摘要:

The beginning of Chinese medicine has been attributed to 3 mythical emperors who gathered herbs for medicines. During the 2nd century BC, Han dynasty physicians developed cranial trephining and sedation with wine and herbs for anesthesia. Chiang Chung-Ching (142-212 AD) used the appearance of rashes in diagnosis, treated infections with anthelmintics and asthma with ephedra, described the symptoms of diabetes mellitus and expanded medical ethics. The specialties of obstetrics, pediatrics, ophthalmology and dentistry were described in the records of the Han and Tang dynasties, and methods of setting fractures and treating trauma were comparable with those of Roman military doctors. Shen Tua (1031-1095 AD) compiled a pharmacopeia and studied acupuncture and the pulses. Forensic medicine was developed during the 10th century by Sung Tse, who also advocated hand washing with sulfur and vinegar to avoid infection during autopsies. The Daoist physicians used androgens and estrogens to treat hypogonadism with therapeutic preparations of placentas. They also had an advanced knowledge of alchemy, claiming to achieve ‘immortality’ by their preservation techniques. Qualifying examinations for physicians were conducted by the Chinese state as early as the 1st century AD, and later incorporated philosophy and art to conform with the Confucian ideal. Throughout these eras, Chinese medicine profited from contact with western Asia. In ancient Chinese medicine, the excretory function of the kidney was attributed to the bladder. ‘Kidney weakness’, which refers to somatized depression, was treated by acupuncture along the ‘kidney channel’. Pulse examination was also used to give a measure of the imbalance of renal Yin and Yang. The association of hardening of the arteries with high salt intake described in the 3rd century BC may be the earliest reference to nephrology; other references include acupuncture points related to the kidney and the castration procedure used in the Imperial Court. After the great voyages of Admiral Cheng Ho, which encompassed searches for new medicinal herbs and minerals, both industry and scientific pursuit declined and were eclipsed

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168737

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

Aristotle incorrectly observed the absence of the kidney in fish and birds and deduced that it was not essential for the existence of a living organism. This underlies his observations on structure and function of the kidney. From examination of rhesus monkeys he generalized that the right kidney is higher than the left. Aristotle did not consider that the renal pelvis is divided by a filter membrane into 2 chambers, and wrote that no blood reaches the renal pelvis. The theory of the ‘filter kidney’ cannot thus be attributed to Aristotle. The function of the kidney was described as being to separate the surplus liquid from the blood inside the renal meat (not in the renal pelvis) and to transform this liquid into what Aristotle called residuum, i.e. the urine. Aristotle also considered that the kidneys acted to anchor the blood vessels to the body. He only briefly considered renal pathol

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168738

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon) was born in 1135 in Cordoba, the son of a Jewish rabbi. After a seminomadic upbringing in Spain and North Africa during the rule of the Almohades, Maimonides settled in Fostate (Old Cairo), where he became renowned as a physician, eventually being appointed as court physician to Saladin and his son. Maimonides wrote both religious and medical treatises, the latter including the Medical Aphorisms of Moses in which he deals with almost all aspects of health and disease. His aphorisms on urine and the kidney were influenced by Galen, to whose contributions he added new dimensions. His aphorisms dealt with a variety of renal diseases recognized today.

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168739

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

Zancari was born in 1278 and practised medicine in Ravenna and Bologna. He is mentioned in the Decameron of Boccaccio and in court records of Bologna in connection with 4 of his students who were accused of exhuming a body for medical research. Zancari’s writings are found in several manuscript versions and include commentaries on Galen and Consilium ad Calcolum, which deals with renal calculosis. His therapeutic rules are summarized in 74 lines and cover both acute and quiescent calculi and prevention. The treatments prescribed do not differ from those in general use at the time, nor are any new concepts introduce

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168740

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

The existence of the Ravenna School of Medicine can be deduced from a codex in the Ambrosian Library of Milan, which contains Latin translations of 3 Hippocratic works and commentaries on 4 works by Galen. Although it was written in the 9th century, the codex appears to be a copy of an earlier work, probably 7th century. The Ambrosian commentaries follow other commentators on Aristotle, rather than the original Aristotelian works, and contain a number of misinterpretations. Nevertheless, the commentaries make it clear that the earliest literature in Salerno had its roots in the studies of classical medicine at the Ravenna School of Medicine, where the teaching was essentially Galenic in structure.

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168741

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

The overall structural organization of the kidney, its vasculature and its excretory units, the nephrons, was the subject of intense study and disagreement for hundreds of years. In 1783, Schumlansky received a doctoral degree with the dissertation De structura renum, in which he presented a detailed and comprehensive description of the major blood vessels of the kidney, the blood vessels of the medulla and pyramids of Ferrein and the malpighian glandula. He concluded the dissertation with a description of 3 experiments on a pig kidney, deducing a connection between the glomerulus and the uriniferous tubule, though his illustration of it was far from convincing. It was only 59 years later that Bowman proved Schumlansky to be correct.

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168742

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

Cotugno (1736-1822) was the first to describe the presence of albumin in the urine of a patient with nephrotic syndrome, though he did not place much emphasis on this discovery, which is buried in his many other observations in anatomy, physiology, medical pathology and therapy. Cotugno was a well-known scholar of his time, though he came from a humble background and was largely self-taught. He gained a medical degree from the Salerno School of Medicine at the age of 20 years. He was a prolific researcher and writer, conscientious practitioner of medicine, and a collector of books and antiquities. Much of his library was lost after his death or burned by his wife for unknown reasons.

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168743

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

Bizzozero was born in 1846 and graduated in medicine at the age of 20 years. After working in Pavia for some years he was appointed Professor of General Pathology in Turin. Here he collaborated with many famous scientists in Italy and abroad. His interest in hematopoietic cells culminated in a description of platelets and their essential involvement in the blood clotting mechanism in vivo. Before Bizzozero’s work, the description of platelets had been unclear, and both red and white cells were thought to be required for formation of blood clots. Although Bizzozero’s discovery was disputed vigorously for several years, he was finally vindicated in 1892, unfortunately 1 year after his death. Apart from his extensive work, he bequeathed to science the benefit of his logical descriptions and rigorous experimental appro

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168744

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

The vitalistic doctrine of Aristotle and Galen, in which the soul is an indissoluble part of the body, was undisputed throughout most of the Middle Ages. The first radical change came with Telesio, who developed philosophic naturalism in which the soul has a reality of its own, though it is connected to the body. The definitive change came with Descartes, who believed that all biologic phenomena can be explained by the laws of mechanics, and only man is distinguished by the possession of a soul. For the next 300 years, this mechanistic view would be challenged by a new vitalism, in which the ‘vital force’ has an existence in its own ri

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168745

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger

摘要:

Medical science in the 2nd half of the 19th century proceeded in a stepwise fashion, when the development of new techniques permitted the evaluation of living processes by direct microscopic or endoscopic inspection, as well as by quantitative measurements of the underlying physical and chemical forces. Ludwig, Henle, Helmholtz and DuBois-Reymond all contributed in different ways to the evolution of medicine and physiology into natural sciences, freed from romantic, philosophic speculation. Nephrology benefitted from this development and from the contributions of the non-nephrologists to natural science.

ISSN:0250-8095    

DOI:10.1159/000168746

出版商:S. Karger AG    

年代:1994

数据来源: Karger