its length but have merely refined its accuracy of realization.Mass. The unit of mass the kilogramme is the mass of a certain piece of platinum-iridium called the international prototype of the kilogramme. This is in the custody of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) (established at Skvres near Paris by the Metric Convention 1875). The principle copies and working copies are preserved at the BIPM. The official British copy No. 18 is in the custody of the National Physical Laboratory Teddington (NPL) and is re-verified at the BIPM at intervals the standard deviation adopted by the NPL for the latest certified value6*’ was 7 pg. In the metric system the unit of mass was originally defined as the mass of a cubic decimetre of water under certain conditions and the material presentation of this unit i.e.the standard of mass was the platinum Kilogramme des Archives. As this definition proved to be insufficiently precise it was first superseded in practice by the mass of the Kilogramme des Archives itself then in 1889 it was replaced by the mass of the present platinum-iridium prototype which was declareds to be equal to the earlier standard to within the limits imposed by the uncertainty of the earlier standard. The mean solar second which is adequate for many scientific purposes depends on the diurnal period of rotation of the Earth but the more precise second of ephemeris time which is related to the period of revolution of the Earth about the Sun (i.e. the tropical year) is used for definition for scientific (includ-ing astronomical) purposes.The Eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures ratified the definition put forward in 1956 by the International Committees namely that the second is equal to the fraction 1/31 556 925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 Time. * The CIPM in 19623 added the prefixes femto (f; signifying 10-15) and atto (a; signifying lo-’*). t In this country frequencies are reported in terms of cycles per second and magnetic flux density in webers per square metre 19631 UNITS AND STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT 409 January 0 at 12h ephemeris time (this is the astronomers' way of writing what is commonly understood as 3 1 Dec-ember 1899 a t Greenwich mean noon). There are considerable difficulties in the precise measurement of epoch but despite this time signals such as those provided through the Post Office radio station Rugby by the Royal Greenwich Observatory are maintained uniform over the period of one year to about 5 parts in lo9.The movement of the Earth thus provides the basic unit of time. But in recent years quartz-oscillator clocks have been used as the working standard of time, and incidentally have shown up the deficiencies of the Earth as a time-keeper. A caesium resonance clocklo is now operating at the NPL with a consistency of 3 parts in loll (equivalent to 1 second in 10 centuries) and such clocks may one day be regarded as our ultimate reference standards. Thus like the length unit the time unit will be defined in terms of an atomic phenomenon.The ampere is the intensity of a constant current which if maintained in two parallel rectilinear conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular section and placed at a distance of one metre from one to the other in a vacuum will produce between the conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per metre of lengthll. It is thus an absolute unit in that it uses a natural law to express its relation to the fundamental quantities of length, mass and time. At one time an 'international ampere' specified by means of a silver voltameter was in use for practical purposes but its reproduction proved almost as difficult as the reproduction of the funda-mental units and it was abandoned in 1 948.11 The definitions of the volt ohm coulomb farad, henry and weber all depend on that of the ampere, and the ampere is realized by measuring the force of attraction between current-bearing wires of measured disposition using a special balance.In practice the ohm the henry and the farad are also realized absolutely, and other measurements can be made to check the whole system of absolute units. Various national laboratories agree on the ampere to about 4 parts per million and on the ohm to within 12 parts per million. At present determinations of the gyromagnetic ratio of the proton are being refined and it is foreseen that such work will eventually place electrical measurements on a more fundamental basis. Intensity o f electric current (the ampere). difficulties had already led to the adoption in 192713 of an accurate and easily reproducible practical scale, intended to be as nearly as possible identical with the thermodynamic scale and the scale to which all normal measurements are related.The practical scale was revised in 1948 and in 1960 an amended edition with the 1948 numerical values used the new title International Practical Scale o f Temperature (IPST) .14 The IPST extends upwards from the boiling point of oxygen ( - 182.97"C). I t is mainly realized by means of defined fundamental and primary fixed points with platinum resistance thermometers and specified thermo-couples calibrated at these points interpolation being by specified formulae. Above 1063°C the temperature is defined in terms of black-body radiation using the Planck law of radiation.The NPL has set up a scale of temperature between 10°K and 90°K on the basis of resistance thermometers which have been compared with gas thermometers, and various national laboratories are collaborating in such work with the object of extending the IPST downwards at least to 20°K. The magnitude of the unit of luminance (or the new candle) has been defined by the CGPM as one-sixtieth of the luminous intensity per square centimetre of the full standard radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum (2042°K approx.) From the unit of luminance are derived the units of luminous flux illumination brightness equivalent luminance and other quantities. The reader is referred to Units and Standards o f Measure-ment employed at the National Physical Laboratory 11 Light (photometry colorimetry and radiometry) HMSO 1956, for further details.Unit of volume. The litre is not included in the International System of Units which uses the cubic metre (m3) and its decimal multiples and sub-multiples for the expression of volumes. This matter is discussed later. Before passing from consideration of the SI system it should be mentioned that in this paper multiples and sub-multiples of the SI units have sometimes been used instead of the basic units themselves ; particularly, the cgs system has been employed. This is largely because it was thought that it would be more useful to adopt the terms with which most readers are familiar. Unit o f luminance-the candela (cd). Thermodynamic temperature (degree Kelvin).The are designated as "K and denoted by the symbol T is Under this heading consideration will be restricted recognized as the fundamental scale to which all temperature measurements should ultimately be referred. As to the temperature unit the size of the Yard. At the time of writing the British yard is degree Kelvin has been defined by the decision12 defined by the Weights and Measures Act 1878. It to fix the thermodynamic temperature of the triple is the distance at 62°F between fine lines on two gold point of water at exactly 273.16"K. But experimental plugs set at the neutral plane of a particular bronze thermodynamic Kelvin scale on which temperatures THE BASIC UNITS OF THE BRITISH SYSTEM to the yard the pound and the gallon -. 410 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER bar declared to be the ‘imperial standard,’ under certain conditions of support.Because the yard was known to be shortening15 at the rate of about one millionth of an inch a year and this was beginning to be significant in precision engineering measurements the national standards laboratories of Australia Canada New Zealand, South Africa the U.S.A. and the U.K. in 1959 adopted for science and industry a yard equal to 0.9144 metre.la The Weights and Measures Act 1963 which will come into force on 31 January 1964 re-defines the statutory yard as 0.9144 metre. The new definition has already been legalized in the U.S.A. (except for surveying) and Canada and it will come into force in Australia on 1 January 1964.This action has redressed the situation in which there were in the world two important independently defined units of length and the yard like the metre will be effectively based on the wavelength of the krypton-86 orange radiation. Pound. As with the yard the British pound is at present defined by the Weights and Measures Act of 1878. It is the weight in uamo of the platinum imperial standard. Though the Act uses the term ‘weight’ the imperial standard has always been taken to define mass and in principle ordinary weight-pieces (‘weights’) are adjusted on this basis usually by reference to a conventional value of density.17 At the time of the adoption of the international yard, in 1959 an international pound of exactly 0.453 592 37 kilogramme was also adopted.The new Weights and Measures Act also includes this definition. As from 31 January 1964 one pound will be legally equal to 0.453 592 37 kilogramme in most of the English-speaking world. Gallon. The British gallon contains ten imperial pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights with the water and the air at 62°F and with the barometer at 30 inches (Weights and Measures Act 1878). This definition is imprecise to the extent of several parts in a million. In the new Weights and Measures Act the same type of definition is used but the water is stated to have a density of 0.998 859 g/ml the air 0.001 217 g/ml and the weights 8.136 g/ml. The gallon is thus rendered quite precise and the refined value is within the limits of uncertainty associated with the present definition.The United States gallon is defined as 231 cubic inches and is thus roughly five-sixths of the British gallon. The volume is that of the Queen Anne wine gallon. The Board of Trade maintains standard measures. On the rare occasions when the NPL is called upon to evaluate volumes in British units it uses the value I gallon = 4.545 96 litres; this is based on the definition of the gallon the density of water and certain densities adopted for the purpose by the Board of Trade. The 1963 Act does not change the value of the gallon in litres appreciably. MISCELLANEOUS UNITS Length (1) The international angstrom ’ (a) was defined in 190713 by assigning the value of 643804696 A to the wavelength of the cadmium red radiation.As the 1960 definition of the metre in terms of the vacuum wavelength of the orange radiation from krypton-86 is based on precise determinations of the relative wavelengths of this radiation and that of the red radiation of cadmium and the use of the value 6438.4696 x lofo m for its wavelength it follows that the angstrom is now by definition equal to 10-lo metre exactly. (2) In spectroscopic work the ‘kayser’ is frequently used. One kayser is equal to 1/(1 cm) and it bears the same sort of relationship to wavelength as frequency does to time. One milli-kayser is equal to 0.001 kayser, i.e. 0.001 cm-l and so on. (3) Small distances are frequently expressed in ‘microns,’ one micron being one thousandth of a milli-metre or one millionth of a metre.But the symbol p is the symbol for ‘one millionth’ (see International System of Units) and having regard to its increasing use for this legitimate purpose (e.g. in pF pin pbar, pg and ps) it has been recommended that for 0.001 mrn the full abbreviation pm (pronounced micro-metre or micron) be used instead of p. Mass y is deprecated. Temperature It is interesting to note that the Fahrenheit degree has never been formally defined. In 1948 the General Conference of Weights and Measures decided to abandon the word Centigrade and its French equivalent ‘Centesimal’ as applied to temperature in favour of ‘Celsius’. That is ‘OC’ is now regarded as the abbreviation of ‘degree Celsius’. This was done in order to secure international uniformity in nomenclature; ‘Celsius’ was already widely in use, and moreover Centigrade in French means one hund-redth of a grade which itself is one hundredth of a right angle.The adoption of ‘Celsius’ was a fitting tribute to a pioneer of the thermometric scale. (3) The ninth CGPM (1948) recommended that when it is desired to distinguish a temperature interval or difference from a particular temperature the abbre-viation ‘degC’ should be used for the interval and “C for the temperature. For example, The symbol for microgramme is pg. The use of (1) (2) whereas 5°C = 4.1”F 5 degC = 9 degF 19631 UNITS AND STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT 41 1 The use of this convention is growing even when such clarification of the meaning is not called for but the convention does not now apply to Kelvin degrees.Volume As already noted the cubic metre is the sole unit of volume included in the SI; the litre is not mentioned. The Eleventh CGPM has invited the CIPM to study the question of the litre and the cubic decimetre and present its conclusions to the Twelfth CGPM because the litre and the cubic decimetre differ by only 28 parts per million (1 litre = 1-000 028 dmS),ls determinations of physical magnitudes entailing measurements of volume have an increasingly high precision and there is the possibility of confusion between the two units. As an example of the last point French law regards the two units as identical. As the litre is defined as the volume occupied by one kilogramme of water at its temperature of maximum density and under the pressure of one standard atmos-phere19 it is not simply based precise (the isotopic composition of the water affects the density) or easily reproducible to high accuracy.Volumetric measure-men ts particularly those involving volumetric glass-ware are at present made in terms of the millilitre. I t is now some 40 years since volumetric glassware was graduated in cubic centimetres and marked ‘cc’. The millilitre was substituted20 largely because ‘cc’ was often mis-used to refer to the volume of a gramme (weighed in air) of water of unstated temperature, and this could be several parts in a thousand in error. For this reason the author recommends that ‘cc’ should not again be used but that the unit of volume should be referred to as cm3 particularly in written and printed matter.It would be inadvisable to apply the name litre to the cubic decimetre as has been suggested in some quarters because confusion would later arise as to the precise basis of tables of properties such as densities which at present are all expressed in terms of litres (or millilitres). If there were an acceptable and convenient name for the cubic decimetre or cubic centimetre the difficulty would not arise. Density (1) The fact that densit6 (French) means in English, specific gravity has often been a source of confusion. (2) Density is mass (not weight in air) per unit volume and is usually expressed in grammes per milli-litre or pounds per gallon. Specific gravity known internationally as relative density is defined as the ratio Density of the substance at ts Density of water at tw where ts and tw are the temperature of the substance and of the water respectively..It follows that specific gravity is the ratio of masses not weights in air. Specific gravity is used almost exclusively by English-speaking peoples and in the present state of technology its use presents few special advantages. One hopes that it will eventually be abandoned in favour of density. Standard acceleration Standard acceleration is mostly encountered in the expression of forces as for example in the assessment of pressure. Its value is 980,665 cm/s2 and it derives from the average value of gravity first associated with mean sea level in latitude 45”; consequently it has often been referred to as standard gravity.When it was established that 980.665 cm/s2 was too large an estimate it was decided19 to retain this figure as the conventional standard acceleration for reference pur-poses not liable to revision. It may be noted that the defined value is 980.665 cm/s2 and that the value 32.1740 ft/s2 sometimes given is merely a rounded equivalent derived from it. Pressure (1) Barometric pressure is expressed preferably in millibars ( 1 millibar = 1000 dynes/square centimetre) , but the standard millimetre of mercury 1 mmHg (1 millimetre of mercury of density 13.5951 g/cm3, gravity being 980.665 cm/s2) is extensively used.21 It should be noted that whereas the unit 1 mmHg is exactly defined the expressions ‘1 mm Hg’ or ‘one millimetre of mercury’ are vague in respect of the mercury density and the operative gravity.The precise unit 1 inHg defined similarly to 1 mmHg, is sometimes used. (2) Other pressure units deserving mention are as follows : (a) The bar is lo6 dynlcm2. One millibar is 1000 dyn/cm2 and equals 0.750 062 mmHge21 ( b ) The pound per square inch so glibly used is not, strictly a pressure; it is mass per unit area. Though in practice the gravitational force on the pound mass is implied it should be remembered that gravity varies very considerably over the Earth’s surface; it changes by about 1 part in 200 from equator to pole and by about 1 part in 2000 from London to Aberdeen. So even if the implication that ‘pound’ refers in this connexion to the gravitational force on a pound mass ‘one pound per square inch’ is very vague.To overcome this difficulty and the more academic difficulty arising from the confusion of mass and force the precise unit the pound-force (lbf) (similarly the kilogramme-force, kgf) has been adopted. 22 One pound-force is the force which when applied to a body having a mass of 1 pound gives it standard acceleration 980.665 cm/s2. A similar definition applies to the kilogramme-force. I€ precisio JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER of 1 per cent or finer is involved the use of these terms is essential. The kilopond (kp) which is often the subject of inquiry in this country is the name much used on the Continent for the kilogramme-force (kgf ) . The standard atmosphere (atm) is 1 013 250 dyn/cm2 exactly and within 1 part in 7 x lo6 is equal to the pressure (760 mmHg) exerted by a 760 mm column of mercury of density 13.5951 g/cm3 where g = 980.665 cm/s2.The abbreviation ‘at’ stands for the technical atmos-phere 1 kgf/cm2. 1 at = 0.967 841 atm. The torr is one seven hundred and sixtieth part of one standard atmosphere and therefore within 1 part in 7 x lo6 it equals 1 mmHg. Reference conditions f o r gases The long-established expression N.T.P.-normal temperature and pressure-probably includes a mis-translation from the French ‘normal’ meaning ‘standard.’ The BSI prefers the expression ‘standard temperature and pressure’ (s.t.p.),23 and recommends that if any other conditions than 0°C and 1 atm (defined above) are associated with s.t.p.they must be stated. Viscosity The viscosity of a fluid in which the velocity under a shear stress of 1 dyn/cm2 has a gradient of 1 cm/s per centimetre perpendicular to the plane of shear is one poise (P). The kinematic viscosity of a fluid with dynamic viscosity 1P and density 1 g/cm3 equals 1 stoke (St). The present system of viscosity measurement depends ultimately on very careful determinations in the U.S.A. of the viscosity of water in absolute units by the capillary-tube method.24 This led to the international acceptance of the value 1.00‘2 centipoise for the dynamic viscosity of water at 20”C and from this value is deduced the internationally accepted value 1.0038 centistokes for the kinematic viscosity; the latter is the basis of viscosity measurement today.Viscosities of other liquids are generally compared and assessed by means of comparative times of flow in U-tube or suspended-level viscometers. Any one viscometer is suitable for liquids of a limited range only. Hence a series of viscometers having different bores is used and these are standardized in sequence any two contiguous viscometers being related one to the other by means of the same liquid. Units of work heat and energy power The 9th CGPM (1948) adopted the joule (J) for electrical work and for heat as well as for mechanical work and for energy it being defined as the work done when the point of application of a force of 1 newton (N) is displaced through a distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force. This unit was sometimes called the ‘absolute joule’.The ‘international joule’ (approxi-mately 1.000 19 J) was abandoned in 1948. One erg = 1 dyn. cm = lo-’ J exactly and 1 kilogramme-force metre = 9.806 65 J exactly. The 15°C calorie (cal,,) is the amount of heat required to warm 1 g of air-free water from 14.5”C to 1565°C at a constant pressure of 1 standard atmosphere; a similar definition was published by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics in 1934 for the ‘gramme-calorie’ and the International Committee of Weights and Measures (1950) adopted the factor 1 cal, = 4.1855 J as being the most accurate value which could then be given. This factor is uncertain by 0.0005 J. The 1. T. calorie (International Table calorie) was defined by the Fifth International Conference on Properties of Steam (London July 1956) thus: 1 cal, = 4.1868 J exactly.The watt (W) is one joule per second (1 J/s). The former international watt (1 international volt times 1 international ampere) was abandoned by the 9th CGPM (1948) but one ‘mean international watt’ is approximately equal to 1 -000 19 W. 1 watt is exactly equal to 10’ ergs per second and 1 kilogramme-force metre per second equals 9.806 65 W exactly. CONCLUDING REMARKS For reasons already stated in this article multiples and sub-multiples of the SI units have often been used rather than the basic units themselves. The Standards Division of the NPL though it uses the cgs system quite extensively is of the opinion that the time is not far distant when internationally the SI system will supersede it.The education of young scientists to think and work in terms of the SI system is accordingly important and science masters are recommended to take this matter very seriously. Of course the use of the metre kilo-gramme and second instead of the centimetre gramme and second considerably simplifies the numerical factors included in the definitions of electrical quantities, and many young people are already familiar with this. But the change will not usually come easily to those brought up with the cgs system. For example in the SI system the unit of force is the newton (N) which gives 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2 (the dyne = N) ; the unit of pressure is the newton per square metre (N/m2) (and is equal to 10 dyn/cm2); the unit of dynamic viscosity is the newton second per square metre (N.s/m2) (and is equal to 10 poises) and so on.Our friends on the Continent are now using these basic units extensively and we must be able to under-stand their work. Those who would like more information on units and standards are referred to the sources quoted in the article and to the following publications 19631 UNITS AND STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT 41 3 ( 1 ) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) . Recommendations R 3 1 (obtainable from the British Standards Institution 2 Park Street London W. 1). Part I (Second edition) The international system of units and quantities and units o f space and time. Part I1 Quantities and units o f periodic and related phenomena.Part I11 &antities and units of mechanics. Part IV Quantities and units of heat. Part V (In preparation) will deal with (2) British Standards Institution (BSI). Obtain-able from the Institution at the above address. BS 1991 Part 1 1954 with amendments. Letter symbols signs and abbreviations. Part 1 General. (Amended to October 1960.) Part 2 196 1 Chemical engineering, nuclear science and applied chemistry. Part 3 1961 Fluid mechanics. Part 4 1961 Structures materials and soil mechanics. Part 5 196 1 AppliEd thermodynamics. Part 6 1963 Electrical science and engineering. (3) National Physical Laboratory (NPL) . Obtain-able from H.M. Stationery Office. Units and standards o f measurement employed at the National Physical Laboratory.I Length mass time-interval and frequency, angle volume density and specific gravity, gravity force pressure and hardness. electricity and magnetism. I1 Light. I I I Electricity. IV Temperature. Notes on Applied Science. The following is a selection from this series. 4 Measurement o f humidity 1953. Third edition 1958. 6 Volumetric glassware-scientijc aspects of design and accuracy 1954. Reprinted 1957. 7 Balances weights and precise laboratory wsigh-ing 1954. Reprinted 1961. This con-tains details of the convenient 'weight in air' basis which is generally used for the adjustment of weights to a basis sufficiently near to one of mass. 12 24 25 28 Tables o f Physical and Chemical Constants and some Mathematical Functions. G.W. C. Kaye and T. H. Laby. Twelfth Edition 1959. London : Longmans Green & Co. Calibration of temperature measuring instru-ments 1955. Third edition 1963. Photometric standards and the unit of light, 1961. Hydrometers and hydrometry 196 1. The measurement o f frequency 1962. (4) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In compiling this article the author has drawn mainly on his knowledge of units and standards acquired in the NPL Standards Division. In regard to viscosity he acknowledges especially the help received from Mr W. 0. Jennings. He also acknowledges the assistance of other colleagues (particularly Dr H. Barrell Superin-tendent of the Standards Division) of I S 0 publications and of British Standards. This paper is published by permission of the Director of the National Physical Laboratory.REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. Nature 1962 197 1055. 4. Moreau H. J. chem. Educ. 1953 30 3. Barrell H. Nature 1961 189 195. Engelhard E. Symposium held at the National Physical Laboratory in May 1951 on Recent Developments and Techniques in the Maintenance of Standards. H.M. Stationery Office 1952, 5. Engelhard E. P.V. Com. int. Poids Me's. 1958 26 B Annexes 6. Bigg P. H. Nature 1962 194 719. 7. Bigg P. H. Burch F. H. and Oxley D. L. Brit. J . uppl. 8. C. R. Premier Con$ Ge'n. Poids Me's. 1889. 9. P. V. Com. int. Poids Me's. 1956 25 77. 10. Essen L. Annual Science Suruey 1962 Book 3 46. 1 1. C. R. 9 " Conf. G'e'n. Poids Me's. 1948. 12. C. R. 10" Conf. Ge'n. Poids Me's. 1954. 13. C. R. 7 Con$ Gin. Poids Me's. 1927. 14.Units and standards of measurement employed at the National Physical Laboratory IV Temperature. H.M. Stationery Office 1962. 15. Board of Trade. Report on the Comparisons of the Parliamentary Copies of the Imperial Standards with the Imperial Standard Yard. . . during theyears 1947 to 1948. H.M. Stationery Office 1950. p. 19. M2 to M7. Phys. 1962 13,456. 16. Engineer 23 January 1959. 17. 18. 19. 20. B.S. 501 554 1952. 21. B.S. 2520 1954. 22. I S 0 Recommendation R31 Part 111. Quantities and units of 23. B.S. 350 Part 1 1959 amendment No. 1 April 1963. A 24. Swindells J. F. Coe J. R. (Jr) and Codfrey T. B. J. Res. Bigg P. H. J. sci. Instrum. 1959 36 359. Comite' International des Poids et Me'sures 1950. C. R. 3e Con$ Ge'n. Poids Alis. 1901.mechanics. further amendment is in the press. nat. Bur. Stand. 1952 48 1 RUSSIAN FOR CHEMISTS LESSON 24 WORD ORDER The reader will have observed that there is consider-able liberty of word order in Russian. This is made possible by the system of declension and conjugation endings which usually enable the precise meaning and function of a word to be expressed without reference to the word order. However there are cases when the system of endings fails to do this. The word order then becomes important. When the subject and object of a sentence are nouns which have the same form in the nominative and accusative cases the noun preceding the verb is taken as the subject e.g. OKHCb o6pa3le~ OCkllOK The oxide forms a precipitate 6KHCb is taken as the subject because it precedes the verb.Even when the ending of the nouns does not clearly indicate the case an adjective or verb ending may do this and so restore the freedom of the word order e.g. 3 T O T MeTkJIJI o6pa3ye~ YePHYK) 6KHCb YepHYIO 6KHCb o6pa3ye~ 5TOT MeTknJI or This metal forms a black oxide 6 K m b is clearly the object in both sentences since the adjective YE~HYK) is in the accusative form. nOB6PXHOCTb IIpHThrHBaeT I23 The surface attracts the gas In this sentence noBkpxHocTb is taken as the subject because it precedes the verb. n o B 6 p x H o c T a npm5rmana ra3 Ta3 npmkrmana n o s t 5 p x H o c n The surface attracted the gas or In both these sentences the feminine verb ending indicates that noBkpxHocT6 is the subject whatever its position in the sentence.TIME OF DAY The expressions which give the time at each hour were explained in Lesson 15. Other times are expressed as follows: Past the hour hour e.g. Time past the hour is expressed in terms of the coming HAeT I’ikpBbIH YaC I t is after twelve (the first hour is going) By P. L. WYVILL B.SC. PH.D. F.R.I.C. 414 fikCRTb MEIHLT n6pBOrO ten past twelve (ten minutes of the first hour) YkTBePTb BTOP6TO a quarter past one (a quarter of the second hour) ABkAqaTb MHHYT TPkTbeTO twenty minutes past two (twenty minutes of the third hour) nOJIOBkHa YeTBepTOI‘O half past three (half of the fourth hour) To the hour expressed by the preposition 6e3 (+ gen.) e.g. After the half hour time to the following hour is 6e3 I I R T ~ ~ M H H ~ T yac five minutes to one (one o’clock without five minutes) 6e3 AeCXTG (MHH~T) CeMb ten minutes to seven (seven without ten minutes) 6e3 ABaaqaTki IIRTk (MHHyT) B6CeMb twenty-five minutes to eight (eight without twenty-five minutes) 6e3 YkTBePTH A6BRTb a quarter to nine (nine without a quarter) SUMMARY OF PREPOSITIONS USED TO INDICATE TIME 6e3 (+ gen.) 6e3 AeCRTh RRTb ten to five B (+ acc.) B TPH saci at three o’clock B (+ prep.) B m e c r 6 M Yacy after five o’clock (in the sixth hour) 20 (+ gen.) no YeTbIpex YacoB till four o’clock 3a (+ acc.) CTJJA~HT np~men 3a Yac ao HavAna J I ~ K ~ M M The student came an hour before the lecture K (+ dat.) OH np~men K IIRTB He came just before five o’clock MkXAy (+ instr.) MkXaY TpeMh 12 YeTbIPbMh YaCkMm H a (+ aCC.) O H On03&f H a ABaAl&lTb MHHyT between three and four o’clock He was twenty minutes late ~ K O ~ O (+gen.) ~ K O J I O m e c T i i s a c 6 B about six o’clock n6cne (+ gen.) n6cne AeszTki after nine c (+ gen.) . . . AO (4 gen.) from five till six C nRTh A0 LLIeCT RUSSIAN FOR CHEMISTS 415 MOMENTANEOUS VERBS A few perfective verbs ending in -HyTb indicate an instantaneous action i.e. the beginning and the end of the action will take place (or have taken place) simul-taneously e.g. Imperfective Perfective Momentaneous AbIIIIaTb ITOAbIIiIhTb AOXHyTb to breath blow KpH9aTb 3aKpEIYhTb KpkiKHyTb to cry Out shout CTYYaTb IIOCTYYhTb CTyKHyTb to knock (to begin shouting) Jf KP~KHYJI Jf K ~ ~ ~ K H Y I called out (in an instant) I shall call out (in an instant) EXERCISE XXIV A ITERATIVE VERBS A few verbs have a special imperfective form indicat-ing the recurrent or habitual nature of the action e.g.Imperfective Iterative Imperfective 6bITb 6bIBhTb to be exist happen 3HaTb 3HaBaTb to know KPEIYhTb BbIKPkBaTb to cry out XOAkTb XhXKBaTb to go (on foot) YEIThTb YkiTbIBaTb to read k3AMTb 63XEIBaTb Or e3XhTb to travel 6bIBhTb is the most frequently used of these verbs e.g. YTPOM 5I 6331~iim B j r a 6 0 p a ~ 6 p ~ 1 1 . r In the morning I am usually in the laboratory CO6paHEIX XkiMEIKOB 3AeCb 6 b I B h T 6YeHb Y k T O Meetings of chemists take place here very often COMPOUNDS OF THE VERB GbIBhTb-6bITb ,4 number of verbs are formed by adding a prefix to 6 b 1 ~ k ~ b and 6bITb.In these verbs 6bIBaTb gives the imperfective and 6b1Tb gives the perfective form. The perfective future is formed in the same way as the future of 6bITb (see Lesson 5) e.g. Imfwjective Peffective p#~. BbI6bIBhTb BdI6bITb to retire leave obtain extract or mine an ore XIepe6bIBhTb to have visited AO6bIBhTb A O ~ ~ I T ~ AO6dITbIg to acquire, 3a6bIBaTb 3a6dlTb 3a6dITbIg to forget much (many places or times) increase swell for a time dispose of sell IIPI46bIBhTb IIpH6dITb to arrive, IIpO6bIBhTb IIpO6idITb to stay remain C6bIBaTb C6bITb c 6 d I ~ b I E to get rid of, The verbs n06bIBkTb (to visit) and no6d1~b (to stay for a short time) are exceptions in that they are both perfective. Translate into English: 1.2 . 3. 4. 5 . 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Notes: 2. The form qacy is the genitive singular of sac but saca is used as genitive after numbers. 9 and 10. The particle HEI is used here with a conditional, not a negative meaning 416 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER nepex6Am K a-ymep6Ay. TO-ACHO BdIpaxeHHaa OC66eHHOCTb IIHpp6JIbHOrO KOJIbQh . Boo6146 H6AO OTMkTHTb3,-YT0 ~ a ~ 6 6 n e e peaKQHOHHOCIIOC66HbIMLl y He3aMeQeHHOrO IIHpp6JIa RBJIhOTCR hTOMb1 BOAOp6Aa B a-IIOJIOXkHHH. nOCK6JIbKY IIHpp6JI HeyCT6fiYHB H JIerK6 OKHCJ&eTCR, PehKlJHH HHTPOBhHHR H CyJIb@HpOBhHHR IIpOX6ART HeJIerK6 H He RBJI6K)TCS XapaKTkPHbIMH KaK AT0 H M k T nPOH3B6HHbIMH IIHpp6JIa RBJIhOTCR TaKhe BbKHbIe B 6HOJIOTkYeCKOM OTHOIIIkHHH BeWeCTBa KaK XJIOpO@-hJIJI PaCTkHMG H reMOrJIO6kH KP6BH.n p H OKHCJI6HHH reMOrJIO6BH IIpeBpaIIJ&TCR B OKCHreMOrJIO68H. OKCHT-eMOrJIO6&H KP6BH COCTOkT H3 6en~h H KphCHOrO BeLUeCT-Bh TeMaThHa KOT6pbIfi B IIPHCyTCTBHH IIOBhpeHHOI% C6JIH IIpeBpaU&TCB B E M h H (XJI6pHCTbIg EMaThH) B BhAe XapaKTkpHbIX KPHCT~JIJIOB. MonkKyna reMhHa COA6PXHT YeTdIpe IIHpp6JIbHbIX 5IAph CB63aHHbIX MkXBy ~066% XJIOpO@&JIJI COflkPXHTCR BO BCeX 3eJIeHbIX paCT&HHRX H IIpl3HHM6eT aKTkBHOe YYaCTHe B IIpOQkCCe aCCHMHJIhqLlH JTJIeK~CJIOI'O rh3a PaCTkHHRMH . YCTaH6BJIeHO =IT0 HMkeTCR ABa 6nk3KHX IIO CTPOkHHIo XJIOpO@ZbIJIZt. no CBOeMy CTPO6HHH) 5TH XJIOpO@8JIJIbI H M h T MH6TO 6611~ero C TeMhHOM. OHh ThKXe COAkpXaT YeTbIpe IIHPp6JIbHbIX KOJIbqh CBh3aHHbIX MkXAY c066ii I-pyIInZtMH M h H H f i .BhXHbIM IIpeACTaBhTeJTeM LIIeCTHYJIkHHbIX reTepOqH-KJIkYeCKHX COeAHHkHHfi XBJTheTCR IIMpHAkiH. n O XkIMh-YeCKHM CB6GCTBaM IIHpHnITH HkCKOJIbKO HaIIOMHHheT BdIpaXeHbI KaK H y 6e~36na 6%Hb hPK0. BO3MOXHO AkGCTBHeM KOHqeHTphpOBaHHOfi CkPHOfi KLlCJIOTbI CyJIb-@HpOBhTb IIHpH&H P O -'THTf?@BaHHe IIpeACTaBJIheT 6onbruym TpyAHOCTb . nMPM&H XBJIkTCX TpeThiYHbIM aMkHOM IIO5TOMy o6~1anae~ OCH6BHbIMH CB6%CTBaMH, XOT5 H cnh60 BdIpaXeHHbIMH. M~CTO fin% 6e~36na. rpymam CH a T % m e c TOMO OM xene3a. CH; HO BM~CTO xenC3a B xnopo@finne H a r t 6 n m c g 6e~36~1. Sap6 er6 YCT~GYHBO a p o M a T 8 s e c m e cs6iicma Notes: 1. qaxqe Bcero-mostly 2. LUHPOK~ npeAcTasneHbr-occur widely ; literally-are widely presented 3. H ~ A O OTMkTmb-it is necessary to note (perfective), best translated as 'it should be noted' Vocabulary aAKaJI6HA alkaloid a H a n 6 r analogue accHManhQH5I assimilation 6eH36JIb~b1ji (adj .) benzene 6 ~ o n o r h ~ e c ~ ~ G biological 6YpkTb (1) to turn brown BM~CTO (+ gen.) ~006wk in general BbI3bIBhTb (1) instead of in place of to call forth excite cause BdI3BaTb (1 p) fut.BdI30BY BdI30BeLII 19631 RUSSIAN FOR CHEMISTS 417 to halogenate haematin haemin haemoglobin hetero-atom heterocycle heterocyclic double indole to classify condensed blood magnesium medicine to remind call to mind unsaturated unstable nickel to precipitate to note mention regard respect ratio pumice pumice stone p yridine p yrrole p yrrole position in as much as in so far as to take receive accept, assume five-membered hydrogen sulphide weak weakly to mix meeting to weld solder fuse together sulphona tion thiophen type difficulty to set up establish participation part share furan 1.2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. K y to chlorophyll cycle cyclic six-membered clearly Exercises EXERCISE XXIV A At twenty to nine he began the experiment. From one to two we have a lecture. From two o'clock we worked in the laboratory. In an hour and ten minutes this reaction will finish. Then it will be possible to separate the products. I have a lecture at 4.20 and now it is already 4.10. My sister goes out to work in the morning at a quarter past eight and returns at a quarter to six.I think that he always comes about twelve o'clock. In the morning my brother works in the laboratory and usually returns a little after twelve (at the beginning of the first hour). However difficult it will be I shall not stop this experiment. Today I cannot give this lecture much as I want to. In the chemical laboratory meetings are held twice I go to all the lectures on heterocyclic compounds. There are four oxides of uranium. One of them, the so-called urano-uranic oxide is encountered in pitchblendes. One of the most interesting methods of obtaining thiophen is the passage of a mixture of acetylene and hydrogen sulphide over a catalyst at 400-500". If a mixture of acetylene and ammonia is passed through a heated tube pyrrole which has a five-membered ring is formed.M'e should like to consider the biological significance of these compounds which contain the pyrrole nucleus. If the hydrogen atoms in the a-position had not been substituted by methyl groups the stability of the pyrrole nucleus would not have been increased. The most important property of haemoglobin is its capacity for ready oxidation. The active chemical properties of the element chlorine are explained by the fact that only one electron is lacking for a stable configuration of the outer shell. In its chemical properties indole is similar to pyrrole and benzene. It is possible to explain this by the fact that the pyrrole nucleus is fused with the benzene.a month 418 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL EXERCISE XXIV B Heterocyclic Compounds Many compounds having a cyclic structure are distinguished from aromatic compounds by the fact that apart from carbon atoms atoms of other elements are found in the ring mostly oxygen sulphur and nitrogen. Such compounds are called heterocyclic compounds. Many of them occur widely in nature and their stability is as high as the stability of benzene. Heterocyclic compounds are classified according to the size of the ring the number of rings and the type of hetero-atom. For example furan which contains a nucleus of four atoms of carbon and one atom of oxygen, belongs to the group of heterocyclic compounds with a five-membered ring. As with benzene the double bonds in furan call forth aromatic rather than unsaturated properties.For example bromine does not add but replaces atoms of hydrogen forming dibromofuran. Furaldehyde which is called furfural is an important derivative of furan. As an aldehyde furfural gives all the reactions appropriate to the aldehyde group. In industry furfural is used in the production of certain plastics. Thiophen is an analogue of furan. The ring which contains an atom of sulphur instead of oxygen possesses a stronger aromatic character than furan. Chlorine easily replaces four atoms of hydrogen forming tetra-chlorothiophen. Thiophen can be obtained from acetylene if a mixture of acetylene and hydrogen sulphide is passed at 400-450" over a mixed catalyst containing the oxides of aluminium nickel and mag-nesium precipitated on pumice.In consequence of its aromatic character thiophen somewhat recalls benzene in chemical properties. Thiophen can readily be halogenated nitrated and sulphonated. On reduction nitrothiophen gives an unstable aminothiophen. Pyrrole belongs to the most interesting of heterocyclic compounds with a five-membered ring. I t can be obtained by passing a mixture of acetylene and ammonia through a heated tube. Pyrrole appears as a colourless liquid turning brown in air with a boiling point of 131 O. Pyrrole is slightly soluble in water readily in alcohol and ether. The atom of hydrogen in the NH group can be replaced by an alkali metal although pyrrole has the structure of a secondary amine. Such an acid reaction is caused by the influence of the double bonds.In con-sequence of this aromatic structure the properties of pyrrole recall the phenols. The group linked with the nitrogen of pyrrole easily transfers to the a-carbon. This is a clearly expressed peculiarity of the pyrrole ring. In general it should be noted that in unsubstituted pyrrole the hydrogen atoms in the a-position are the most reactive. In so far as pyrrole is unstable and easily oxidized the nitration and sulphonation reactions proceed with INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY difficulty and are not characteristic as is the case with benzene (as this has place for benzene). Such important substances in the biological respect as the chlorophyll of plants and haemoglobin of blood are derivatives of pyrrole. On oxidation haemoglobin is converted into oxyhaemoglobin.The oxyhaemoglobin of blood consists of a protein and a red substance haematin which in the presence of common salt is transformed into haemin (haematin chloride) in the form of characteristic crystals. The molecule of haemin contains four pyrrole nuclei linked to each other by CH groups and also by an iron atom. Chlorophyll is contained in all green plants and takes an active part in the process of assimilation of carbon dioxide by the plants. I t has been established that there are two chlorophylls closely related in structure (two close in structure chlorophylls). In their structure these chlorophylls have much in common with haemin. They also contain four pyrrole rings linked to each other by CH groups; but in chlorophyll magnesium takes the place of iron (in place of iron in chlorophyll is magnesium).An important representative of the six-membered heterocyclic compounds is pyridine. In chemical properties pyridine somewhat recalls benzene. Its nucleus is stable aromatic properties are very sharply expressed as in benzene. I t is possible to sulphonate pyridine by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid, but the nitration presents great difficulty. Pyridine is a tertiary amine consequently it possesses basic properties, although they are weakly expressed. CONCLUSION The reader should now be in a position to read Russian chemical textbooks and original Russian papers, at least in his own field with the help of a dictionary. One of the best Russian-English scientific dictionaries for the chemist is that by L.I. Callaham (John ?%ley & Sons Ltd ;C;7 7s.). A very good general Russian-English dictionary by L. Segal (Lund Humphries, it;3 3s.) gives a great deal of helpful information on the use of the words as well as their meanings. A pocket edition of Segal is also published at ;C;l 7s. 6d. There are now a number of collections of Russian scientific passages for the English student. A little book which serves as an excellent introduction to Russian scientific literature is Russian Science Readings by L. Light (Hirschfield Brothers Ltd) . I t contains a series of passages in chemistry physics and biology with very usefd notes on grammar and idiom as well as a vocabulary. Should the reader wish to turn from science to a izider literary field he will find that there are now a great number of cheap publications of Russian classics with vocabularies and notes available from English book-sellers.We would like to wish him every success Book Reviews acids in the Algar-Flynn-Oyamada reaction ‘is prob-ably the result of a benzilic acid rearrangement in the diketonic form of the flavonol.’ As flavonols are not known to undergo this transformation the more likely NATURALLY OCCURRING OXYGEN CoM- route is via the dihydroflavonol the open form of which is the enol of the required a-diketone. The book contains more than 2,000 references and the P OUND S. Butterworth €5’ Co. (Publishers) Ltd 1963. F. M. Dean. Pp. viii + 661. London: 120s. The growing importance of naturally-occurring oxygen-containing compounds is evidenced by the publication during the past two years of three compila-tions outlining recent work on these groups of substances.Since 1961 under the editorship of Dr Ollis we have had reviews by experts on the Chemistry of Natural Phenolic Compounds while under the chairmanship of Professor Geissman chemists of international repute reviewed the Chemistry of Flauonoid Compounds. Flavonoids and other oxygen ring-compounds were discussed in part of a birthday commemoration volume produced to honour Professor Venkataraman. For the work under review the author set himself no mean task when he undertook to present not only the chemistry of the compounds concerned but also to indicate their importance in such related fields as genetics agriculture and medicine.I t was a formidable task and the aim has been successfully achieved. The wide scope of the book is best illustrated by listing chapter headings. They read furans hydrofurans and lignans butenolides and tetronic acids pyrones and pyrans benzofurans coumarins chromens and chromans chromones and chromanones xanthones, flavones and flavonols flavanones isoflavones and iso-flavanones anthocyanins and anhydro-bases catechins and leucoanthocyanidins isochromen complex com-pounds less common ring-systems and biosynthesis. Under flavanones are described the occurrence of these com-pounds their spectra the acidity of the various hydroxyl groups transformations under acid and alkaline con-ditions.Also included are 3-hydroxyflavanones (they are dihydroflavonols and not as stated on p. 341, dihydroflavones) . These compounds are of importance from a chemical and stereochemical point of view and as intermediates in the formation of flavan-3,4-diols. Under the heading ‘Complex compounds’ the author takes us from citromycetin through rotenoids and steroidal sapogenins to furo- and pyrano-quinolines. A chapter on ‘Less common ring systems’ is concerned mainly with oxirans ( 1,2-epoxides) and with depsidones. Ideas change fast and in the short time since the book was written it has been shown that (+)-mollisacacidin (p. 442) has the absolute stereochemistry 2R 3S 4R and not 2R 3S 4 s as previously suggested. Similarly the author has since shown that the infra-red spectrum of catechin tetramethyl ether (p.432) is not incompatible with the view that the large groups at the 2- and 3-positions are equatorial. On p. 348 the suggestion is made that the formation of benzofuran-3-carboxylic The coverage in each section is excellent. literature is covered up to 1961. The lack of an author index is not a serious omission but I would hazard a guess that the colleague who considered its inclusion as of use mainly to writers of obituaries was an ‘under-forty’ cynic. The best praise one can give this publication is to say that it is worthy to take its place alongside the compila-tions mentioned earlier. The author is to be con-gratulated on an outstanding achievement. At 120s. the book is good value but will be beyond the reach of many research students.EVA M. PHILBIN HIGH POLYMERS. VOLUME X V I I . CONFIGURA-TIONAL STATISTICS OF POLYMERIC CHAINS. M. V. Volkenstein. Translated by Serge N. and M. J. Timasheff. Pp. x + 562. New York and London Interscience Publishers 1963. 150s. An understanding of the configurations of polymer chains and their statistical distribution is essential to the interpretation of many of the properties of high polymers whether in bulk or as single chains in dilute solutions. Consideration of configurations in terms of hindered rotations about single bonds in the chain provides a basis for mathematical treatments of physical models for polymer chains. This approach con-siderably developed by the author and his collaborators, is the main theme of this latest volume in a well-known series.The first three chapters provide a background to the understanding of the remainder of the book. An introductory chapter gives a summary of essential physical and physico-chemical polymer theory including a brief but clear outline of solution thermodynamics. A second chapter gives a concise account of internal rotation in small molecules and a third deals with rotational isomerism and includes consideration of the influence of rotational isomerism on some properties of molecules and on intermolecular interaction. The remaining five chapters apply these concepts to polymeric chains. Different models used to represent polymer chains are critically discussed and their con-figurational statistics are considered.Accounts of Markoff chains and the rotational-isomeric theory are given. Consideration of the properties of crystalline polymers and the stereochemistry of polymer chains includes theories of melting and chain configurations in crystals. Real polymer chains are contrasted with models and the influence of different factors on the dimensions of real chains is discussed. An account of the optical anisotropy of polymer chains describes the 41 420 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER valence-optical scheme and the influence of internal rotations and considers the photo-elastic effect in poly-mers and the Kerr effect in polymer solutions. A final chapter deals with the stretching of polymer chains and networks. This book provides a comprehensive account of polymer-chain configuration and its statistical distribu-tion and includes consideration of a surprisingly wide range of polymer properties related to them.I t was originally published in Russia in 1959 and as the author points out progress has made some sections out of date. Basic concepts however are unaltered and in his preface the author points out some of the more recent studies and modifications to theory. There are ample references to the original literature. As Professor P. J. Flory says in a foreword the author has brought together a wealth of material not assembled elsewhere in one volume in adequate detail. The book canbe thoroughly recommended to all chemists physicists and even biologists who are concerned with problems related to the configurations of polymer chains.W. R. MOORE ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY O F THE ACTINIDE E LE ME N T s . (International Series of Monographs on Analytical Chemistry Volume IX.) Alfred J. Moses. Pp. vii + 137. Oxford Pergamon Press, 1963. 45s. This monograph is divided into 12 very short chapters in which nuclear properties health hazards and safe handling sample treatment and instrumental and other methods of analysis are described and the book also includes seven appendixes in which nuclear and other data on the actinides are given as well as a useful list of general references. To attempt to cover the analytical chemistry of these elements in as few as 98 pages of text (including biblio-graphies) is an impossible task and as a result the treatment given is rather sketchy which does not help the readability of the book.The bulk of the information presented concerns the analysis of thorium uranium and plutonium and there is but little direct information on the other actinides. There is however a short descrip-tion of or reference to almost every relevant analytical procedure although a few applications such as the more precise determination of plutonium by differential spectrophotometry and of protactinium-23 1 by alpha spectrometry are not mentioned. There are a few rather minor errors in the text; for example the dis-covery of neptunium was published in 1940 only that of plutonium being delayed (p. 2); the fourth paragraph on page 9 would lead the reader to believe that 239Np, and not 237Np is the most commonly encountered isotope of neptunium and table 1.3 (p.3) admittedly quoted from another work could mislead in that americium curium berkelium and californium are not likely 10 be present in igneous rocks to the extent of more than a few atoms in the entire lithosphere if at all, since the natural neutron flux in uranium ores is so small that nuclear reactions involving multiple neutron capture have little chance of occurring. Even plutonium-240 has not been detected for certain in natural plutonium. The book should be useful as an introduction to the field for those unacquainted with actinide analysis for references to original papers are liberally provided but this reviewer would have preferred to see a volume of at least twice the present size with more detail and ex-planatory matter.There are few typographical errors most of which are unlikely to mislead the reader and the book is well produced although rather over-indexed (1 1 pages). K. W. BAGNALL MICROCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES (Proceedings of the 1961 International Symposium on). Edited by Nicholas D. Cheronis. Pp. xviii + 1181 New York and London John Wiley G3 Sons Ltd 1963. 300s. This book covers almost the entire field of analytical chemistry and its 1181 pages are divided into ten separate parts introduction; plenary lectures (four papers) ; microscopical techniques (ten papers) ; tech-niques of inorganic elemental analysis (seven papers) ; techniques of organic elemental analysis (1 7 papers) ; techniques of general organic and functional-group analysis (eight papers) ; titrimetric polarographic, electrochemical and radiochemical techniques ( 19 papers) ; microchemical implements and techniques for the determination of molecular weight and physical properties ( 13 papers) ; micro and semimicro methods in teaching (six papers) ; and round-table discussions The early beginnings of microchemistry were con-nected with the development of the compound micro-scope and it is therefore fitting that the first major section deals with this aspect.Many of these papers conclude that the microscopic methods and in particular thermo-microscopic methods cannot be abandoned even with resort to X-ray and spectral methods. The point is proved with reference to work on barbiturates, decomposition of diazo compounds and the study of polymorphism.The section covering inorganic elemental analysis is somewhat sparse and a more comprehensive section could have been compiled by enlarging it at the expense of the titrimetric polarographic electrochemical and radiochemical techniques. This latter section covers a wide range of analytical problems and there is a nice balance between theoretical considerations practical applications and new apparatus. The theoretical con-siderations of end-point detection in complexometric titrations are again covered in the round-table discussion on ‘Recent advances in titrimetry.’ I t is concluded that theoretical considerations should form the basis for the (6 PP 19631 BOOK REVIEWS 42 1 selection of a particular method and where possible, precede experimentation.However it is also stressed that sometimes an experiment if carried out with careful observation may furnish completely unexpected results and lead to ultimate success. There are a number of very interesting and stimulating contributions on organic elemental and functional-group analysis. Many papers deal with methods of completing the determination e.g. titrimetric mano-metric gas-c hronia tograp hic and conduc tome tric methods. However the view is subsequently taken that such methods of finish cannot yet compete in accuracy with the conventional gravimetric determina-tion of carbon dioxide and water. Another interesting trend considered by H. Malissa and E. Pell is auto-mation in organic microanalysis.The fact that chromatography plays a very important role in microanalysis is clearly shown by the contribu-tions on thin-layer gas- and paper-chromatographic techniques. There is one further paper not included in this section-‘Microdetermination of carbon hydrogen and nitrogen by gas chromatography’-which obviously promoted a very lively debate in the round-table discussion. This book contains like all symposia proceedings an enormous amount of useful information. Besides the papers there are also some revealing contributions in the discussions. R. DAGNALL STANDARD METHODS O F CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Sixth Edition. Volume 11. INDUSTRIAL AND METHODS. Edited by Frank J. Welcher. Part A, pp. xiv -+ 1282. Part B pp. xi + 1283-2613.New York and London D. Van Nostrand @ Co. Ltd, 1963. 378s. (not sold separately). A search of the shelves of most of the libraries of the analytical departments in the United Kingdom will almost certainly reveal the presence of that very useful textbook Scott’s Standard Methods o f Chemical Analysis. The fifth edition of this unique book was prepared 25 years ago under the editorship of Dr (now Professor) N. H. Furman. Now after this very long interval the sixth edition is appearing. Professor Furman has edited the first volume of this new edition and the second volume is edited by Dr F. J. Welcher of Indiana University . The changes in analytical procedures have been so great that Volume I1 of the new edition has been divided into two parts. Part A contains an entirely new section of 21 chapters in 532 pages of text on apparatus, general operations and reagents.Thirteen of the 16 chapters in this section are quite new and deal with such varied topics as chromatography ion-exchange methods statistical interpretation quantitative organic analysis and so on. In the remainder of section A plus N A T U R A L P R 0 D U C T S AND N 0 N I hT S T R U M E N T A L the whole of section B there are 29 chapters on ‘Special techniques for industrial products and other special substances,’ in 2000 pages of text. Almost all the authors of the individual chapters are new and indeed almost all the chapters that appeared in the fifth edition have been completely re-written. Some idea of the ground covered in this textbook may be gauged from a study of some of the titles of the chapters dealing with industrial products and other special substances viz.acids and bases (commercial) ; air pollutants ; alloys iron and steel ; alloys ferro-alloys ; alloys non-ferrous ; amino-acid analysis of protein hydrolysates ; bituminous substances ; cement ; chemical analysis in clinical medicine; coal and coke and so on. In short the analytical chemist working in British industry will find in this book well-prepared accounts of American analytical practice in many fields and particularly in industry. In many cases however he is likely to be rather disappointed e.g. he will find it difficult to believe that an article on the analysis of plastics makes no mention of formaldehyde condensation products polytetra-fluoroe th ylene pol ye th ylene tereph thalate or nylon.Although he may welcome the articles on the analysis of iron and steel and ferro-alloys he will be well advised to become thoroughly acquainted with the excellent work carried out in this country by the Methods of Analysis Committee of the British Iron and Steel Research Association and thus profit from the com-bined experience. Correspondingly if he is interested in glass analysis, it will be profitable to have available the numerous methods in the Journal o f Glass Technology as well as the article in this sixth edition. He will not find the chapter on quantitative organic analysis by Siggia to be as full of analytical information as the same author’s excellent textbook on Qynntitative Organic Analysis via Functional Groups.In many respects one feels in these days that the book is too ambitious in seeking to cover so many industries in these two volumes. This is particularly the case because so many excellent textbooks are now being written on the analytical problems of individual industries. J. HASLAM COLORIMETRIC ANALYSIS. VOLUME 11. METALS, ACID RADICLES AND ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. Second Edition. Noel L. Allport and John E. Rrocksopp. Pp. ix -+ 368. London Chapman &? Hall Ltd 1963. 60s. In 1945 Mr Noel L. Allport published a book oq colorimetric analysis that was deservedly popular; but this indispensable branch of analytical chemistry has expanded at such a rate that within ten years it became clear not only that the second edition was urgently needed but also that it could no longer be confined t 422 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER one volume or produced by one man.Volume I of the second edition dealing with clinical and bio-chemical applications was accordingly published in 1957 by Allport and Dr J. W. Keyser; now we have Volume I1 by Allport and Mr J. E. Brocksopp contain-ing 73 monographs on the determination of metals acid radicals and organic substances. The keynote of the book is its critical selectivity. Each monograph begins with a brief review of the various methods available for the determination of the entity considered followed by a description of the method or methods regarded by the authors as best. These descriptions have sufficient detail for any competent analyst to be able to work directly from them and each is accompanied by a discussion of the precautions to be taken to avoid interference and ensure accuracy.Internal evidence indicates that-as anyone knowing the senior author would expect-the methods described are almost all based on first-hand experience. The authors have chosen to include as a colorimetric determination the Gutzeit method for arsenic depending as it does on visual estimation of the intensity of a stain on a piece of filter-paper but have excluded the deter-mination of sodium and potassium by flame photometry, depending on the excitation of a photo-electric cell by light of a fixed wavelength as in orthodox spectrophoto-metric colorimetry! In consequence they have devoted two monographs to descriptions of methods that how-ever useful they may have been once must now be almost completely superseded.Rut the book as a whole is extremely practical in its approach and is clearly intended for the man who does not seek the theoretical back-ground to colorimetric analysis but wants a bench-book of working methods. For this purpose it is in my opinion the best book of its kind available today. ERIC C. WOOD CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS O F GROUP THEORY. F. Albert Cotton. Pp. ix + 205. New York and London Interscience Publishers 1963. 88s. As theoretical chemistry becomes increasingly the province of the trained mathematician rather than the chemist a widening gap is appearing between the theoretical and practical branches of the subject.To bridge this gap is a formidable task which can only be attempted by those who are skilled and experienced in both extremes. This book sets out to bridge the gap so far as group theory is concerned and does it magnificently. Professor Cotton is to be warmly congratulated on producing a book which holds no terrors for the average chemist but in which there is still much to entertain those who already have some grasp of the principles involved. The author's attitude throughout is to make his point in simple direct language with the minimum of mathematical complexity. At all times the eventual chemical application is kept in mind so that a mathe-matical argument never appears for its own sake. The book is divided into three parts principles, applications and appendix.In the first section the basic theorems of group theory are presented with simple proofs where appropriate. The section ends with a chapter on the role of group theory in quantum mechanics where briefly the use of wave-functions as bases for irreducible representations is explained. The applications of these principles are then described in numerous examples in the second section. Here a bias towards the author's own interests is natural with the result that the chapters on molecular-orbital and ligand-field theories are full and excellent. The appendix consists mainly of character tables and correlation tables ; a removable set of character tables is provided since reference to these is continually necessary in reading the book and applying the principles.Misprints and other irregularities seem generally to be absent. The description of the selection rules for electronic spectra occurs only with reference to metal complexes, whilst the electronic spectra of simple molecules and ions are not mentioned ; neither do the molecular-orbital descriptions of small molecules find much space the majority of the chapter concerned being devoted to cyclic T-systems. These are but minor criticisms; the book, with its excellent la you t clear diagrams and intelligible language deserves nothing but praise. There is little doubt that it will find a ready acceptance among chemists who already have interests in this topic and will do much to kindle a wider interest in this most useful field.There are but few criticisms of this book. C. C. ADDISON CHROMATOGRAPHIC REVIEWS. Volume V. Edited by Michael Lederer. Pp. ix + 224. Amsterdam, London & New York Elsevier Publishing Co. 1963. 60s. Chromatographic Reviews was intended to provide a bound volume of reviews from the Journal OJ' Chromato-graphy which however can no longer publish such reviews. In future Chro~atographic Reviews will there-fore contain only original and unpublished contribu-tions. Meanwhile Volume 5 includes a long original monograph by three British workers from Vitamins Ltd on the relationship of chemical structure to the results of paper chromatography and two new and three pre-viously published reviews. The difficulties of interpreting physical constants derived from mobilities obtained by zone electrophoresis of proteins on paper have long been recognized.In his review Waldmann-Meyer discusses in detail the different factors influencing migration under these conditions and describes the calculation of electro-phoretic mobilities and the evaluation of protein-ion interaction from the observed migration distances 19631 BOOK REVIEWS 423 The description by Arx and Neher of Ciba Ltd of their central laboratory for paper and thin-layer chromato-graphy will make most of us dissatisfied with the primi-tive conditions under which most of us have to carry out such work. The monograph occupies exactly 100 pages of this volume and is an important contribution to the literature of the elucidation of chemical structure from chromato-graphic behaviour.The first section emphasizes the difficulty of obtaining real equilibrium between the paper and the vapour phase by conventional paper-chromatographic methods and describes tankless chro-matography in which a vapour phase is avoided by using an inert non-volatile substance as the stationary phase ; the mobile phase can then be chosen so that there are no problems concerning changes in its composition during separation. The rest of the monograph discusses the results obtained by such a method and first describes chromatography of phenols and related compounds and discusses the use of the group and atomic AR values so obtained and the influence on these of steric and electronic effects. Then follows the application of these values to their relationship to the structure of the tocopherols Vitamins K ubiquinones and ubichro-menols.The relationship between chromatographic behaviour and intramolecular hydrogen bonding is described with special reference to o-hydroxy-aldehydes and esters. The effect of tautomerism is discussed with special reference to 2-hydroxy thiophen p-nitrosophenols and 4-nitroso- 1-naphthol. Tautomerism and intra-molecular hydrogen bonding in the same molecule are illustrated by the o-nitrosophenols and the separation of m- and p-derivatives of benzene by paper chromato-graphy is then considered. The final section considers the chromatography of a series of phenylated p-cresols and provides evidence that carbon hyperconjugation is of importance in determining their R values.Finally there is a bibliography of organic separations by counter-current distribution and reviews of the paper chromatography of oestrogens and of gas chroma-tography in inorganic chemistry. The review of the oestrogen methods is particularly important to clinical chemists and endocrinologists for it describes the separation of many epimeric oestrogens as well as some newly isolated methoxy and hydroxy derivatives. This volume will be of great value not only to those making use of chromatography as a separative procedure but also to those who wish to make use of this valuable technique as a research tool in the elucidation of structure. C. H. GRAY ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. THE BASIC REACTIONS. I>. J. Abbott.Pp. vii + 128. London Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd 1963. This book which purports to be designed for students for the Ordinary National Certificate in chemistry and other comparable courses may have some value to 7s. 6d. those students who are still being taught by the older classical methods of organic chemistry teaching. I t certainly lists the reactions in organic chemistry under the standard headings of groups of compounds classified in the orthodox fashion and this book could well be a useful ‘aide-memoire’ to part-time students who are studying with limited time at their disposal. Criticisms which can be levelled at this book are (a) the complete absence of any modern mechanistic treatment (e.g. on page 84 substitution of aromatic compounds is explained by the old Crum-Brown rule) ; ( b ) there is no mention of free-radical mechanism for the side-chain chlorination of toluene; and (c) on page 91 the reasons given for the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid in the nitration of benzene to mono-nitrobenzene are ludicrous in the light of modern knowledge.I t is also difficult to know why there is no mention of the fluorinated hydrocarbons since these are all as important industrially as the chlorinated ones. There are very few references to polymerization and those that exist are completely out of date. It is also difficult to defend the introductions to the alpha and beta forms of carbohydrates for a book aimed at this level and in any case the formulae given are incomplete and sometimes inaccurate.R. L. ELLIOTT TEACHING CHEMISTRY WITH MODELS. R. T. Sanderson. Pp. ix + 175. Princeton and London: D. Van Nostrand Co. Ltd 1962. Professor Sanderson has produced another highly original and stimulating book for those engaged in teaching chemistry. (His Chemical Periodicity was re-viewed in this Journal in January 196 1 .) Professor Sanderson first describes the particular type of atomic models he has devised. These consist of spheres whose radii are proportional to the covalent radii of the atoms concerned. Small appended spheres represent valency shell electrons (if white) or unoccupied orbitals (if black). The electronegativity of the atom is represented by colouring the spheres on a ‘scale’ ranging from red (positive) through yellow to blue (electronegative) .I t is claimed that these features of atoms are those which determine the composition and the physical and chemical properties of molecules and crystals formed from them. Molecular and crystal models are then described. These consist of the atomic models (sometimes without the appended balls) fastened together. In addition to the illustration of molecular and crystal geometry the polarity of bonds can be inferred from the difference in colour of the adjacent spheres. Very full and helpful instructions are given for the construction of over 400 models including advice on materials (mostly styrofoam) , adhesives and colouring. Several chapters are devoted to the actual use of these models in teaching the chem-istry of important elements notably hydrogen oxygen and the halogens and some specimen student exercises 45s 424 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY are included.The book is fully illustrated with plates in black and white and in colour and the whole work is pervaded by the enthusiasm of a brilliant teacher. The reviewer can make only one objection. Whilst the geometric aspects of the models are excellent it is felt that too much faith is placed in the electronegativity concept and that there is too much mention of the ‘prediction’ of properties of compounds on this basis (the actual properties being fortunately already known). The interest and enthusiasm that will be generated by this book far outweigh this criticism however and many teachers and students are going to be heavily in debt to Professor Sanderson.H. R. JONES EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. Second Edition. W. G. Palmer. Pp. xi + 321. Cam-bridge University Press 1962. The appearance of a second edition 21 years after the first edition was published (even though three reprint-ings were produced during this period) might lead a teacher in this field to expect quite substantial extension to ensure coverage of new topics and to illustrate applications of the wide range of instruments now available to and indeed possessed by university depart-ments and technical colleges. The modifications to the first text are surprisingly slight; the total pagination is the same and very few pages have even one word or punctuation mark changed. A few new up-to-date references are given as well as some modern data such as a new set of redox potentials on p.225. In spite of the omission of such important topics as polarimetry polarography spectroscopy and dipole moments this book is still likely to command a big following because it presents its material with precision and conciseness and contains a nicely balanced mixture of theory and practical details on how to illustrate many basic principles by means of simple often improvised, apparatus. The production and format are very good and the price very reasonable. 32s. 6d. W. ROGIE ANGUS PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED Special Report No. 1 1963. THE DETECTION AND London The Association o f Public Analysts, DETERMINATION OF ANTIOXIDANTS I N FOOD. Pp. 27. 1963. 10s. ANALYSTS VOLUME 1 N O .1. Pp. 24. London: The Assuciation of Public Anabsts 1963. 30s per annum. CLEAN AIR YEAR BOOK 1963-64. Pp. 112. London: National So&& for Clean Air 1963. JOURNAL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF PUBLIC 2s. 6d. NINETY-NINTH ANNUAL REPORT ON ALKALI E T C . WORKS BY THE CHIEF INSPECTORS 1962. Pp. 75. London H.M.S.O. 1963. 5s. SOLUTIONS OF INVERT SUGAR. C. F. Snyder and A. T. Hattenburg. NBS Monograph No. 64. Pp. 6. Washington U.S. Gouernment Printing O@ce, 1963. 1%. REFRACTIVE INDICES AND DENSITIES OF AQUEOUS RARE METAL EXTRACTION BY CHEMICAL ENGI-NEERING TECHNIQUES. International Series of Monographs on Chemical Engineering. Volume 11. W. D. Jamrack. Pp. xi + 360. Oxford Pergamon Press 1963. 70s. THE INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHYS-CAL CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL PHYSICS.Topic I. MATHEMATICAL TECHNIQUES. Edited by H. Jones. Volume IV. MATRICES AND TENSORS. G. G. Hall. Pp. xi + 106. Oxjbrd: Pergamon Press 1963. 42s. THE CONSTITUTION O F GLASSES. A DYNAMIC INTER PRE TATI ON. Volume I. FUND AM ENT A LS AND SOLIDS. W. A. Weyl and E. C. Marboe. New York and London Interscience Publishers 1963. 120s. OF THE STRUCTURE OF INORGANIC LIQUIDS BRITISH STANDARDS 748 1963. Specification for Haemacytorneter Counting Chambers and Dilution Pipettes. Pp. 21. 6s. 1428 Part D2 1963. Specification for Wash-out Pipettes. Microchemical Apparatus Group D Volumetric Apparatus. Pp. 11. 4s. 1428 Part L1 1963. Specification for Micro-Extraction Apparatus. Microchemical Apparatus Group L Extraction Accessories.Specification for Laboratory Sintered or Fritted Filters. Pp. 21. 6s. 1428 Part D4 1963. Specification for Capillary Pipettes. Microchemical Apparatus Group D : Volumetric Apparatus. Pp. 16. 4s. 6d. Recommendations for Letter Symbols Signs and Abbreviations. Part 6. Electrical Science and Engineering. Pp. 5 1. 12s. 6d. Pp. 7. 3s. 1 752 1963. 1991 Part 6 1963. Notice.-Readers are requested to note that from 1 January 1964 textbooks intended for class use will be reviewed in Education in Chemistry and not in this Journal Institute Affairs NOMINATION OF GENERAL MEMBERS OF COUNCIL In accordance with the provisions of By-Law 23 (c) the following General Members of Council are due to retire at the Annual General Meeting on 17 April 1964, and are ineligible for re-election in that capacity or for election as District Members of Council :-Richard Maling Barrer D.SC.SC.D. HON. A.R.c.s. F.R.S. George Henry Bottomlej M.SC. Frmk Hartley B.SC. PH.D. F.P.S. Desmond Gerard O’SulZivan B.SC. PH.D. D.I.c. M.I.BIOL., Ronald Herbert Purcell c.B. B.SC. PH.D. A.R.c.s. D.I.C. Eric Charles Wood B.SC. PH.D. A.R.C.S. In addition David Parker Craig M.SC. PH.D. D.SC,, F.R.A.c.I. who has been elected as a General Member of Council to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Professor E. D. Hughes is due to retire but is eligible for re-election under the provisions of By-Law 2 1. Seven General Members of Council are therefore to be elected at the Annual General Meeting in 1964 to fill these vacancies.The Council will in due come make nominations for this purpose under By-Law 25 (d) . Other nominations under By-Law 26 are now invited and must be delivered at the Institute not later than 1 February 1964. By-Law 26 reads :-26 (1) Any ten corporate members not being Mem-bers of the Council may nominate an eligible Fellow as a candidate for election as a General Member of Council but no corporate member shall concur in nominating more than one such Fellow at any particular election. (2) Any nomination made under this By-Law . . . shall be in the following form :-‘We the undersigned being corporate members of the Royal Institute of Chemistry do hereby certify that A. B. of (registered address) a Fellow of this Institute is, in our estimation a fit and proper person to be a General Member of the Council of the Institute and we do hereby nominate him as a candidate for election as a General Member of the Council.’ (3) Any such nomination may consist of several docu-ments in like form each signed by one or more corporate members and shall be accompanied by a statement by the candidate that he is willing to accept such nomina-tion.When considering making nominations under By-Law 26 corporate members may wish to be reminded that :-(a) Nominations for District Members of Council were invited in October (see J. 359) and the notice F.I.C.I. F.S.D.C. included a complete list of present District Members of Council showing which were ineligible for re-election. ( b ) Present General Members of Council who are due to continue in that capacity after the Annual General Meeting 1964 are :-Until the A.G.M.1965 Professor C. C. Addison, Dr E. N. Allott Mr P. F. Corbett Dr H. M. Glass, Professor H. M. N. H. Irving Miss M. Olliver Dr M. A. T. Rogers. Until the A.G.M. 1966 Dr N. Booth Mr R. C. Chirnside Dr C. L. Cutting Dr D. T. Lewis Professor H. N. Rydon Dr J. E. Salmon Dr D. Woodcock. ( c ) It will be for the Council to make nominations in due course under By-Law 25 to fill vacancies among Officers that will occur at the Annual General Meeting, 1964 through the retirement of the following :-Vice-presidents : Ernest Harrison Cuulson M.SC. A.R.c.s. D.I.C. Sir Christopher Kelk Ingold D.SC. A.R.c.s. D.I.c. F.R.S. Ralph Louis Wain PH.D. D.SC. F.R.S.The following Vice-presidents are due to continue in that office until the A.G.M. 1965 Dr H. J. Barber, Dr R. W. Bolland Dr F. S. Spring. EXAMINATIONS APRIL 1964 Graduate Membership Part I1 The theoretical section of the examination will be held in London and Newcastle upon Tyne and if required in other centres on Monday and Tuesday, 6 and 7 April 1964. Practical exercises will be carried out in London and Newcastle upon Tyne on Wednesday to Saturday, 8 to 11 April inclusive and in London only on Tuesday to Friday 14 to 17 April inclusive. Candidates will be asked to state their preference as to the centre for the theoretical papers and the period and centre for their practical exercises but it must be clearly understood that no guarantee can be given that their wishes will be met.Candidates who have not yet been accepted for examination and who wish to present themselves for this examination should obtain from the Assistant Registrar without delay the prescribed Application Form so as to allow ample time for obtaining the necessary signatures certifying that they have complied with the Regulations concerning their course of training. The completed Application Forms must reach the Institute not later than Monday 6 January, 1964. No application will be considered if received after that date. The last date for the receipt of Entry Forms is Monday 10 February 1964. No entry will be accepted if received after that date. Please note that the revised scale of fees will apply to this examination (see p.426). 42 426 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL EXAMINATIONS 1964 Special Notice Intending candidates for the Part I1 Examination in 1964 should note that there will not be a centre for this examination in Glasgovv in September 1964. The practical section of the examination will be held in London on each occasion as usual and it is expected that there will be additional practical centres at New-castle upon Tyne in April and at Birmingham in September. EXAMINATION AND APPLICATION FEES The Council recently approved an increase in Graduate Membership examination fees from 65 5s. to &7 7s. for Part I and from 610 10s. to L12 12s. for Part I1 of the examination. The increase will apply to the April 1964 and subsequent examinations. At the same time it was decided to make certain changes in the fees payable with applications for membership.The entrance fee and assessment fee will in future be merged into a single non-returnable application fee. In a few instances this will be higher than the total fees previously paid. The revised fees will apply to applications received after 1 January 1964. The Council has felt obliged to make these alterations in order as far as possible to minimize the cost to existing members of holding examinations and dealing with applications. DIPLOMA IN PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS The Diploma is awarded jointly by the Royal Institute of Chemistry and the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain and will be issued to those candidates who satisfy the examiners and are recommended by the Joint Examinations Board which has been set up to conduct the examinations.The Diploma is intended to provide recognition of comprehensive knowledge of and competence in phar-maceutical analysis. 1. 2. 3. REGULATIONS The Diploma examination is open only to (a) Members of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain or ( b ) Graduate Members Associates or Fellows of the Royal Institute of Chemistry. Application for acceptance as a candidate must be made on the prescribed form which may be ob-tained from either the Institute or the Society. The applicant will be required to supply a detailed description of his experience in pharmaceutical analysis. Such experience will be expected to be comprehensive and will normally be acquired during five years of postgraduate work in industrial or other analytical laboratories.Reprints of any INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. original published work may be submitted as relevant additional evidence in support of the application. The applicant must provide with his application, the names and postal addresses of at least two persons who are familiar with his work to whom the Joint Examinations Board may refer. The Joint Examinations Board may at their discre-tion require a candidate to attend an interview, which may take the form of an oral examination, before his application for admission to the Diploma examination can be accepted. The candidate will be expected to be familiar with all aspects of pharmaceutical analysis as set out in Appendix A.The examination will consist of: Section I : Section I I : a paper in chemistry or pharmacy. a theoretical examination comprising sepa-rate written papers in (i) general topics relating to pharmaceutical quality control, (ii) biological and pharmaceutical principles of pharmaceutical analysis and (iii) physical and chemical principles of pharmaceutical analysis each of 3 hours’ duration; a practical test comprising not more than five 7-hour papers. A candidate who is a member of the Society but not of the Institute will be exempted from the paper in pharmacy under Section I but will be required to take the paper in chemistry, unless he has been exempted therefrom under the provisions set out in Appendix B. A candidate who is a member of the Institute but not of the Society will be exempted from the paper in chemistry under Section I but will be required to take the paper in pharmacy, unless he has been exempted therefrom under the provisions set out in Appendix B.The Joint Examinations Board may at their discretion exempt suitably qualified candidates from parts of Section 11. A non-returnable assessment fee of two guineas is payable with an application for acceptance as a candidate. If the application is approved the candidate will be informed as to those papers if any from which he has been exempted and will be sent an entry form for the next available examina-tion which must be returned with the examination fee of twenty guineas before the closing date stated on the form.The examination will be held not more than twice a year at suitable centres in the United Kingdom 9631 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 427 APPENDIX A 1. Relevant sections of the following Acts and of the Regulations derived therefrom The Pharmacy and Poisons Acts The Dangerous Drugs Acts The Pharmacy and Medicines Act The Therapeutic Substances Act The Radioactive Substances Act : The Food and Drugs Act The Merchandise Marks Act The National Health Service Acts. Legisla-tion controlling the addition of preservatives, antoxidants and colouring substances. Laboratory organization with special reference to the selection and maintenance of equipment safety precautions and first-aid. The methods of sampling and estimating toxic vapours and a knowledge of substances having special hazards.The application of statistical methods to analytical procedures and in particular to the design of experiments and the interpretation and assessment of significance of results. The principles of sampling pharmaceutical materials. Packaging materials (glass metal rubber and composite materials) ; the properties and the principal types of containers and closures (bottles, metal boxes and tubes plastic containers board and paper containers caps liners laminated foils, adhesives and aerosol components) ; testing on specification. Factors influencing product stability, including storage conditions. 2. Macroscopical and microscopical recognition of crude drugs in common use; quantitative micro-scopy ; evaluation of materials prepared from natural products including fats fixed and volatile oils waxes balsams and resins and galenicals in current use.The composition and structure of the principal surgical dressings and sutures and the methods of examination. The basic principles of formulation and manu-facture of pharmaceutical preparations including tablets and capsules injections solutions suspensions and emulsions aerosols and sprays powders, ointments and creams; the preservation and sterilization of preparations ; methods of steriliza-tion ; aseptic techniques. The essential charac-teristics of moulds yeasts and bacteria; methods of culture isolation and identification ; sterility tests. Methods for assessing the efficacy of preservatives, antiseptics and disinfectants ; microbiological methods for the assay of antibiotics vitamins and amino acids.The principles and use of biological methods in pharmaceutical analysis including determination of toxicity and pyrogenicity though laboratory ex-perience of such biological methods would not be expected. 3. The chemistry of medicinal and pharmaceutical chemicals in current use with particular reference to the chemically reactive groups which form a basis for the design of analytical procedures including a knowledge of preservatives surface-active agents medicinal and industrial gases dyes and other colouring substances used in pharmacy and medicine. The principles and application of macro-, semimicro- and micro-methods used in pharma-ceutical analysis including determination ofphysical properties ; elemental analysis by classical methods (combustion and wet oxidation) flame photometry and emission spectroscopy (including X-ray excita-tion) ; gravimetric analysis by classical methods, complex formation and thermogravimetry ; volu-metric analysis by titrimetry in both aqueous and non-aqueous solutions using potentiometric coulo-metric high-frequency and conductiometric methods as well as indicators (including complex-forming and fluorescence types) ; specialized physico-chemi-cal techniques such as chromatography (including solid-column gas-liquid thin-layer and ring-oven techniques) manometry (including gas or vapour manipulation) polarography absorptiometry (in the ultra-violet visible and infra-red regions), fluorimetry radioactive and non-radioactive isotope methodology particle-size measurement.A general understanding of the use of X-ray diffraction mass spectrometry nuclear magnetic resonance and electron spin resonance in analysis together with a knowledge of the broad principles of instrument physics. APPENDIX B 1. For exemption from the preliminary paper in ‘chemistry’ a candidate who is not a member of the Institute should provide evidence of appro-priate study and training which has included: modern views on atomic structure; the theory of valency and its application to such concepts as ionization potential electron affinity and electro-negativity ; co-ordination compounds (including examples of complexes exhibiting geometric optical and other types of isomerism) ; structure reactivity and mechanism in organic chemistry; the behaviour of electrolytes ; reaction kinetics and their applica-tion ; absorption phenomena ; phase equilibria and their applications.Such evidence may be by way of oral examina-tion at the discretion of the Joint Examinations Board or proof of possession of a Degree in Chemistry of a British university or its equivalent. An Honours Degree in Pharmacy of a British University in which not more than two main subjects are taken in the final year one of which is pharmaceutical chemistry would be accepted as such an equivalent 428 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL 2. The following Degrees appear to meet these requirements : B.Pharm. London with pharmaceutical chemistry as one of the two third-year Honours subjects; B.Pharm.Nottingham with pharmaceutical chemistry as one of the two third-year Honours subjects; B.Sc. (Pharmacy) Manchester with Hon-ours in pharmaceutical chemistry; B.Sc. (Pharmacy) Glasgow with pharma-ceutical chemistry as a fourth-year Honours subject. k’or exemption from the preliminary paper in ‘pharmacy’ a candidate who is not a member of the Society should produce evidence of appropriate study and training which has included problems of formulation including rate of decomposition in, and stabilization of aqueous and non-aqueous systems ; emulsions and their properties including applications of theory to practice; the principles of tablet manufacture ; use and assessment of mechanical aids in the preparation of ointments creams and pastes ; size-reduction and size-separation ; the properties and uses of surface-active materials ; the principles of posology with particular reference to the more potent drugs.Such evidence may be by way of oral examination, at the discretion of the Joint Examinations Board or proof of possession of a Degree in Pharmacy of a British university or its equivalent. R.I.C. RESEARCH AWARDS Since June 1962 the Research Diploma of the Royal Institute of Chemistry has been awarded to nine candidates. The full names of the candidates are: Geoffrey William Kame G .W. GIRLING J. R. HANSON E. MI. JOHXS W. KERNICK J. E. IIIARRIOTT J. A. OLIVER D. ROBBINS E . J . RUDD hl. SAINSBURY GIRLING James Ralph HANSON, Title of Thesis The Evolution of Volatile Hydrocarbons from Coal The Chemistry of Some Fungal Metabolites The Fractionation and Char-acterization of Histones Pyrimidine-4-carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives The Chemistry of Naphthalene Compounds with special re-ference to the Potential Syn-thesis of Binaphthyls and Dibenzo biphenylenes Studies on some Bicyclic Hy-drocarbons The Chemistry of Calcium Halophosphate Phosphors The Study of the Acylation of Alkenes and CycIoal kenes in The Presence of Friedel-Crafts Catalysts Studies in the Synthesis of Isofiavones INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER Ernest William JOHNS William KERNICK John Ernest MARRIOTT John Anthony OLIVER Derek ROBBINS, Eric James RUDD Malcolm SAINSBURY.Copies of their theses with the exception of that pre-sented by Mr J. R. Hanson on ‘The Chemistry of Some Fungal Metabolites,’ are available for consultation by members. For further details of these see below. Education i n Chemistry.-It is hoped to publish the first number on or about 1 January 1964 subsequent publication dates being 1 April 1 July and 1 October. The cost per annual volume is 40s. ($7) post free (30s. to members of the Institute). I t would greatly assist the office if those who have decided to become regular subscribers would send in their orders and remittances as soon as possible. Lecture Series 1963.-We regret that owing to factors beyond our control the Leicester Symposium papers an ‘Organization for Research’ cannot be included in the 1963 Lecture Series.Their place is now being taken by ‘Photosynthesis,’ by Dr J. Leggett Bailey. Liaison Officers.-The following changes of Liaison Officers in Technical Colleges have been made : Nottingham and District Technical College Dr P. Clarke, FeElow Head of the Department of Chemistry and Biology in succession to Mr J. R. Rowlands. SheJJld College o f Technology Mr C. Walker Fellow, Principal Lecturer in Chemistry in succession to Mr A. B. Angus. Volume Numbers.-Our printer regrets that the Journal volume number was incorrectly given on the covers of the October and November issues. The volume number for 1963 is 87. Members who have their copies bound annually are asked to note this error. Where carried out Technical Department Ben-zole Products Ltd I.C.I.Ltd Akers Research Laboratory Chester Beatty Research In-stitute Royal College of Advanced Technology Salford College of Technology, Leices ter College of Advanced Tech-A.E.I. Lamp and Lighting College of Technology Lan-nology Birmingham Co. Ltd Leicester Chester College of Technology Bristol Supervisors R. P. W. Scott K. H. V. French B. E. Cross J. A. V. Butler J. Clark E. R. Ward P. A. Ongley K. E. Fowler R. C. W. Broadbank N. Jones S. F. Dyke Examiners W. J. Gooderham H. L. Riley D. Woodcock C. H. Hassall N. H. Martin E. Stedman K. Schofield P. I;. Holt J. F. W. McOmie W. J. Hickinbottom L. Crombie Wilson Baker N. N. Greenwood R. C. Chirnside D. H. Hey G.Baddeley W B. Whalley I.. Crombi 19631 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 429 PERSONAL NOTES News of Hon. Fellow Sir John Cockcroft o.M. K.c.B. c.B.E. F.R.s. formally opened Britain’s first university nuclear reactor centre, the Scottish Research Reactor Centre at East Kilbride, on 13 November. University of Sheffield is now assistant professor in the department of microbiology University of Texas. Dr P. Molyneux Associate has relinquished his post as I.C.I. research fellow in the University of Keele to take up an appointment as lecturer in pharmaceutical chemistry physical aspects in the School of pharmacy, Chelsea College of Science and Technology London. Honours and Awards Dr F. H. Cotton Fellow head of the National College of Rubber Technology London has been awarded the Hancock Medal of the Institution of the Rubber Industry for his outstanding services to the Institution and the industry.Dr S. S. M. A. Khorasani Associate lecturer in inorganic chemistry Dacca University Pakistan has been awarded a Swiss Federal Government scholarship to work under Professor G. Schwarzenbach at the Eidg. Technische Hochschule Zurich. hIr F. P. W. Winteringham Fellow has been awarded one of the new Senior Foreign Scientist Fellowships of the National Science Foundation in Washington and will spend one term in the department of entomology, Xorth Carolina State University in 1964. He has just returned from a visit to Ghana and Nigeria at the request of the United Kingdom Cocoa Industry’s Alliance for a study at first hand of the problem of resixtance to insecticides of cocoa-attacking capsids.Societies and Institutions 311 A. I. Coleman Fellow chief executive director of West Norfolk Fertilizers Ltd has been elected Vice-President of the Fertilizer Manufacturers’ Association. Professor J. H. Quastel F.R.s. Fellow professor of biochemistry McGill University Canada and director of the research institute McGill-Montreal General Hospital has been elected President of the Canadian Biochemical Society. Royal Society of Edinburgh.-At the Annual Statutory Meeting of the Society on 28 October the following Fellows were elected to the Council President, Professor E. L. Hirst C.B.E. ; Vice-president Dr Mowbray Ritchie ; Councillors Dr Magnus Pyke and Professor A. Robertson.Educational Dr C. M. Atkinson Fellow head of the department of chemistry at the Derby and District College of Tech-nology has been appointed vice-principal of the Liverpool College of Technology. Dr P. Coackley Associate formerly lecturer in chemistry applied to municipal engineering University of Manchester has been appointed senior lecturer in Public Health Engineering in the civil engineering department of the Royal College of Science and Tech-nology Glasgow. Dr D. S. Hoare Associate formerly with the Agri-cultural Research Council Unit for Microbiology, Dr T. C. Owen Fellow senior lecturer in organic and radiation chemistry Liverpool College of Technology, has been appointed associate professor of organic chemistry at the University of South Florida U.S.A., with effect from 1 January 1964.Dr A. Packter Associate has taken up an appointment as senior lecturer in physical chemistry at West Ham College of Technology. Dr I. H. Qureshi Associate has taken a one-year postdoctoral fellowship in the department of chemistry, University of British Columbia Canada. Mr G. M. Renwick Associate formerly research bio-chemist Union Carbide Research Institute New York, U.S.A. has been appointed to a senior teaching fellow-ship in chemistry at Monash University Australia. Dr R. G. Sutherland Associate has been appointed research fellow at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena U.S.A. Mr A. Taylor FeZZow has taken up an appointment as principal of the Government Technical Training School Ilorin N.Nigeria. Dr J. D. Thornton Fellow reader in chemical engi-neering University of Newcastle has been appointed to the second Chair of Chemical Engineering in the University. Public and Industrial Mr J. M. Blakeway Associate formerly chief chemist, research and development department Colgate-Palm-olive Ltd Salford is now chief chemist research and development Chesebrough-Pond’s Ltd London. Mr J. R. Davies Associate has resigned his post as experimental officer UKAEA Capenhurst Chester to take a post as senior technical officer Natural Rubber Producers’ Research Association Welwyn Garden City. Dr D. A. V. Dendy Associate has left his post as technical officer in the works experimental station, I.C.I. Ltd Dyestuffs Division to take up the post of research officer (chemist) in the East African Industrial Research Organization Nairobi Kenya.Mr M. C. Foster Associate formerly chief analyst, Glaxo-Allenburys (Aust.) Pty Ltd Port Fairy Australia, is now chief chemist Technicon Equipment Proprietary Ltd Lane Cove N.S.W. Australia. Mr J Frisken Associate general manager (production), Fisons Fertilizers Ltd has been appointed to the board. Mr A. G. Gavin Associate has resigned his post as assistant chief chemist Texas Instruments Ltd to become water and effluent chemist Tullis Russell Co. Ltd Markinch 430 JOUNRAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY Mr D. A. G. Gaylard Associate formerly national service supervisor Minnesota Mining and Manufactur-ing Co. Ltd London has been appointed production manager graphic products division of the company at Swansea.Mr V. S. S. Gopalan Associate has resigned his post with Esso Standard Eastern Inc. to become technical director of Stauffer Chemicals Pvt Ltd Bombay. Mr B. A. Graves Associate formerly senior analyst, Associated Semi-Conductor Manufacturers Ltd South-ampton is now deputy chief chemist Texas Instruments Ltd Bedford. Mr J. Gray Associate is now manager product control department Canada Dry Ltd Toronto Canada. Dr M. H. Hall Fellow has been appointed scientific adviser to Gallaher Ltd and associated companies. He was formerly chief chemist. Mr D. L. Maker Associate has resigned his post as chief chemist to the River Dove FYater Board and the Leicester Water Department to take up an appointment as chemist to the Water Authority of the Hong Kong Government.Dr R. K. Maller Associate has relinquished his post as lecturer in the department of biochemistry Indian Institute of Science Bangalore and has taken the post of scientist in charge of the tracer laboratory Ciba of India Ltd Bombay. Mr S. H. Melbourne Associate has been appointed senior research chemist with the Steel Co. of Wales Ltd, Tinplate Division Swansea. Professor R. A. Morton F.R.s. Fellow professor of biochemistry in the University of Liverpool has been appointed chairman of the Food Additives and Con-taminants Sub-committee of the Food Standards Committee. Mr G. 0. Moxley Fellow is now management consultant with Urwick Orr & Partners Ltd London. Mr W. Oldfield Associate formerly chemist patents department Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co.Ltd is now with Eli Lilly Research Laboratories Ltd. Mr L. Pearl Associate formerly agricultural chemist, Federal Ministry of Agriculture Causeway S. Rhodesia, is now research chemist with the Ministry of Defence, Tel Aviv Israel. Mr J. B. D. Robinson Fellow has been appointed deputy director of the East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organization Kikuyu Kenya. This is an additional appointment to his post as head of the chemistry division. Mr K. M. Roch Associate has been appointed principal technical officer as section head in the process development department Midland Silicones Ltd Barry. Dr D. Stewart Fellow has been appointed managing director of International Gas Transport Maatschappij N.V.He was formerly chief chemist Scottish Oils Ltd. Professor R. L. Wain F.R.s. Fellow is to represent the Royal Society and present the opening paper at the Conference of the Science Association of Nigeria to be held at Zaria N. Nigeria from 18 to 21 December. Mr A. A. K. Whitehouse Fellow formerly chief chemist Ferodo Ltd has joined Scott Bader & Co. Ltd, Wellingborough as deputy manager polyester division. Dr T. D. Whittet Fellow group chief pharmacist and lecturer in pharmacy University College Hospital, London has been elected a member of the New York Academy of Science. Mr L. Williamson Fellow general manager Smith Reichhold Colours (Aust.) Pty Ltd has been appointed to the board. Mr M. J. Zissell (J. 393) has not resigned from Coates Bros & Co.Ltd but is manager of one of the laboratories of the Central Resin Division at their branch factory at St. Mary Cray. The error is regretted. Food Standards Committee.-Mr H. C. Moir, Fellow has been appointed to the Committee and Mr C. A. Adams c.B.E. Fellow and R/lr A. Glover, o.B.E. Fellow have relinquished their appointments on completion of their periods of office. Retirements Mr D. C. Brown Associate has retired from his post with Hanger’s Paints Ltd Stoneferry Hull. Dr R. 0. Gibson Fellow is to retire at the end of this year from his post as scientific adviser Associated Octel Co. Ltd Ellesmere Port. Dr L. J. Harris Fellow director of the Dunn Nutri-tional Laboratory Cambridge retired on 29 August. Dr H. S. Hirst Fellow has retired from his post as director and general manager I.C.I.Ltd Severnside Works Bristol. LIFE MEMBERSHIP FEES The Life Membership Fee payable by a Fellow, Associate or Licentiate of the Institute is at present determined by the formula L being the Life Membership Fee in pounds when a is the age in years on 31 December of the year preceding that in which the Fee is paid. For Fellows Associates and Licentiates who are 60 or more years of age at that date 1/60 of the standard Life Membership Fee is remitted in respect of each complete year of corporate membership. On payment of a Life Membership Fee liability to pay further annual subscriptions ceases irrespective of a subsequent change in grade of membership ; entitlement to the normal privileges of membership is not affected.Life Membership Fees to be effective on 1 January in any year must be paid before 1 July in that year. L =zz 4(70 - a Section Activities BELFAST AND DISTRICT The first meeting sponsored by the Section this session was held in the Chemistry Lecture Theatre Queen’s University on 22 October. Mr R. Heron director of ballistics research at the Ministry of Aviation’s Rocket Propulsion Estab-lishment Aylesbury gave a lecture entitled ‘Solid propellants for rocket motors.’ Mr S. McConaghy, Vice-chairman of the Section presided. Mr Heron discussed the main design features of solid-propellant rocket motors by reference to the fundamental principles of rocket propulsion and the appropriate gas-dynamic equations. Problems involved in the development and manu-facture of such motors were reviewed with particular emphasis upon those arising from the special nature of the solid-propellant combustion process.For example, the effects of high-transverse gas velocities on propellant burning rates were described and an account of some of the experimental techniques used to evaluate these effects was presented. Experimental investigations of the related problem of unstable combustion were also described. The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr McConaghy. The Gibberallins. At the meeting of the Section held on 12 November in the Lecture Theatre Queen’s University Professor D. J. Carr Head of the Botany Department in the University gave a lecture entitled ‘The gibberellins 1963.’ Mr W.F. Kirkpatrick, Section Chairman presided. Professor Carr began by pointing out that the gibberel-lins occurred in green plants and were concerned with growth and development. Their study was started by Kurosawa in Formosa and taken up later by Sumiki in Japan. The European approach to the subject had been via indole-acetic acid and related auxins. The gibberellin family consists of two main types-Gibberel-lin A and Gibberellin B-but the latter had no interest in this context. Gibberellin A was now known to exist in nine varieties differing mainly in the substituents at points R and R’ in the following formula : Solid Propellants f o r Rocket Motors. Very slight differences in the G molecule had quite remarkable influences on their actions in plants and many of these were described.Professor Carr then mentioned the modern work being done in his department and elsewhere. He gave details of methods of assay using dwarf-pea plants and of the difficulties involved. The actual effects of the compounds on plant physiology were discussed in detail and the boundaries of knowledge in the subject were very clearly defined. The Chairman proposed the vote of thanks. BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLANDS Papers by Local Members The opening meeting of the Winter programme of lectures was held in the University of Birmingham on 9 October and concerned the ‘Role of the chemist in the Midlands metallurgical industries.’ Three chemists from different laboratories in the Midlands area pre-sented short papers on the chemical problems presented by their particular industries.The first paper was given by Mr J. C. Cotton of Imperial Metal Industries (Kynoch) Ltd who in introducing his subject indicated that in an essentially metallurgical concern the chemist covered two main fields of interest to provide an analytical service and to give advice on corrosion of metals and protective aspects. To this should also be added control of quality of water and of effluents. After paying tribute to the service rendered by the analytical chemist Mr Cotton dealt mainly with corrosion problems. The fundamental electrochemical nature of the corrosion process was summarized and the means of suppressing the anodic and cathodic reactions by means of inhibitors was described. Use of inhibitors was illustrated by reference to the function of red lead primers for steel while the development of benzotriazole as an inhibitor to suppress corrosion of copper was described in detail.It was shown that this reagent was capable of forming an insoluble complex with copper which functioned as a protective barrier, possessing favourable electrochemical characteristics. The subject matter was illustrated by slides and by typical examples of the beneficial effect of inhibitors. The next paper was given by Mr H. Green of The British Cast Iron Research Association deputizing for Mr W. E. Clarke who was indisposed. In describing the analytical problems associated with cast iron, Mr Green indicated that cast iron is basically an ironlcarbon alloy containing elements such as silicon, phosphorus manganese and sulphur in varying amounts.Many other elements may be added in various quantities to impart special properties such as heat-resistance, corrosion-resistance or machinability. Because excess carbon in iron over that which can be present as carbide, forms a separate phase special precautions are necessary when sampling. Some sampling techniques particu-larly for carbon samples were described and examples of analytical separations were given including volatili-zation of chromium before determination of titanium, liquid ion-exchange of zirconium determination of magnesium after zinc-oxide separation and after solvent extraction procedures by E.D.T.A. titration. 43 432 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER The last paper was given by Mr T.E. Such of W. Canning and Co. Ltd who described the role of the chemist in the electroplating industry. Mr Such began by discussing the various reasons why electroplating was performed. These reasons could be divided into three main categories-corrosion protec-tion decoration and engineering purposes. In spite of the fact that the aim of electrodeposition was to combine the good properties of two or more different metals, there were far more chemists than metallurgists in the industry. This was due to the great influence that the chemistry and electrochemistry of the electrolyte have on the properties of the electrodeposits. Techniques for determining and modifying these properties were briefly described bright nickel plating being taken as a typical example.A brisk and lively discussion followed these papers and the Chairman Professor J. C. Robb closed the pro-ceedings. BRISTOL AND DISTRICT The Chemistry of Colour Photography. The opening meeting of the session was held at Street on 3 October, by courtesy of Messrs C. gt G. Clarke who arranged refreshments before the lecture. Dr R. A. Jeffreys of the Kodak Research Laboratories lectured on ‘The chemistry of colour photography’ to an audience of some 45 members and friends. The principles of subtractive colour processes were briefly explained. Dr Jeffreys described with demonstrations current reversal-colour materials in which the three dyes are formed by pro-cessing in separate developers containing the colour formers and also reversal and negative-positive materials in which the colour formers are incorporated in the emulsions with consequent simplified processing.In-tegral masking with coloured colour formers in negative-positive materials was explained. The chemical char-acteristics and properties of spectral sensitizers devel-opers and colour formers and the reaction mechanism of coupling development were discussed. The lecture was enthusiastically received and an interesting discussion followed. CUMBERLAND AND DISTRICT On 18 October at the Windscale Club Seascale with Mr F. J. Woodman in the Chair, Mr H. Barker from the British Museum lectured on ‘Radio-carbon dating’ (see J. 1962 199). After questions from members the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr R.Powell. I t is hoped to produce Mr Barker’s lecture as a full-length feature article. Radio-Carbon Dating. DUBLIN AND DISTRICT A very successful Careers Sym-posium was held in the Chemistry Department Uni-versity College Dublin on I November. About 200 senior school students attended. Following a short Careers Symposium. introduction by Mr D. Crowley Section Chairman, Mr D. G. Chisman Education Officer gave an address entitled ‘The profession of chemistry.’ He described the various careers which are available to the professional chemist with special emphasis on the educational paths to the profession. He also emphasized the important role of the technician in chemistry. Immediately after Mr Chisman’s Lecture the meeting was opened to discussion.A panel of chemists represent-ing different categories within the profession answered questions on a wide variety of topics ranging from the nature of a scientific thesis to international professional standards. The afternoon session was devoted to less formal individual discussion and a short film show. EAST ANGLIA Polymer Crystallization. The first meeting of the session was held at Manningtree on 26 September by kind invitation of B.X. Plastics Ltd. Dr A. Keller of the University of Bristol gave a lecture entitled ‘Recent problems in polymer crystallization.’ Dr J. W. Corran was in the Chair and the vote of thanks was proposed by Dr S. H. Pinner. After the lecture a Special General Meeting was held to consider a proposal by the Committee concerning changes in the Section Rules.The changes involved combining the offices of Hon. Secretary and Hon. Treasurer and the introduction of a new office of Hon. Assistant Secretary. The A.G.M. was held in Ipswich on 29 October when the Section was pleased to welcome the President Professor H. J. EmelCus, The Officers elected were Chairman Dr J. W. Corran; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer Mr R. J. Nunn; Hon. Assistant Secretary Mr E. P. Underwood. Professor A. R. Katritzky and Mr C. Macfarlane were elected Members of the Committee. Mr H. S. Hunt was elected Hon. Auditor. After the business meeting Professor EmelCus gave a talk entitled ‘Examinations,’ in which he considered various aspects of the examinations of the Institute. After the talk there was a very lively discussion in which several members took part.The proposal was approved. Annual General Meeting. C.B.E. F.R.S. Mr C. Hall proposed the vote of thanks. EAST MIDLANDS Organic Chemistry at Pre-University Level The University of Leicester acted as hosts to the second conference to be organized by the Section on behalf of the Institute and the Association for Science Education, this time on the teaching of organic chemistry. Firstly the universities presented their viewpoints and ideas upon subjects and methods of presentation and secondly the schools discussed the inter-relationship 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 433 between university requirements examination syllabuses and restrictions imposed by the pupils’ ability equip-ment available and modes of presentation in vogue.Both groups wished to ensure that what was taught in the universities should follow without any sudden break from the ideas imparted in the schools. Dr P. Sykes (Cambridge University) said that students coming up to university frequently lack understanding of elementary physico-chemical principles ; this was unfortunate since chemical reactions could be largely interpreted in terms of bond characteristics. I t was a dangerous precept Dr Sykes claimed to set carbon on a different plane from other elements; carbon compounds could be introduced at an early stage of the course as being representative of covalency. Individual pro-perties of compounds should not be emphasized but, rather generalizations of the behaviour of functional groups (perhaps more important the types of linkages involved) and the mechanics of the reactions which compounds undergo.To reduce the degree of abstrac-tion which is common in the teaching of the subject a stereochemical approach is most desirable. Further some understanding of electronegativity is valuable for an appreciation of bond properties. With such an understanding reactions among carbon com-pounds can be presented under four types-displace-ment addition elimination and re-arrangement-and as being stimulated by three types of reagent-negatively polarized positively polarized or less commonly free radicals. Professor L. Hunter (University of Leicester) sup-ported Dr Sykes’s comments on the need for an early appreciation of spatial factors when he spoke on ‘The hydrogen bond in organic chemistry.’ The concept of a ‘divided valency’ for hydrogen was first put forward by Odd0 to explain some of the properties of an azo-derivative of eugenol.The period 1920-40 saw the accumulation of much evidence of hydrogen bonding, particularly from studies on molecular association where apparent molecular weight is determined cryoscopically in inert solvents as a function of concentration. Three types of compound can be distinguished (i) compounds associated through hydrogen atoms ; molecular weight increases with concentration and it is incorrect to speak of a finite molecular weight; (ii) those which dimerize, such as the carboxylic acids; and (iii) non-associated types. In addition to intermolecular hydrogen bonding, intramolecular bonding can occur the work of Sidgwick on the nitrophenols was instanced-o-nitrophenol being hydrogen- bonded and unimolecular whereas fi-nitro-phenol forms an intermolecularly-bonded linear polymer.The stereochemical influence is of obvious importance in this case as it is in explaining the strength of hydrogen-bonded carboxylic acids. The concept of the hydrogen bond has thus been useful in providing a correlation of many observations on molecular properties not previously explained, including those relating to clathrate formation. Some most imaginative and thought-provoking ideas were put forward by Mr B. J. Stokes (King’s College School Wimbledon) particularly in his advocacy of the inclusion of ‘organic’ topics in the ‘0’ level syllabus.Classes at this level contain a few who will be future chemistry specialists and many for whom the ‘0’ level chemistry examination will be the end of their contact with the subject. Since three out of every four students are in this latter group the course should be principally designed for them to give them some idea of scientific method and the place of chemistry in the world. Chem-istry can be made to live for them by taking examples from everyday life-many of which must of necessity, be ‘organic.’ The speaker gave it as his opinion that future syllabuses would recognize the fact that the organic-inorganic division was untenable and would show that at ‘0’ level, general chemical knowledge rather than chemistry was being instilled.The final speaker was hlr A. C. Cavell (Uppingham School) who discussed practical chemistry in the sixth forms making in particular a plea for an investigational bias in all practical work. Experiments were described in which pupils elucidated many of the properties of glycine as for example conductometric measurements to demonstrate the zwitterion effect. Similarly pupils could be stimulated to suggest experiments aimed at differentiating between compounds having identical molecular formulae and again to deduce association from partition and molecular-weight measurements. Mr Cavell emphasized the place of physical methods in organic investigations. The importance of developing ‘technique’ was stressed, as was the need to help pupils express themselves ade-quately in written reports of practical work.Imagina-tive teaching and a revised syllabus could lead to great improvements in the standard of school practical chemistry. The discussion revealed a dilemma facing teachers at the school level how best to facilitate the change from teaching a descriptive sectionalized chemistry to teaching it as a unified subject and from an essentially theoretical viewpoint. There was general agreement that what was taught in schools should be related to university requirements but some disquiet since present teaching methods were not wholly adequate. There was a strong demand for modification of the syllabus and for improved teaching methods and techniques. Dr R. F. Phillips and Mr L. R. Middleton acted as Chairmen of the morning and afternoon sessions, respectively.The Section announced during the conference arrangements to circularize schools in the area wit 434 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER notices of Institute meetings and other activities with the object of fostering closer relations with the teaching profession. HULL AND DISTRICT In 1958 actinomycin was shown to prevent the Workers are now Almost the entire field of gram-positive and gram-development of tumours in mice. looking for other antibiotics with similar properties. iWan-Made Fibres. At a meeting held at the North Lindsey Technical College Scunthorpe on 10 October, Mr W. R. Beath of Courtaulds Ltd lectured on this topic. Two groups of fibres were discussed the re-generated cellulose type and the elastomeric group.Mr Beath traced the development of rayon from the relatively weak fibres first produced some 70 years ago to the modern fibres used extensively today. In the original process a solution of sodium cellulose xanthate in dilute caustic soda was extruded through a spinnerette into an acid bath where the cellulose was regenerated in filament form. By addition of a variety of compounds to the regenerating bath or to the spinning solution the process of regeneration has been modified to give fibres with different properties e.g. fibres showing high tenacity, high abrasive resistance high wet modulus permanent crimp and so on. Fibres of the elastomeric group are produced by treating polyethers with di-iso-cyanates to give poly-urethanes; yarns of this type have high extensibility (500-600 per cent).They have a greater modulus than rubber can be dyed and show greater resistance to chemicals. This group of fibres already used for corsetry and stocking manufacture will play an impor-tant part in the future. Mr Beath answered questions concerning washability, acid resistance fire resistance and the dyeing of various types of fibres. The meeting was concluded by a film showing the development of a plantation and pulp mill in Africa. The vote of thanks to the speaker was proposed by Mr J. Young. The Chairman was Dr T. S. Harrison. Natural and Synthetic Antibiotics. A joint meeting with the Hull Branch of the Pharmaceutical Society was held at the Hull College of Technology on 13 November, when Dr IF.A. Robinson director of Twyford Labora-tories Ltd lectured on ‘Natural and synthetic antibiotics.’ Dr Robinson outlined the development of methods for the production of natural and synthetic antibiotics e.g. the penicillins streptomycin chloramphenicol and tetracyclines and referred to some of the problems encountered in elucidating the formulae of these complex chemicals. The molecule of the penicillins had been shown by X-ray crystallography to contain the unique beta-lactam ring. Stimulus to the search for new antibiotics was given by the recognition that bacteria develop resistance to those already known and in use. Many semi-synthetic and bio-synthetic antibiotics were produced some showing higher antibacterial activity than others.Even those of little commercial importance may be of value in recent studies on the structure of bacteria. negative bacteria can be effectively attacked by the use of one or more of the antibiotics at present known. Work in the antibiotic field is still very active and important discoveries are expected in the near future. Mr L. Booth Chairman of the Hull Branch of the Pharmaceutical Society proposed the vote of thanks. LEEDS AREA Annual General Meeting. The A.G.M. was held on 18 November at the University of Leeds. Professor H. J. Emelkus c.B.E. F.R.s. President was the guest of the Section on this occasion. Officers for the new session are Chairman Mr W. Stones; Vice-chairman, Dr R. L. Elliott; Hon. Secretary-Treasurer Mr G.J. Weston; Assistant Secretary Mr E. Coates. New Committee members are Dr A. T. Austin Mr R. 33. Beanlands Dr H. A. Fisher and Dr M. Kapel. Messrs J. Barritt and R. I(. Fourness were re-elected Hon. Auditors. Looking Ahead in Inorganic Chemistry. After the A.G.M. Professor Emelkus gave a lecture entitled ‘Looking ahead in inorganic chemistry.’ As an introduction he con-sidered the general advances in inorganic chemistry made since pre-war days and then turned to a particular discussion of the compounds of the noble gases. He stated that some at least of these compounds could have been prepared some 25 years ago had chemists not been so tied to the idea of the inert character of the elements. In fact Pauling in 1933 had made remarkable predictions about possible compounds which were only now being prepared.The moral to be drawn from this said Professor Emel&us was that we should not be put off by preconceived ideas but we should get into the laboratories and do the experiments. In conclusion some topics were put forward as a guide to future developments including chemistry in molten salts and metals and high-temperature chemistry. After an interesting discussion Mr W. A. Wightman proposed the vote of thanks. LIVERPOOL AND NORTH-WESTERN Chairman’s Address. The Section Chairman Dr R. 0. Gibson gave a lecture on 3 October entitled ‘The pre-history of polythene.’ Dr Gibson together with E. W. Fawcett discovered polyethylene or polythene at Winnington in 1933. He gave an interesting personal insight into the way in which other people’s work and his own training led to the research work which by accident gave a smal 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 435 sample of a waxy polymer.This was eventually followed up and developed by other chemists. Dr Gibson’s lecture will be published in the 1964 Lecture Series. Lecture-Demonstration f o r VI Formers. The Section held another successful lecture-demonstration on 1 1 October at the Donnan Laboratories Liverpool when Professor C . C. Addison University of Nottingham spoke on ‘Reactions in inorganic solvents other than water.’ He considered (1) Molecular liquids resembling water in some respects; (2) Molten salts ionic in structure; and (3) Liquid metals. Liquid ammonia an example of the first type had strong solvent action for highly electropositive metals, e.g.sodium ; addition of an ammonium salt (correspond-ing to an acid) resulted in the brisk evolution of hydrogen; the reaction could be followed as a titration using phenolpthalein as indicator. In passing Professor Addison mentioned the large-scale use of Na/K at Dounreay and the problems this introduced. He then dealt with reactions in liquid N,O,; all solvents had ‘danger points,’ e.g. N,O reacts with aniline with tremendous vigour. Ethyl acetate greatly enhanced the ionization of N204 to NO+ and NO,- and then the liquid became a good solvent for copper. From such a solution anhydrous copper nitrate which vaporizes unchanged and a number of other anhydrous nitrates had been prepared. As examples of molten salts he used LiNO,/KNO, eutectic a clear liquid at about 2OO0C and LiCl/KCl, a solvent for actinon compounds.Finally the ‘uncomplicated’ nature of liquid metals as solvents sometimes led to surprising differences in reactions e.g. barium in liquid Na reacts readily with nitrogen to give Ba,N not Ba,N,. Professor Addison and Dr N. Logan who assisted with the demonstrations were warmly thanked by Mr. J. Dransfield Quarry Bank School Liverpool. A meeting jointly for teachers of chemistry and mathematics was held in the Donnan Laboratories University of Liverpool on 2 1 October. Dr A. F. Wells of I.C.I. Ltd Dyestuffs Division, spoke on ‘Geometry and chemistry.’ He discussed topological considerations polyhedra, repeating patterns packing of spheres and symmetry.He showed how there were often different ways of treating a particular problem which led essentially to the same result. Dr Wells regretted that non-Euclidean geometry was rarely if ever taught in schools but thought that there would be no special difficulties. In treating the packing of spheres he showed how departures from the Law of Constant Composition were to be expected and con-cluded with an example of the practical use of ideas of spatial symmetry applied to the well-known chlorine hydrate. This compound was made up of 46 water Geometry and Chemistry. molecule units having 6 ‘holes’ large enough to accom-modate chlorine molecules; the compound did not therefore correspond to the hexahydrate originally formulated. A discussion followed and the proceedings included reference to models brought by H.R. Jones (Carlett Park) and A. C. IC’lcGowan (Birkenhead Technical College). The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr H. L. Heys. Stereochemistry. Professor W. B. Whalley lectured to the Section on ‘Stereochemistry and reaction mechanism in organic chemistry’ on 14 November at Widnes College of Further Education. Organic reactions may be divided into relatively few mechanistic types substitution elimination and re-arrangement. However elimination and addition are essentially the reverse of each other while re-arrange-ment may be regarded as substitution by one part of a molecule into another position of the same molecule; hence there are effectively two major types of reaction.Substitution can occur by two mechanisms uni-molecular and bimolecular and where substitution takes place at an asymmetric carbon atom these mechanisms often give rise to racemization and in-version respectively. If the reaction site in a molecule cannot become planar or be inverted then it can be predicted that the molecule will not readily undergo substitution. This can be illustrated by examples of ‘birdcage’ molecules and various natural products which have a rigid structure. Certain hydroxy compounds when treated with the normal dehydrating catalysts do not undergo dehydra-tion but re-arrangement. Their epimers however, undergo elimination. The only difference between these molecules lies in the relative positions of the groups. For elimination to occur the groups con-cerned must be in the trans position and they must be co-planar.On the other hand pyrolytic dehydration occurs with cis groupings. Professor Whalley illustrated these concepts by many examples drawn from complex molecules in which the necessary stereochemical con-ditions are established. The vote of thanks to Professor Whalley was proposed by Dr F. E. Coleman. LONDON Anaesthetics. On 7 October Dr J. W. Haworth lectured at Ewe11 County Technical College on this subject. The narcotic properties of certain plants such as poppy and mandrake were known to physicians in ancient times but as there was no means of assessing potency they were not considered safe for surgical anaesthesia. I t was not until the nineteenth century with the discovery of nitrous oxide ether and chloroform tha 436 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER the techniques of anaesthesia by inhalation began to be developed.With improvements in methods of admin-istration ether and nitrous oxide have been in continued use up to the present day the latter mainly in dentistry. Attempts to produce better anaesthetics met with little success until the recent discoveries of cyclopropane and the organic fluorine compound fluothane. Fluothane is a very efficient anaesthetic and unlike cyclopropane it is non-inflammable. Research continues in the field of fluorine compounds. Premedication with a mixture of morphine and hyoscine followed by the barbiturate compound pen-tothal before administration of gaseous anaesthetic is now a common practice.This promotes smooth induction of anaesthesia and reduces undesirable after-effects. The mechanism of anaesthesia in the body is not yet fully understood. I t has been suggested that anaesthetics cause diminished oxidation in cells or that they dissolve in intracellular lipids but there is probably no simple mechanism which explains the action of all anaesthetics. Chromato~ra~h~c Methods. A colloquium led by two local members was held at the Research Station, Spillers Ltd Cambridge on 10 October. Mr E. I. Williams spoke first on paper and thin-layer chromatography as applied to problems in food chem-istry e.g. the examination of food colours sugars in soya beans the detection of lactose in milk loaves and identification of acid components in certain emulsifiers.Concerning the thin-layer method Mr Williams said that elaborate apparatus for preparing the stationary phase was not always essential. Later he demonstrated the rapidity of separation. Mr E. D. Chilwell described the gas-liquid chromato-graphy of trace quantities of pesticides and herbicides. For analysis of residues of triazine-based and 2 4-D types of herbicides an argon ionization detector was used. With a tritium electron source and nitrogen carrier specific detection of chlorine-containing insecti-cides and organic phosphorus compounds (where the response was less) was made possible by the electron-capture effect and was sensitive down to 1 part in 100 million. The technique of using a related compound as an internal standard or ‘marker’ was shown in a number of slides.The colloquium included contributions by Dr N. W. Daniels Dr H. Egan and Dr C. H. Lea and drew attention to the possibility that only the surface area of a thin-layer chromatogram was active its thickness not therefore being critical. Diacetyl had been shown to exhibit an electron-capture effect during flavour research on aliphatic carbonyl compounds. A flame ionization detector due to J. C. Sternberg was mentioned as being applicable to the analysis of chlorine and phos-phorus compounds. The vote of thanks was proposed by Dr A. J. Duke. Carbanions to Carbenes. On 17 October Professor R. N. Haszeldine of the University of Manchester. lectured to the Section on this topic at Brighton.Four types of intermediate may be involved in organic reactions carbonium ions R,C+ carbanions R3C- free radicals R3C or carbenes R2C. Carbonium ions free radicals or carbenes are important in hydrocarbon reactions but carbanions seldom are. Study of fluoro-carbon chemistry has now shown that carbonium-ion intermediates are now not favoured but carbanions, radicals and carbenes play an important role. The reasons for this were discussed and it was pointed out that organic fluorine compounds enable these inter-mediates to be studied in detail. The speaker then emphasized that fluorine was not a rare chemical and showed how fluorocarbons fluoro-olefins fluoro-dienes and aromatic fluorine compounds could be synthesized by carbanions radicals or carbenes prepared in turn from simple organic fluorine compounds in which the fluorine was usually introduced by the use of hydrogen fluoride.Reactions of the olefins dienes and aromatic fluorine compounds were interpreted mechanistically, and qualitative predictions of the position of nucleo-philic attack on polyfluoroaryl compounds were shown to compare favourably with the experimental results. The speaker finally described and discussed some of the numerous industrial applications of organic fluorine compounds. Aromatic Fluorocarbon Chemistry. On 24 October, Professor J. C. Tatlow lectured to the Kent Sub-section at the Medway College of Technology. After a brief historical introduction Professor Tatlow described the more important methods of synthesis of aromatic Auoro-compounds in current use.In parti-cular the defluorination of perfluoroalicyclics and the dehydrofluorination of the corresponding partially-fluorinated compounds were both shown to provide effective synthetic routes the starting materials in each case being prepared by fluorinating aromatic compounds with for example high-valency transition-metal fluorides. This was followed by an account of the reactions of hexafluorobenzene which demonstrated the ease of replacement of fluorine by nucleophilic reagents. Professor Tatlow then turned to the directive influences of substituent atoms and groups in for example, pentafluorobenzene derivatives and showed that these could be largely rationalized in terms of electron withdrawal by the individual fluorine atoms coupled with the normal electronic character of the substituent, particularly where the latter was marked; thus the direct amination of pentafluoro-nitrobenzene produces a mixture of 0- and p-amino-derivatives whereas amination of pentafluoroaniline yields mainly the rn-diamine.The lecture ended with a reference to the formation of perfluorobenzyne (shown to undergo the usual benzyn 1 963 J SECTION ACTIVITIES 437 reactions) and the interest and evident enjoyment of the candidates with the general market rather than with an audience- was reflected in a lively period of discussion. Annual Dinner and Dance. The Annual Dinner and Dance was held at the Waldorf Hotel on 26 October, Dr J. E. Salmon Chairman of the Section presiding.Mr P. F. Corbett Vice-chairman proposing the Toast to the Institute framed his remarks around a quotation from Francis Bacon. The President Pro-fessor H. J. EmelCus c.B.E. F.R.s. referred in his reply to the Robbins Report saying it was already evident that this provided an attractive band wagon to many interested parties. There was no fear of the Institute indulging in such get-rich-quick activities. Proposing the Toast to the Guests Dr Salmon said it gave him particular pleasure to welcome the Principal Guest Mr Austen H. Albu M.P. and it was a delight to have our President and Mrs EmelCus with the Section for the first time. Other guests included Mr A. J. Gait, Chairman of the London Section Society of Chemical Industry and Dr H. J. T. Ellingham O.B.E.Mr Albu replying on behalf of the guests briefly outlined the history of technical education. He regarded the Robbins Report as a milestone for it combined the two cultures of science and liberal arts. He was particularly pleased to note the recommendations concerning the status for Colleges of Advanced Tech-nology which were now winning a hard fight for recognition. The part played by the professional institutions such as the Institute must be equally recognized and he compared the situation in this country with that in France where he felt such bodies had a higher status than universities. hlanagement Selection. On 29 October Mr R. A. Denerley of Management Selection Ltd gave an interesting talk on this subject at the Mid-Herts College of Further Education Welwyn Garden City.Mr Denerley said that a systematic approach may be used in staff selection which could be enumerated (i) analysis of the problem and diagnosis of the require-ments ; (ii) assembling of the candidates; (iii) assessment; and (iv) decision. Under the first heading Mr Denerley detailed a ‘seven-poin t plan’ including such items as physical attributes academic and specialist achievements general intelligence disposition and extra-mural interests. Emphasis on these points varies of course with each particular post. Under ‘assembling of candidates’ he emphasized the importance of an accurately and properly worded advertisement in the correct advertising media. On the subject of assessment the interview should have three aims to assess the person’s suitability; to give the man an accurate picture of the job; and to ensure that the interviewee feels he has had a fair deal.Dealing with ‘decision’ Mr Denerley said that it was often more pertinent to compare the standard of the artificial standard based on personal opinions. Recent Advances in In fra-Red Spectroscopy. A meeting was held on 31 October at Brunel College when the speaker was Dr L. J. Bellamy. Dr Bellamy illustrated the contribution made by infra-red spectroscopy to a wide range of chemical problems beginning with some hydrogen-bonding phenomena. The broad hydrogen-bonded 0-H band of carboxylic acids could be inter-preted in terms of contributions from cyclic and open-chain dimeric structures these two forms giving bands at different frequencies.Measurement of the inten-sities of the 0-H vibrations of the monomeric and hydrogen-bonded forms of alcohols and phenols as a function of concentration indicates that the hydrogen-bonded forms of these molecules are open-chain rather than cyclic structures. The part played by the hydrogen bond in the genetic code model of Watson and Crick was also discussed. Some illustrations of the use of group frequencies followed with a discussion of the correlations which exist between group-frequency varia-tions and other chemical properties. Some instances cited were the variation in the 0-H frequency in acids as a function of dissociation constant and the variation of C=O frequency in carbonyl compounds as a result of contributions to the structures from the two resonance forms >C=O and >C-0.Finally solvent effects upon infra-red frequencies were mentioned with parti-cular reference to the use of solvent shifts in problems of band assignment. + -Mr G. Smith proposed the vote of thanks. Explosives in the Service of Man. Lt Col B. D. Shaw once more delighted the Section with his presentation ‘Explosives in the service of man’ at Hatfield College of Technology on 7 November (see J. 1962 104). Dr J. Haslam presided and the vote of thanks was given by Mr D. Squirrel. Film Show. A film show was held at Norwood Technical College on 12 November. The Section was welcomed by Mr M. A. Fill Head of the Chemistry Department and the Chair was taken by Dr J. H. Pryor, chairman of the films sub-committee.The following films were shown ‘Raw Materials and Refining,’ ‘Analysis by Mass,’ ‘Watch on the Spey,’ ‘Chemistry for the Nuclear Age’ and ‘Frontiers of Friction. ’ The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr S. G. E. Stevens Vice-chairman of the Governors of the College. MANCHESTER AND DISTRICT Safety in the Chemical Laboratory. The first lecture of the 1963-64 programme was given on 31 October in the Renold Building of the College of Science and Technology Manchester by Dr L. J. Burrage who had been responsible for all aspects of safety in the research laboratories of I.C.I. Ltd 438 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER He mentioned the enormous number of accidents appreciative of Mr Chirnside’s well-known lecture (see which occur in industry involving not only great J.1962 109). suffering to victim and f a k l y but also causing a loss of several hundred million pounds annually. Only by the development of a frame of mind over safe working can we get rid of the lip service which is unfortunately so often paid to safety by both staff and payroll. Genuine interest in safe working for its own sake must be cultivated and at an impressionable age. Safety training must therefore start in the schools and continue in the technical colleges and universities. This has not been generally the case in the past but over the last few years the situation has changed. In this matter the North-West leads the country for both its universities practically all its technical colleges and over 300 major schools have adopted safety training and appointed safety officers or safety committees.This has indeed been a very great advance and the idea is now spreading into other parts of the country safety being incorporated in normal lectures and practical classes and not treated as a separate subject. Dr Burrage then dealt with the general background of safety precautions in the laboratory saying that the protection of the person must be achieved in the first place by guarding the equipment at source the issue of personal protective equipment being the second line of defence. Personal equipment should (i) be the best that can be afforded (ii) be as comfortable to wear as possible and (iii) make the person look as little hum-orous as possible.An I.C.I. film entitled ‘Black Monday’ was shown and this strikingly demonstrated how one particular accident occurred and the ensuing tragic consequences. The discussion which followed this film emphasized the need for careful planning of safety measures so that the solving of one problem did not create more. Dr A. F. H. Ward proposed the vote of thanks to the lecturer and congratulated him on increasing our awareness of the hazards present in all laboratories. MID-SOUTHERN COUNTIES A good number of chemistry teachers attended the inaugural meeting on 12 October of a new series of lectures on ‘Chemical bonding and molecular studies’ designed to bring recent advances in chemistry to school teachers. These lectures take place at the University of Southampton and are a follow-up to the symposium on ‘The teaching of inorganic chem-istry at pre-university level’ held in the spring of 1962.Lectures f o r Teachers. Gemstones and Jewels. The first meeting of the 1963-64 programme was held at the Great Hall, Parkstone Poole on 14 October when a lecture entitled ‘Gemstones and jewels-natural and synthetic’ was given by Mr R. C . Chirnside of G.E.C. Ltd. The meeting attracted a large audience who were very Nucleic Acids. Mr W. F. Thorne Section Chairman, introduced Dr D. M. Brown of Cambridge University, to the meeting held at the Red Lion Hotel Salisbury, on 18 October. Dr Brown whose subject was ‘The nucleic acids,’ dealt with only two aspects of their chemistry (a) the chemistry of the problem of deter-mining the sequence of nucleotides in the nucleic-acid chains and (b) the chemical basis of mutagenesis.In considering the sequence problem Dr Brown discussed methods whereby one nucleotide may be hydrolysed from the end of the polynucleotide chain after an aldehyde group had been produced by appro-priate oxidation reactions in a position beta to the phosphate group. Although the method seemed simple on paper technical difficulties were encountered. These have it seems now been overcome but the method has been used so far for removing step-wise from a chain containing some eighty residues as are found in soluble ribonucleic acid. After illustrating the double helical form of the molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid Dr Brown went on to discuss the importance of the relationship of the arrangement of deoxynucleotides in the molecule to the transfer of genetic information.Thus if by chemical means one could alter the ability of the DNA moIecule to transfer a given characteristic then inferences could be made regarding the chemical structure of the strands of the DNA molecule. There are several reagents which effect mutagenesis and Dr Brown discussed the chemistry of the action of one potent reagent hydroxyl-amine indicating how this reagent altered the pyrimidine molecules and the effect on the DNA molecule as a whole. The vote of thanks was proposed by hfr S. Lovett. Joint Meeting. On 29 October a joint meeting with the Poole and District Technical Group was held in the Poole Generating Station. Dr A. E.A. Werner of the British Museum gave a lecture on ‘Scientific detection of forgeries’ (see J. 1962 244). Schools Lecture. On 7 November at the Korthern Grammar School Portsmouth Professor C. C. Addison, of the University of Nottingham gave the Section’s fourth Schools Lecture to some 400 girls and boys from 26 schools on ‘Reactions in inorganic solvents other than water’ (see p. 435). Mr T. F. Thatcher the senior science master pro-posed the vote of thanks. Professor Addison repeated the lecture to over 500 girls and boys representing 17 schools at the Bourne-mouth School for Girls on 8 November. N.M.R. On 8 November in the University of Southampton Professor R. E. Richards of Oxford University addressed a joint meeting with the Uni-versity Chemical Society on this subject 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 439 The mechanisms of nuclear relaxation in diamagnetic the degree of oligomerization and on problems of liquids were discussed and illustrations were given of how the spin-lattice relaxation times could yield addi-tional chemical information from high-resolution spectra.The mechanism of spin-lattice relaxation of nuclei with electric quadrupole moments was next discussed and the use of measurements of this kind was illustrated by studies of solutions of strong electrolytes. In solutions of free radicals in organic liquids the nuclear relaxation times are usually dominated by coupling between the electron and the nuclei and in this case dynamic nuclear polarization becomes possible. Experiments of this kind were described showing how intensities of nuclear resonances could be greatly increased and information about interaction between molecules in liquids could be obtained.Student Lecture Series. ‘The structure of matter’ was the title of the first of a series of afternoon seminars on structural chemistry organized by the Section and held on 13 November at the University of Southampton. Some 60 local sixth-form pupils attended and heard discussions of X-ray diffraction visible spectra and infra-red and micro-wave absorption. There were some demonstrations and a tour of the laboratories. The seminar was organized by Professor G. J. Hills. Careers Evening. On 14 November a careers evening for National Education Week was held jointly with the Southern Branch of the Association for Science Educa-tion in the Small Concert Hall of Portsmouth Guild Hall under the Chairmanship of Mr W.F. Thorne. Each member of a panel consisting of Mr S. A. Berridge chief chemist Esso Refinery Fawley Dr W Davey principal Portsmouth College of Technology, Professor G. J. Hills University of Southampton and Mr S. L. Kidman Public Analytical Laboratory, Southampton gave a short account of one of the aspects of the profession of chemistry. Afterwards many questions were asked by a large audience of parents teachers and students. NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE AND NORTH-EAST COAST Cyclic Boron-Nitrogen Compounds. A meeting of the Section was held on 16 October in the Chemistry Department Sunderland Technical College when the Chairman Professor N.N. Greenwood introduced Dr M. F. Lappert who lectured on ‘Some recent researches on cyclic boron-nitrogen compounds.’ These were classified according to whether boron and nitrogen were each 4-coordinate or 3-coordinate. Analogies were drawn with saturated carbocyclic and alternant conjugated carbocyclic systems respectively. The chemistry of the saturated 4-membered and 6-conforkation. The work of H. S. Turner and his collaborators on the 8-membered cyclo-octatetraene-like system (borazo-cines) was described with emphasis on problems of structure and conformation. Results on the 4-membered cyclobutadiene system (diazaboretanes) were presented. Mass spectral infra-red and nuclear magnetic spectral results were described and interpreted in terms of structure stereochemistry, and nature of bonding.The question of n-bonding in >B-N systems was discussed with particular emphasis on methods of deter-mining activation energies to rotation about the BN bonds. The vote of thanks was proposed by Dr R. Hemming. NORTH LANCASHIRE Recent Advances in Polaroqrafhy. A Joint Meeting with members of the Liverpool Section of the Society of Chemical Industry on 8 November and presided over by the Institute Chairman Mr A. N. Edmondson, heard a very instructive lecture by Mr H. M. Davis, assisted by Mr R. C. Rooney of Southern Analytical Limited on ‘Recent advances in polarography.’ Mr Davis mentioned Randle’s improvement of the Heyrovskjr instrument in which one voltage sweep per drop was associated with measurement of peak heights instead of plateau differences but he said that even this improvement was limited by (i) purity of reagents (ii) low precision and (iii) residual currents associated with drop growth.These were later overcome in a two-cell system where the currents were converted to A.C. put 180” out of phase with one another and subtracted. Amplification then permitted precise measurement. Mechanical synchronization of drops and use of adjacent sections of a cut capillary ensure cell parity. Sub-tractive polarography for estimating traces and com-parative polarography for precise proximate analyses were described also derivative polarography where cells receive voltage sweeps offset by perhaps 10 millivoIt, which improves sensitivity and resolution a? compared with the conventional resistance-capacitance method.Resistance-capacitance networks were however pro-vided to enable second-derivative waveforms to be secured. The alternative post-war development of polarography was the pulse modification of Dr Barker’s square-wave instrument which operates with solutions one-tenth as strong as formerly. Sensitivity to irre-versible reactions was greatly enhanced. Slides were shown demonstrating analyses of cadmium-indium cobalt-zinc and insecticide mixtures at low concentration and metallic impurities in beers and biological material were discussed. membered ring systems was briefly reviewed with Annual Dinner. Among those attending the Annual emphasis on the influence of steric effects in controlling Dinner in Blackpool on 13 November were Mr D.G [DECEMBER 440 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY Chisman Education Officer and Dr F. H. Day District Member of Council. Mr A. N. Edmondson the Section Chairman presided. After the dinner Dr D. T. Lewis c.B. Government Chemist lectured on ‘Food Additives and Food Legislation.’ Dr Lewis pointed out that the United Kingdom was the first country to introduce in 1860 legislation which controlled the quality of food. Later in 1875 the Fertilisers and Foodstuffs Act was introduced which also controls the quality of cattle food. Commenting on fission products in foodstuffs he stated that this represented only a fractional part of the environmental radiation to which the human race had been subjected for many thousands of years.Dr Lewis enlarged on the statutory requirements for the addition of token nutrients such as vitamins to flour and described also the Government Laboratory’s contribution to the water fluoridation project as a means of preventing dental caries in young children (see J. 335). Agricultural pesticides also received general mention. A survey of a small group of people by Dr Hunter of Shell Ltd had shown that the D.D.T. concentration in human fat was of the order of 2 p.p.m. i.e. much less than in the United States where pesticides are used on a larger scale and where levels might range from 7 to 11 parts per million. Various high-level governmental and industrial committees were engaged in detailed discussions relating to the usages of toxic chemicals in agriculture because artificial methods such as these produced considerable increases in crop yield and the problem was to reconcile their use with those factors affecting human and wild-life safety.Mr H. Dedicoat proposed the vote of thanks. SOUTH WALES Works Visit and Lecture. On 16 October members visited the Velindre Works of the Tinplate Division, Steel Company of Wales at Velindre near Swansea. They were initially shown the coils of steel stored on arrival from the Abbey Works and the continuous pickling line used to clean off all the surface scale formed during production. This is followed by the cold-rolling process and subsequent annealing either in the batch-annealing furnaces or in the newer continuous-annealing furnace followed by a temper-rolling process.The strip is then fed to the plating bath which consists of an electrolytic alkali cleaning pass an electrolytic pickling section which has a cathodic pass to remove any thin oxide layer and an anodic pass to give a final cleaning and etching and the plating bath itself which has tin anodes and a complex acid electrolyte. The plating time is around three to five seconds with a current density of 200-300 A/ft2. The thickness of the tin deposited is 15-60 x in and after plating the strip passes through a flow melting stage to give the final polished appearance. To prevent oxide growth on the tin surface the tinplate is cathodically treated in dichro-mate to give a surface layer of chromiumltin complex, and finally given a thin layer-a few molecules thick-of oil which makes the surface hydrophobic and which acts as a lubricant when the plates are packed.The visit was followed by tea and afterwards a lecture was given by Dr J. R. Bevan of the Tinplate Division on the chemistry of the process which had been seen. I t is hoped that this lecture can be published in full at a later date. Mr E. Thornton proposed the vote of thanks. Ladies’ Night. The annual Ladies’ Night lecture was delivered on 15 November at the University College, Swansea by Miss Vesta Edwards Schools Service Officer in Botany at the National Museum of Wales. Miss Edwards spoke on ‘Flavourings and perfumes from plants,’ stressing that whereas tastes such as sweetness, bitterness alkalinity and saltiness are appreciated by tastebuds on the tongue both flavourings and per-fumes are appreciated by the membrane lining the nasal cavity.Perfumes and spices have long been held in high regard and were well known in ancient Egypt; indeed traces of perfume were discovered in the tomb of Tutankhamun. The methods currently used to extract the essential oils from plants and flowers show only slight improvements on the traditional methods ; they are steam distillation maceration in hot fat extraction into cold fat solvent extraction and cold pressing. The industry is concentrated in certain areas especially the Grasse district of France. Spices have an important part to play in the secretion of digestive juices and may well have an important germicidal function in countries where standards of hygiene are difficult to maintain.The speaker won-dered whether we rather despised the sense of taste and suggested that the culinary art should be on the same plane as the arts appealing to the eye and the ear. The lecture was lavishly illustrated and a large number of essential oils were on display attracting the attention of all the men andwomen present. The speaker was thanked by Miss E. M. Leyshon and members and their guests adjourned to a sherry reception in the staff common room of the College. SOUTH-WESTERN COUNTIES Industrial Waste Waters. The first meeting of the session was held at Plymouth College of Advanced Technology on 18 October when Dr P. N. J. Chipper-field lectured on ‘The treatment and disposal of indus-trial waste waters.’ The reasons for treatment are to prevent pollution of rivers and estuaries to recove 19631 SECTION ACTIVITIES 44 1 valuable soluble products and to enable water to be re-used.Chemical methods such as neutralization and oxidation or reduction and mechanical methods, such as sedimentation screening or flotation are used in many applications whilst biological methods are valuable in the treatment of wastes having a high organic content. The conventional method of treating such waste is to pass it through slag- or clinker-packed bio-logical ‘filters’ upon which grow micro-organisms capable of biologically degrading complex organic materials. Such filters require large areas of land because the weight of packing does not permit structures of greater height than about six feet without recourse to massive civil engineering work.Recent research at Brixham has shown that high-efficiency ‘bio-aeration’ towers can be used of much greater packing depth than coke filters. The media for such towers are expanded polymeric materials such as polyurethane polystyrene, PVC or polyethylene fabricated into suitable shapes. These materials are promising in the development of high-efficiency economic light-weight units for use in the treatment of many types of industrial effluents. The lecture evoked a lively discussion and the meeting concluded with an informal dinner. TEES-SIDE ScientiJic Film Show. On 23 October a Scientific Film Show was held in the Synthonia Theatre Billing-ham.The films shown included ‘The Golden Lands,’ a film on the benefits oil has brought to South-East Asia, ‘Desert Green,’ which showed experiments to make the desert of Kuwait fertile and gave an interesting view of that land and ‘Nuclear Power Reactors,’ a critical and informative account of the British nuclear-power reactor systems. The show closed with the well-known Dutch film ‘Glass.’ This film show was given in conjunction with the Synthonia Film Society. On 30 October at the Constantine College of Technology Middlesbrough, Dr E. R. Roberts of Imperial College London lectured on this topic. Dr Roberts pointed out that whilst the value of legumes for the improvement of the soil was known to the Greeks it was not until after many years of scientific controversy that the fixation of nitrogen by bacteria was recognized probably because of the difficulty of con-trolling and reproducing the experimental conditions.Many mechanisms have been postulated but in almost all cases there are major drawbacks to their acceptance. Many compounds such as hydroxylamine and hypo-nitrous acid which have been expected to be inhibitors are not specific in their action. Nitrogen fixation for long believed to have been totally arrested by ammonium salts has now been shown to occur simultaneously with ammonium uptake; BioZogicaZ Nitrogen Fixation. when ammonium is supplied much more combined nitrogen is excreted though the cell nitrogen content is virtually unaffected. Dr Roberts postulated a theory based on NH and NOH as transitory intermediates which though un-known could exist judging by the position of nitrogen in the Periodic Table.Such a mechanism could explain fixation in both aerobic and anaerobic condi-tions. After a very lively and constructive question time the vote of thanks was proposed by Dr D. G. Jones the Chairman of the meeting. Gibberellins and Plant Growth. On 15 November in Norton Professor P. W. Brian F.R.s. gave his talk on ‘Gibberellins and plant growth.’ After reviewing the earlier work on the discovery of the gibberellins and the effect of the compounds on plant growth such as the stimulation of stem growth especially in dwarf plants Professor Brian went on to discuss the more recent developments and the uses of the gibberellins. There are now nine known gibber-ellins differing only slightly in structural details but often specific in action and widely found in higher plants ferns mosses and seaweed.After discussing some of the unusual effects of these compounds some of the uses of the gibberellins were mentioned. Seedless grapes when treated give an improved grape of higher yield. Some clovers with prolific leaf formation, could be useful to the dairy industry but are reluctant to flower unless treated with gibberellins. The time taken for barley to malt is reduced and the yield of sugars increased by adding one part in 10,000,000 of gibberellin. After a lively question time the vote of thanks was given by Dr A. A. L. Challis the Section’s newly-elected Vice-chairman. CEYLON Development of Chemical Industries in Ceylon A symposium on this subject organized by the Section with the Chemical Society of Ceylon was held at the Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research Auditorium on 26 October.The participants the guests and members were welcomed by Dr R. Sivarama-lingam Section Chairman in his introductory address. The papers presented in the morning session were: ‘The development of the caustic soda chlorine and by-products industry in Ceylon’ by Dr S. Gnanalingam, director Paranthan Chemicals Corporation ; ‘Soaps and oils and fats industry’ by Mr A. Karunaratne acting manager (soaps) British Ceylon Corporation ; ‘Soap manufacture’ by Dr A. Doraisamy production manager, Lever Bros (Ceylon) Ltd; and ‘Manufacture of leather’ by Mr E.R. B. Chelliah works manager (tannery) 442 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY Ceylon Leather Production Corporation. There was a lively discussion after these papers. The papers presented in the afternoon session were : ‘Progress development and problems of the Ceylon pharmaceutical industry’ by Mr K. Reynolds and Mr B. Sarin of Glaxo-Allenburys (Ceylon) Ltd; ‘The development of the cement industry in Ceylon’ by Dr V. Perampalam works manager and chief chemist, Ceylon Cement Corporation ; ‘Ceramics industry in Ceylon’ by Mr C. H. L. Sirimanne director Ceylon Ceramics Corporation; and ‘Oil refinery project and fertilizer project’ by Dr G. Ponnamperuma chairman, Fertilizer and Refinery Projects Planning Committee. The audience showed keen interest in these papers and the discussion which followed was most stimulating.Tea served by the Ceylon Tea Propaganda Board at both sessions was a welcome lubricant during the meeting. The concluding address and the vote of thanks to the speakers was given by Dr M. C. Karunairatnam, President of the Chemical Society of Ceylon. EASTERN INDIA Joint hfeeting. Under the joint auspices of the Section and the Institution of Chemists (India) Dr D. C. Tapadar chief chemist and chemical engineer India Paper Pulp Co. Ltd Hazinagar gave a lecture on ‘Lignin-bearing chemicals from pulp and paper-mill wastes’ in the School of Tropical Medicine Calcutta, on 20 September. Lignin is more resistant to micro-organisms than any other plant constituent and the accumulation of lignin in natural decomposition of plant residues is the source of peat lignite and coal.It responds readily to hydro-genation condensation oxidation sulphonation and halogenation giving various products of industrial importance. The chief source of commercial lignin is the spent liquor obtained from pulping wood bamboo and grass by the soda sulphate or sulphite process. But only the spent sulphite liquor is readily available for the manu-facture of lignin-bearing compounds. The chief constituent of the liquor is a lignosulphonate with calcium magnesium sodium or ammonium base. The crude liquor concentrated to a syrupy consistency or dried to a powder is often employed commercially. It is extensively used as a dispersing agent and is a very good adhesive.Some lignin plastics and various other chemicals like vanillin phenol homologues alcohol, ion-exchange resins and so on are also produced from the spent sulphite liquor. The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr S. N. Mitra. MADRAS On 9 October a meeting was held under the joint auspices of the Section and the Central Leather Research Institute, Recent Investigations in Drug Research. Madras at the Institute buildings at Guindy. Dr A. R. Natarajan Section Chairman presided. Dr Otto Isler head of the chemical research department, F. Hoffmann-La Roche & Co. Ltd Basle gave a lecture entitled ‘Recent investigations in drug research.’ He spoke on the work done by himself and his co-workers on the derivatives of hydrazine isoquinoline and benzodiazepine sulphonamides antibiotics and fat-soluble-vitamins (see below).Dr V. S. Padmanaban of the Central Leather Research Institute proposed the vote of thanks. WESTERN INDIA The A.G.M. of the Section was held on 30 August when the Annual Report and the Statement of Accounts for the year 1962-63 were adopted. The following Officers and Members of Committee for the year 1963-64 were elected Chairman, Dr S. K. Punshi; Vice-chairman Professor B. C, Haldar; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer Dr T. P. S. Rajan; Members of Committee Mr N. S. Bharatia, Mr H. J. V. Krishna Dr H. S. Mahal Mr R. K. Marfatia Mr V. Sundaram and Dr A. M. Tyabji. Mr S. V. Vora was elected Hon. Auditor. Dr Punshi proposed the vote of thanks to the outgoing Committee and made special mention of the fact that the increased activities of the Section in the last three years were largely due to the interest shown by the retiring President Dr Mahal.Annual General Meeting. Recent Investigations in Drug Research. Dr Otto Isler addressed the joint meeting of the Indian Pharmaceutical Association Maharashtra Branch and the Section on 30 September on ‘Recent investigations in drug research.’ Dr Isler referred to the work done in the laboratories of F. Hoffman-La Roche & Co. Ltd Basle where he is head of the chemical research department and men-tioned ‘Rimifon’ which contains isoniazid an active substance against tubercular bacilli both in the labora-tory and in experimental animals. Another derivative of the hydrazine group of drugs is ‘Marplan,’ which specifically acts on certain parts of the central nervous system and is issued as an anti-depressant in mental illness.A slight variation in chemical formula yielded an entirely new drug ‘Tersavid,’ which gives prolonged relief of pain associated with coronary artery diseases. He also referred to the developments in the field of sulphonamides isoquinoline derivatives benzodiazepine derivatives fluoropyrimidine derivatives and so on and mentioned in conclusion therapeutic cancer research. He described the developments of fluoropyrimidine derivatives which are active against certain types of cancer. Dr Isler emphasized that a great deal of work has to be done to find an agent which is not toxic to normal cells and is cytotoxic against cancer cells.A number of interesting drugs belong to this group and these are at present under clinical trial News and Notes PHYSICAL SOCIETY EXHIBITION Annual Physical Exhibition.-The 1964 Annual Exhibition of the Institute of Physics and the Physical Society will be held in the Old and New Halls of the Royal Horticultural Society London S.W. 1 and will be open as follows : Monday 6 January 10 a.m.-6.30 p.m. Tuesday 7 January 10 a.m.-6.30 p.m. (Members and Press only 10 a.m.-1 p.m.) Wednesday 8 January 10 a.m.-6.30 p.m. Thursday 9 January 10 a.m.-6.30 p.m. Admission is by ticket only. Members of this Institute who are not members of the Institute of Physics and the Physical Society but wish to attend the Exhibition on the Members’ morning (7 January 10 a.m.-1 p.m.) should send their request for a special admission ticket on a postcard addressed to the Editor Royal Institute of Chemistry 30 Russell Square London, W.C.l.by 2 January. Tickets for other times may be obtained from the Institute of Physics and the Physical Society 47 Belgrave Square London S.W. 1. MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES Canadian High Polymer Forum.-The Twelfth Canadian High Polymer Forum will be held at the Cardy Alpine Inn Ste Marguerite Quebec from 27 to 29 May 1964. The Forum is sponsored by the National Research Council of Canada in co-operation with the Chemical Institute of Canada and is devoted to all aspects of macromolecular science. Dr D. A. I. Goring is the Chairman of the Twelfth Forum and the Forum Lecturer will be Professor Charles Sadron who will speak on ‘Block copolymers.’ Those wishing to submit papers are asked to write to the Programme Chairman Dr Leo Breitman Research and Develop-ment Division Polymer Corporation Ltd Sarnia, Ontario by 15 February 1964.Conversazione and Exhibition.-The Corrosion Group of the Society of Chemical Industry are to hold a conversazione and exhibition on 17 March 1964 at 14 Belgrave Square London S. W. 1. The conversa-zione will follow the usual pattern of an informal social evening accompanied by an exhibition. Those wishing to take part in the exhibition are asked to contact Dr M. Clarke Department of Metallurgy Sir John Cass College Jewry Street London E.C.3 as soon as possible. Instrumentation and Measurement.-The third International Measurement Conference is to be held jointly with the sixth International Instruments and Measurements Conference in Stockholm from 14 to 19 September 1964.The conference will be divided into four general and six special sections. The general sections will cover metrology instrument design and instrument electronics. The special sections will deal with mechanical electrical thermodynamic physico-chemical and other measurements. Problems lying between measurement and automation will be dealt with in a special section organized in conjunction with the International Federation of Automatic Control. Further information may be obtained from The Secre-tary Society of Instrument Technology 20 Peel Street, London W.8. International Union of Crystallography.-By invitation of the Australian Academy of Sciences the Union will join in sponsorship of an International Conference in Melbourne Australia in August 1965.The conference will consist of two sections (i) electron diffraction and (ii) the nature of defects in crystals. Inquiries concerning the conference should be addressed to Dr R. I. Garrod Aeronautical Research Laboratories, P.0. Box 4331 Melbourne Australia. Preservation of Cosmetics.-A symposium on this subject organized by the Society of Cosmetic Chemists of Great Britain will be held in London on 17 November 1964. Anyone wishing to present a paper or to be kept informed of arrangements for the symposium is requested to contact the Hon. Editor, Mr A. Herzka Pressurized Packaging Consultants Ltd, Ashbourne House Alberon Gardens London N.W.1 1. RAMSAY MEMORIAL FELLOWSHIPS TRUST Ramsay Memorial Fellowships.-The Trustees will consider in February 1964 applications for two Ramsay Memorial Fellowships for advanced students of chemistry. One of the Fellowships will be limited to candidates educated in Glasgow but they can apply to be considered for both Fellowships. The value of each Fellowship will be L750 per annum to which may be added a grant for expenses of research not exceeding E 150 per annum. Ramsay Travel Grants.-The Trustees will con-sider in February 1964 applications for three Ramsay Travel Grants for the year 1964-65. No Travel Grant will exceed E500. Two of the Grants will be limited to junior academic chemistry staff of universities and colleges of technology or advanced technology in England Wales and Northern Ireland.One Travel Grant will be limited to junior academic chemistry staff of universities in Scotland. Further particulars of the above awards may be obtained from the Joint Honorary Secretaries Ramsay Memorial Fellowships Trust University College Gower Street London W.C. 1 and any applications must reach them not later than 15 January 1964. 44 444 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [DECEMBER RECENT PUBLICATIONS Approved Names.-The British Pharmacopaeia Commission recently published a second supplementary list of Approved Names to the booklet dated July 1963. All inquiries should be addressed to The Secretary, British Pharmacopoeia Commission 44 Hallam Street, London W.1. Technical Services.-A recently published booklet entitled (Technical Services for Industry in Northern Ireland’ describes some of the services provided for industry by the Department of Industrial and Forensic Science Belfast. The facilities include an advisory and information service and also laboratories equipped for many kinds of scientific and technical investigations. The booklet indicates the great variety of work under-taken by the Department and also the close liaison which the Department has established with technical resources of the United Kingdom and other countries. Copies of the booklet are available free of charge from the Department 5-11 Verner Street Belfast 7. and the techniques used and comments on interesting results.There is no need to restrict this to research centres in this country; foreign workers could also be invited to contribute articles. Another possible series of articles could deal with recent advances in techniques and instrumentation particularly technological advances. Series of articles such as these would be of interest to practising chemists and immense value to Student Members (particularly if the examiners could be persuaded to contribute some of them in order to illustrate the level of knowledge they consider necessary in the students). 4 Mill Close, Mill Road Rlofield. G. W. J. MATTHEWS [This question is of great interest to the Publications Committee now that the series ‘Russian for Chemists’ is concluding. New articles are being considered and the Committee would be grateful for readers’ suggestions and discussion.-E~.] CORRESPONDENCE JOURNAL CONTENTS SIR,-The recent questionnaire on scientific informa-tion prompts some comments on this Journal.Several colleagues have agreed that the Journal in its present form is of little interest or use. The Institute is not primarily concerned with research nor with the publication of results but is concerned with the spread of this knowledge. The Journal finds its way into more libraries (both institutional and personal) in this country than any publication journal and because of this it would make an excellent medium for reviews and discussions. One of the examiners has commented that students are ill-informed on the rare gases yet not one of them has discussed recent advances in the Journal.There has been a series of lessons ‘Russian for Chemists’ for over a year and a half and each month we find the usual reports of Section Activities. I t would be interesting to know how many members have found these useful. I suggest that the space could be put to far better use. Some industrial concerns have reported on their work, and progress in their fields so why not ask other research centres to provide reports and discussions. For example, each university department could be invited to give a simple report on its current interests the reasons for the choice of a particular field a description of the work GRADUATE MEMBERSHIP EXAMINATIONS AND THE SPECIAL-RELATIONSHIP SCHEME Sm,--It has often been stated that colleges were chosen for the special-relationship scheme because of their record in past Institute examinations.Dr Parker (see J. 323) has rightly indicated that this point should be borne in mind when considering statistics such as those quoted by me in a letter published in August (see J. 291). To place this record in its proper per-spective and to allow a fair comparison is it possible for the Institute to publish an extension to my table covering the years immediately preceding the special relationship scheme say 1956-58 ? This extension should of course show the percentage pass at Part I1 level for candidates from the non-special relationship colleges as well as that for candidates from the special-relationship colleges.8 Egremont Road, Penylan Cardiff. [Dr R. E. Parker Secretary and Registrar comments : The figures Mr Thomas asks for are shown in the following table. For the years 1952 to 1959 inclusive, the pass rate in the external examinations was 25 per cent (942 out of 3719) in category A and 38 per cent (486 out of 1273) in category B. For the years 1960 to 1963 inclusive the pass rate had risen to 30 per cent J. D. R. THOMAS Percentage Pass Rate in A.R.I.C.1Grad.R.I.C. Part 11 Examinations 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 (external) A. Pass rate for candidates from colleges not now in Special Relationship . . .. .. .. 25 24 31 28 21 22 27 26 B. Pass rate for candidates from colleges now in Special Relationship . . .. .. .. 31 43 34 44 34 41 34 52 C.Pass rate for all candidates .. .. .. 27 29 32 32 24 27 29 2 19631 CORRESPONDENCE 445 in category A and 55 per cent in category By due no doubt to the increasing effectiveness of the Part I examination as a sifting mechanism.] INSTITUTE ACTIVITIES SIR,-Recen tly lively discussions have been taking place among members of the Manchester and District Section on how the Institute should extend its activities, particularly with a view to attracting an increased membership. As this topic will be of interest to all members may I take advantage of your columns to extend the area of this debate? The activities of the Institute can be divided into two categories. Firstly there are those activities which render a service to the profession as a whole thereby benefiting the members indirectly.Secondly there are those services which have a direct impact on members. The work done by the Institute in the field of education clearly falls into this first category while the Benevolent Fund is an example of the latter. However since it is possible that the number of members depends largely upon the second category then obviously there is need for careful balance between the two types of activity. One gains the impression that there is general agreement on this assessment of the situation as well as on the need for an extension of those activities which are of direct service to members. However the region of agreement ends here and there are many diverse opinions when it comes to defining the form these additional activities should take.I think that perhaps it is on this aspect that members may like to use your columns to give their views on how the Institute should extend its work for the benefit of its members. 7 Rutland Road, Ellesmere Park, Eccles. M. I. GILLIBRAND CHROMATOGRAPHY AND ELECTROPHORESIS FOR SCHOOLS SIR,-I read with interest the review of the teaching-level manual Chromatography and Electrophoresis on Paper (J. 349). Whilst I agree with it in general there are one or two points on which as a teacher of chemistry in a grammar school I should like to comment. Most of the material in the book is not at present in examination syllabuses. Though this should not mean that it is not taught in schools it does mean that if it is to be taught it must be done as efficiently as possible.In fact most schools would be able to spend very little actual teaching time on it; it should be possible to introduce the subject and leave it for individual work either in spare time or after examinations. Therefore the clear instructions are invaluable. Even if a school does not buy the kit more progress could be made with the manual alone than without it. I do question also the reviewer’s hope that this book will not be a forerunner of others of a similar type. Teachers of sixth forms try to keep up to date but with new techniques they not only have to hear of them and try to understand them but to find time to try them out and assess their value for school work. Even if they have access to original papers there is still the difficulty of time.So if experts in the technique are willing to produce clear instructions and explanations as has been done in this book I am deeply grateful and I should be surprised if this were not generally true. I hope that other experts may be willing to help in this way. Perhaps I am not a purist but I would prefer to use the heading ‘principle’ for experiments of this type which are used to introduce and demonstrate a tech-nique and reserve the word ‘aim’ for the true experiment with the unknown answer. One might hope that individual work with this book might lead some to true experiment . 115 Holland Road, London W. 14. F. M. EASTWOOD IONIC EQUATIONS SIR,-DrJ. H. White’s letter (see J. 399) prompts me to make a few comments in support of the opposite view.It is true that a large number of reactions take place between molecules but this seems to be no justification for representing reactions between ions by molecular equations. The vast majority of the reactions of inorganic compounds are ionic. Ionic equations are a very great help to the young chemist because they are so much easier to balance than molecular equations. This is par-ticularly true of redox reactions. Oxidation and reduction cannot be properly understood except in terms of electron transfer. If the reactants and products are known it is a simple matter to balance the equation for any redox reaction, provided the two half-equations are written first. With regard to the point which Dr White makes that sulphuric acid alone can be used in acid permanganate titrations this is surely no justifica-tion for writing sulphuric acid molecules in an equation for an ionic reaction.The reason that hydrochloric acid cannot be used is that chloride ions react with permanganate. I am bound to say that having seen the difficulties which students have in balancing redox equations written in the molecular form I am strongly in favour of the use of ionic equations wherever possible. T. A. H. PEACOCKE St John’s School, Leather head THE REGISTER NEW FELLOWS (OH) GHOSH Dharmabrata B.SC. (CALC.) M.SC. (DACCA) PH.D. (S) (WIS.) GOULDING Colin William B.SC. PH.D.(BIRM) ASSOCIATES ELECTED TO THE FELLOWSHIP ALLISON Edward Chisholm B.SC. (LOND.) BROWNLOW Colin Edward Ainsworth B.SC.PH.D. (LOND.) DENARO Albert Raymond M.SC. PH.D. (LIV.) HORTON Derek B.SC PH.D.(BIRM) INGLE Norman Palliser E.D. B.sc.(s.A.) M.A.(CANTAB.), JONES John Dewi M.SC. PH.D.(WALES) JONES William Frederick BSC. (WALES) KAWA Stanislaw B.SC.(GLAS.) A.R.C.S.T. KERLEY Thomas Frank A.INST.F. LEIGHTON Desmond B.SC. (LOND.) MODI Darius Tehmuras B.SC. (BOM.) B.PHARM. PH.D. (LOND.) NAIR Vattavila Sivasankara Krishnan M.SC. (TRAV.), PH.D. (GLAS.) ROBBINS Derek SAVIDGE Richard Alan SWALLOW David ALLEN Alfred Stanley B.SC. (LOND.) AROTSKY Judah B.SC. PH.D.(S’TON) BROWN Geoffrey William B.SC. (S’TON) CUDLIPP Gerald William BSC. (LOND.) EVANS Clifford B.SC. PH.D. (WALES) EVANS John B.SC.(WALES) FEELEY Thomas Mary Desmond M.SC. (N.u.I.) FOGG Peter Greaves Taylor M.A.D.PHIL. (OXON.) HALFORD Valerie B.SC. (LOND.) HARDCASTLE Denis M.SC. TECH. (MANC.) HEMINGWAY Richard John B.PHARM. PH.D. (LOND.) HOBSON Leslie B.SC. (LOND.) HURLEY Raymond B.SC. (WALES) JONES William Derek B.SC. (BIRM) MCDONALD Malcolm Patrick B.SC. PH.D. (SHEFF.) PEARCE John Poole B.SC.(LOND.) PURKIS Antony Collins B.A. (CANTAB.) SHEPHARD Francis Eli B.SC. PH.D.(BELF.) SMITH Grahame Reginald B.SC. (LOND.) A.R.C.S. SMITH Peter Jackson M.SC.(LEEDS) GRADUATE MEMBERS ELECTED TO THE ASSOCIATESHIP BOWLER David Charlton CARRUTHERS Peter William D.L.C. CARTWRIGHT John Arthur DUNCAN Sydney John FISHER James Anthony B.SC.(LOND.) FOSTER Norman GLOVER Trevor John A.C.T. (BIRM) GORDON George Park Douglas B.SC. (ABERD.) HANNA Terence D.L.C.HUNT David William JENKINS Edgar William BSC. (LEEDS) KAY James Jackson MCALLISTER Peter Ernest B.SC. (BIRM) MOORE Leonard Francis NASH Peter George PINNEGAR Michael Alan STONER Linda Joyce B.SC. (S’TON) TURNER Peter Frederick TURPIN Derek Charles WOODCOCK Peter Trevor AMOS Ralph Charles Frederick ATKINSON Bryan Charles ATKINSON Charles Brian BAKER David Ralph B.SC. (EDIN.) BEDDOWS Clifford George M.S.A.CHEM.1. NEW ASSOCIATES NEW LICENTIATES BENFORD Keith BILSON Kenneth BIRRELL Helen Constance BLACKWELL Frederick Brian BRACK Robert Edward BRETT Colin John BUCKLEY Keith BULLOCK Raymond David BURNS Harold Halsall B.SC. (DURH.) BURNS William Alexander CHADWICK Kenneth CHAFER Alistair James CHARLESWORTH Arthur CHILD John CLITHEROE Ernest John CONROY Lionel Frank B.SC.(LUCK.) COWSILL Frank Alan CROSSLEY Francis John Michael DAVIES Francis Richard DENNIS John Michael B.SC.(LEIC.) DRYSDALE Arthur Charles DUCKWORTH John Stuart A.S.D.C. DUNNING Reginald EDWARDS Alan Joseph FERGUSON Ian Robertson B.SC. (s.A.) FOAKES Eric Howard FRASER Malcolm George GODDARD Vernon Robert William GOLDSWORTHY Brian GOODMAN Sidney GOTHAM Raymond Oswald HANBY Thomas HESFORD John Roy HICKMAN Brian Geoffrey JENKINS William Russell Maddock JONES Peter Bernard A.M.INST.F. JONES Trevor JONES Walter JUPE Bryan Richard KIMBER Kneale John B.PHARM. LEANORD Thomas Wilson LUMB Peter John MCALLISTER Michael Horace William MCPHILLIPS John Thompson B.SC. (LOND.) MACKIE Carol Frances Vera MALEY John Charles Albert MASTERMAN Reginald James B.SC.(LOND.) MINERS Ralph Conway MOSS Geoffrey Richard NEILSON David Allen NUTT David Ernest OXTOBY Allan Henry PARKES Allan Frederick PARR Alan PARRY Rex Douglas PAUL John Iveson PEARSON Derek Gordon PRITCHARD Geoffrey Gordon REES Henry John RIPPON Richard Hugh RUSSELL Frederick Neil SHIELDS Ronald William SMITH Ronald THOMAS David Henry TIZZARD Francis William TUITE Geoffrey B.SC. (LOND.) UREN Anthony Leslie WALTERS Ronald WARBURTON Richard Samuel WARREN Brian Charles Henry WEBB John Alfred WEBSTER Peter John WEEKS Clifford George WETHERALL John Henry WIFFEN David Albert WOODCOCK Lucy Isabella Ann WOODS John WRIGHT Alfred 44 THE REGISTER 447 NEW GRADUATE MEMBERS ALYMER-KELLY Aylmer William Brendan B.SC.(BIRM) BATCHELOR John Frederick BELL William Salisbury BENNETT David Eric Rodney B.SC. (BELF.) BOWD Anthony John BRAZIER John Norman CARR Peter John CARTER James Michael B.SC. (LOND.) CITRONE Anthony Maurice CLARKE David Allan CLARKE Peter CLEGG Ernest Neville COCHRANE William Purdie COLLIN David Trevor COTTLE Gerard John CRAIGHEAD Peter Bruce B.SC. (ABERD.) CREE Gavin Murray B.SC. (EDIN.) DAVIES Michael John DEMANT Jocelyn Tickner DIGGLE John Walter DRIVER Ronald Michael B.SC. (LOND) DUFF Edward John B.SC.(LOND.) DURHAM David Anthony EDWARDS Alan Christopher ELLIS John Bryan Melsome GELDER Harold Keith DIP.TECH. GORE Gerard Henry GREIG James Somerville HEATH Michael John HEMS Michael Anthony B.SC.(R’DG) HICKTON Howard Jesse DIP.TECH. HOYLE Francis Earnshaw JACQUES Alan KELLY Anthony Harry LEPPARD David LOCKEY Peter LOVEGROVE John MANSER William Walter Thomas A.M.INST.PET. MARLOW Richard Godfrey MARSH Christopher Reginald MARTIN Robert John DIP.TECH. MILLER Peter James MORRIS Peter John B.SC. (R’DG) MUNRO Douglas Newton B.A. (OXON.) OAKENFULL David George BSC. (LOND.) O’SULLIVAN Michael James B.SC. (LOND.),DIP.ED. PALMER Jack Albert PARRY John Alwyn B.SC.(WALES) PARSONS Michael George BSC. (LOND.) ,A.R.c.s. PEMBERTON Robert Leonard POWERS Peter James B.SC. (LIV.) RIDINGS Kenneth ROLLS John B.SC. (LOND.) M.SC.(LEEDS) RYE Ronald Michael B.SC. ( MANC.) SANDELL Derek B.SC. (LOND.) SAUNDERS Howard Edward SHAW Brian Richard D.L.C.SMITH Peter Leslie TAYLOR Duncan McKay B.SC.(ABERD.) TURNER Geoffrey Lloyd WADE Ronald WEIR John Stanley WHITFIELD Graham Frank B.SC. (LOND ) WILLOTT Michael Christopher Kenneth WOODS Brian James Michael YOUNG John DEATHS Associates LAING William Mossman. Died 25 October 1963 aged 65. A . 1923. ROWE Richard DR.PHIL. (GOETTINGEN). Died 1 1 October, 1963 aged 75. A . 1947. Fellow GLOVER Walter Hamis PH.D. (LEIPZIG). Died 17 October, 1963 aged 80. F. 1924. OBITUARY David Allan. B. 10.10.1882. Ed. Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College 1900-03. He joined Price’s Patent Candle Co. Ltd (later Price’s (Bromborough) Ltd) as an assistant chemist in 1905 became chief chemist in 1915 works manager in 1935 and works director (technical) in 1936 a position which he held until his retirement in 1947.Francis George Barker. B. 12.7.1890. Ed. North Wilts. Technical Institution Swindon 1905-14. In 191 1 he became an assistant analyst in the Great Western Railway’s chemical labora-tory. Three years later he took a similar post in the Admiralty Laboratory Sheffield was put in charge of the Admiralty Labora-tory Glasgow in 1916 and a few months later the same year took charge of the Admiralty Laboratory Middlesbrough. About 1919 he was appointed chief analyst in charge of H.M. Naval Ordnance Inspection Laboratories Sheffield. He remained at the Admiralty until his retirement in 1950 when he was deputy director Depart-ment of Aeronautical and Engineering Research Royal Naval Scientific Service.Percy Henry Carpenter. B. 19.2.1879. Ed. Finsbury Techni-cal College London 1896-98. In 1899 he became an assistant of the late Mr A. Chaston Chapman F.R.s. until 1906 when he joined Begg Sutherland & Co. as a chemist. In 1909 he was appointed a chemist at the Tocklai Experimental Station of the Indian Tea Association at Cinnamara. He later became chief scientific officer a position which he held until his retirement in 1946. His services were recognized by the award of the C.I.E. and ofthe O.B.E. ( A . 1904 F. 1908) D. 1.8.1963. ( A . 1926 F. 1931) D. 12.9.63. ( A . 1905 F. 1911) D. 5.7.62. Alfred Edwin Case. B. 18.10.1878. Ed. Five Ways Grammar School Birmingham ; Mason University College (now the Univer-sity) Birmingham.B.Sc. (Lond.). In 1899 he joined Mitchells & Butlers Ltd as a chemist. Later he became chief chemist a position which he held until his retirement in 1948. F. 1913) D. 2.8.63. ( A . 1903, Charles Francis Jack Francis-Carter. B. 2.1 1.04. Ed. Arch-bishop Tenison’s School; East London College (now Queen Mary College) 1921-24. In 1925 he became an assistant in the Research Department of Woolwich Arsenal where he remained until 1929 when he was appointed chemist in the Radiators branch of Morris Motors Ltd. He was later promoted to chief chemist. He left in 1936 to take a post as research manager at the Pyrene Co. Ltd and two years later became manager of the plating department of Serck Radiators Ltd. In 1940 he was appointed controller and general manager of No.1 Metal and Produce Recovery Depot at Cowley Oxford controlled by Morris Motors Ltd and in 1942 he was appointed in addition controller and general manager of No. 2 depot at Eaglescliffe. He was awarded the O.B.E. in 1944 in recognition of his work. Later he became managing director of the Aluminium Wire & Cable Co. Ltd a position which he held for the rest of his life. ( A . 1943 F. 1955) D. 14.8.63. Stanley Reginald Hind. B. 15.9.1897. Ed. Chesterfield Grammar School ; Imperial College London 19 1 5- I 7 19 19 (interrupted by war service). B.Sc. In 1920 he became a research chemist at G. Howson & Sons Ltd Hanley until 1922, when for a short time he was chief chemist at Cauldon Potteries Ltd Stoke. He left later the same year to become a research chemist at the British Refractories Research Association.In 1932 he set up his own private practice. During the Second World War he was technical director at Pilkington Tiles Ltd and after the war he went as technical adviser to Doultons Ltd before returning to private practice which he continued to manage for the rest of his life. He was the author of papers and of Pottery Ovens, Fuels and Firing. ( A . 1916 F. 1927) D. 6.8.63. Alec Duncan Mitchell. B. 22.10.1888. Ed. Coopers’ Company’s School; East London (now Queen Mary) College, 1905-08. B.Sc. (1908) D.Sc. (1923). He remained at the College for a further year as student demonstrator. In 1910 he was appointed scientific assistant in chemistry at the University of London and there began his main work.Until he retired in 195 448 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL he dealt with practical examinations for several thousand univer-sity candidates each year from 1926 onwards he was examiners’ assistant for the then A R I C and F R I C practical examinations, retiring in 1961 as Assistant Examiner His practical and theoretical knowledge of analytical techniques-as well as his organizing ability-was invaluable to the university and R I C examiners From I926 to I962 he was assistant editor of the Fhemical Society He became a Freeman of the City of London by servitude’ in 1910 and served with H M Forces in the near east (Capt R E ) 1914-19 in 1939-45 he was engaged on con-fidential work for the G P 0 He was the co-author of papers in the scientific press and of Modern Methods zn QuaEztatzue Analyszs (1932) co-editor of the chemical articles in the Encycloflaedza Brztannzca (14th edition) and contributor of articles to later editions He also prepared the 12th edition (1935) of Sutton’s VoEumetrzc Analyszs and in 1948 Brzttsh Chemzcal Nomenclature (for the Chemi-cal Society) He was a member of the IUPAC Commission on Organic Nomenclature 1947-63 His chief hobbies were cricket -he was a life-member of the M C C -football chess and walk-ing and his devotion to the ideals of his profession earned him the esteem and affection of all who were associated with him ( A 1919 F 1926) D 26 3 63 Raymond John Smith.B 14 3 23 Ed Chelsea College of Science and Technology 1946-48 Ph D He became an assistant analyst at Cellomold Ltd in 1944 until 1946 In 1948 he took a post as an assistant experimental officer at Cheshunt Experimental and Research Station becoming an experimental officer in 1951.In 1955 he was transferred to the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute Littlehampton where he remained for the rest of his life ( A 1960) D. 7 6 63 Charles Soyka. B 22 1 05 Ed Shanghai Public School, Royal College of Science London 1922-25 He remained at the College as a research student until 1927 There-after he became successively assistant chemist Clark Son & Morland Ltd Glastonbury 1928 chemist B Gibson & Sons, Leeds 1935 works chemist Titanine Emaillite Ltd London, 1936 chemist and dyer Jack Woolf (Dyers) Ltd London 1936 He joined H M Forces in 1940 but was discharged two years later through injuries suffered in an accident He joined the Telegraph Construction & Maintenance Co Ltd in 1942 and returned to Jack Woolf (Dyers) Ltd in 1945 until 1949 when he became a research chemist at Earnshaw Ltd Northallerton The following year he took a post at the Progressive Manufacturing Co North-ampton and in 1952 became works chemist in the Plastics Division of the Telegraph Construction & Maintenance Co Ltd In 1961 he was transferred to Telcon Plastics Ltd where he was technical manager for the rest of his life John Joseph Sudborough.B 1 1 1 1 1869 Ed Mason Univer-sity College (now the University) Birmingham University of Heidelberg Owens College (now the University) Manchester Ph D (Heidelberg) D Sc (Lond ) On completion of his training he was appointed lecturer in organic chemistry at University College Nottingham In 1901 he was appointed professor of chemistry at the University College of Wales Aberystwyth He supervised the equipment of the Edward Davies Memorial Laboratories which were erected in 1907 Four years later he accepted the appointment as professor of organic chemistry at the Indian Institute of Science Bangalore On the retirement of Dr Travers in 1914 Sudborough became head of the department of general and organic chemistry a post which he held until his retirement in 1926 He was the author or co-author of a number of works After retirement he became a life governor of the University of Wales and served for many years on its Council ( A 1890 F 1894) D 25 7 63 B Sc Ph D ( A 1927) D 2 8 63 Harry Wilkinson B 3 6 1879 Ed Keighley Technical Institute; Yorkshire College (now the University) Leeds 1900-03 He became a textile technologist and colourist at Brooke Simpson & Spiller Ltd in 1903 and thereafter was successively works manager Penny Bros & Winder Ltd I905 works manager, Percy C Ackroyd & Co 1907 demonstrator and lecturer in textiles University of Leeds 1909 In 1916 he was appointed head of the department of dyeing & textile chemistrv at Hudders-field Technical College a post which he held until his retirement in 1944.( A 1918) D 28 763 INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY LOCAL SECTIONS DIARY’ Sections are glad to welcome members of other Sections to their meetings except when numbers are restricted as for works visits Those wishing to attend meetings outside their own area are advised to write to the Hon Secretary of the Section concerned as the Institute cannot accept responsibility for any alterations or cancellations For key to Local Sections see p 404 All times are p m except when stated otherwise Bradford.20 Jan 7 Automatic Analysis in Industry and Medicine. Dr J F Marten Bradford Institute of Technology Bristol. 8 Jan 11 a m and 3 p m Christmas Lecture for Science Surth Students Radiochemistry Dr J H Buddery Physics Department, Bristol University __ 9 Jan 6 30 Prof A G Ward Cambridge. 19 Dec 7 30 Social Film Evening Technological Research Station Spillers Ltd Station Road - 24 Jan 8 15 Enzyme Induction-A New Key to the Structure of Macro-molecules S A Barker University Chemical Laboraton, Lensfield Road Joint University Chemical Society Chelsea. 5 Feb 6 30 Some Aspects of the Chemistry of Free Radicals Dr G H Williams Chelsea College of Science and Technology Manresa Road S W 3 Joint College Chemical Society Dublin 22 Jan 7 45 Bryan Higgins and His Circle Dr F W Gibbs Trinity College Dublin Dundee. 31 Jan 7 15 Whv not make your own chemistry films’ A M Stewart Technical College Dundee Eastham. 9 Jan 7 Chemical Processes in Yature Dr F H Day Carlett Park College of Further Education Joint College Chemical and Physical Society Edinburgh 16 Jan 7 30 Hemicelluloses gums and pectic substances Dr G 0 Aspinall Joint C S , S C I Enfield 20 Jan 6 30 The Chemistry of Colour Photography Dr R A Jeffreys Glasgow. 10 Jan 6 Film Show Royal College of Science and Technology Room 24 Joint S C I __ 14 Feb 7 15 Solid-state Disorder and Reactions Prof Dame Kathleen Lonsdale Huddersfield. 3 Jan Schools Christmas Lecture-Fluorine The Taming of an Element Dr W H Wilson Huddersfield College of Recent Developments in Collagen Research University of Bristol Joint C S S C I Heriot Watt College Chambers Street Enfield Technical College Queensway Ponders End Royal College of Science and Technology Room 24 Techndogy Macdonald Huddersfield Colleee of Technoloev Toint. S C I - 30 Jan 7 30 Technical Aspects of Colour Photography Dr E Hull. 8 Jan 7 30 The Nature (;f Colour and ;fs Measurement G J Chamberlin Joint 0 C C A - 11 Feb 7 30 Ladies’ Evening Gemstones and Jewels Natural and Svnthetic R C Chirnside Common Room University of Hull - 18 Feb 7 30 Module and Molecule 1n Medicinal Chemistry Dr A McCoubrey Queen’s Hotel Hull Joint H C E S Kingston. 30 Jan 6 30 Structural Aspects of Metal Nitrate Chemistn Prof C C Addison Kingston College of Technology Joint College Chemical Society Leeds 2 Jan 2 30 Christmas Science Lecture for Sixth Forms Fluorine The Taming of an Element - 10 Feb 6 30 Claudogenic Steroids Dr V Petrow University of Leeds Liverpool. 20 Jan 7 Chemical Education Meeting Energy Concepts in Science Teaching H F Halliwell and others Donnan Laboratories, The University Vine Street London. 17 Jan All-day Symposium on Modern Instrumentation in Science and Industry Institution of Electrical Engineers Savoy Place W C 2 Joint Institutes of Biology and Physics and The Physical College of Technology Room 715 Dr W Wilson University of Leeds Joint Institute of Physics - . Society -(Members’ fee El) - 11 Feb 6 30 Spectra and Syntheses of Pyrroles and Porphyrins Prof G W Kenner Sir Tohn Cass College. Tewrv Street. E C 3 Joint I I _ I - . College Chemical Society Maidstone. 14 Jan 6 30 Ladies’ Evening Cosmetics Yardley & Go Ltd Royal Star Hotel Joint Pharmaceutical Society Manchester 23 Jan 7 Annual General Meeting folloued by a lecture on The Royal Institute of Chemistry and its Future Dr R E Parker Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society Building George Street Newcastle. 15 Tan 6 30 Chemistrv in Modern Extraction Metallurw - R A Wells Nottingham. 28 Jan 7 30 Automatic Analysis) in Industry and Medi-cine Dr J F Marten hottingham and District Technical College Joint S C I Portsmouth. 22 Jan 7 A Chemist at Sea Dr L H N Cooper Portsmouth College of Technolow .loint Portsmouth and District Rutherford College of Technology Newcastle _. - . Chemical Society Preston 24 Jan 10 30 a m and 3 p m Lecturp for Sixth-Form Science Students Plant Growth Hormones Prof R L Wain Catholic College Hall Reading 24 Jan 6 30 Ladies’ Evening The Buttery University of Reading St Albans 10 Jan Sub Section Annual General Meeting St Albans College of Further Education Hatfield Road Seascale. 24 Jan 8 Recent Investigations at the Laboratory of the Government Chemist D T Lewis Windscale Club Seascale Slough. 22 Jan 7 Radiocarbon Dating H Barker Slough College, William Street Southampton. 7 Feb 5 Aliphatic Electrophilic Substitution Prof Sir Christopher Ingold University of Southampton Joint Lniversit) Joint College Scientific Society Chemical Society Stirling. 22 Jan 7 30 Short Papers by Local Members Golden Lion Hotei Stockport. 11 Feb 630 Carbohydrates and Antibiotics Dr A B Foster College for Further Education Stockport Stockton. 9 Jan 8 Catalysis from’ the Standpoint of Solid State Chemistry Dr F S Stone William Newton School Norton Stockton Stoke-on-Trent. 23 Jan 7 30 The Chemistry of Colour Photography Dr E Macdonald North Staffs College of Technology Stoke-on-Trent Wrexham. 15 Jan 7 30 Annual General Meeting Denbighshire Technical Colleg
ISSN:0368-3958
DOI:10.1039/JI9638700405
出版商:RSC
年代:1963
数据来源: RSC
|
|