摘要:

A ‘wildlife connection’ has been proposed to link several human sexual-endocrine abnormalities with synthetic chemicals in the environment. A review of several frequently cited examples of ‘endocrine disruption’ in wildlife indicates, however, that any connection is remote at best. The reported loss of sexuality by bald eagles is attributed to misinterpretations of the wording in a popular article; no supporting data can be found. The existence of feminized male western gulls remains hypothetical; an alternative and plausible explanation for a skewed sex ratio and female-female pairing in this species is supported by field data. Dioxin-related effects in wildlife complement an extensive human data base but provide no obvious insight to the causes of the sexual-endocrine dysfunctions. Sexual abnormalities of the Lake Apopka alligators are attributed to leakage of the nematicide DBCP from a manufacturing facility; DBCP is no longer used because of its capacity to reduce human sperm counts to zero. While concern about effects of low-level exposure of people to synthetic chemicals that exert biological activity continues to be justified, human health risk assessment protocols might incorporate both an extra amount of skepticism and an enhanced respect for scientific rigor.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289167

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289176

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

摘要:

This essay attempts to provide an analytical apparatus which may be used for finding an authoritative formulation1of the Precautionary Principle. Several formulations of the Precautionary Principle are examined. Four dimensions of the principle are identified: (1) the threat dimension, (2) the uncertainty dimension, (3) the action dimension, and (4) the command dimension. It is argued that the Precautionary Principle can be recast into the following if-clause, containing these four dimensions: “Ifthere is (1) a threat, which is (2) uncertain,then(3) some kind of action (4) is mandatory.” The phrases expressing these dimensions may vary in (a) precision and (b) strength. It is shown that it is the dimension containing the weakest phrase that determines the strength of the entire principle. It is suggested that the four-dimensional if-clause be used as an analytical apparatus in negotiations of the Precautionary Principle.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289185

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

摘要:

In most discussions of the Precautionary Principle, it is implicitly assumed that we are at a point near risk neutrality, so that the principle aims at moving away from risk neutrality in the direction of more risk-averse behavior. In this paper it is argued that actual decision-making in environmental issues is often on the opposite, risk taking, side of risk neutrality. A minimal version of the Precautionary Principle consists in moving from such a position in the direction of risk neutrality. Some methods for achieving this are discussed, such as less consensus-seeking scientific procedures, requirements that scientific committees identify less probable but serious scenarios, interpretative presumptions, and supplementary statistical measures for type II errors.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289194

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

摘要:

Posing the question of whether the precautionary principle has a role in risk assessment effectively constrains any debate of the issue within a framework predicated on the assumption that application of risk assessment is inevitable in the formulation of regulatory decisions. The question can equally validly be expressed in terms of whether there is a role for risk assessment in the formulation of precautionary legislation. This allows the debate then to turn on consideration of two questions: Firstly, does the precautionary principle have a role in policy development? and secondly, is this role consistent and compatible with a risk based approach to regulation? When recast in these terms, a more holistic comparison of the aims and objectives of both approaches and of their relative power in the formulation of regulation becomes possible. This leads to the conclusion that the precautionary principle is, when defined and applied correctly, scientifically more robust than risk assessment. Precautionary approaches utilize scientific information and conform robustly to a scientific process but also explicitly incorporate indeterminacies into the decision making framework. Moreover, the precautionary principle when applied to environmental regulation, is more likely to lead to regulation consistent with global sustainability. On this premise, this paper argues that risk based approaches are essentially incompatible with approaches based on the precautionary paradigm, and that of the two, risk assessment is more likely to lead to unsustainable underprotection of the environment.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289202

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

摘要:

The Precautionary Principle came out of European efforts to clean-up and protect marine ecosystems in the 1980s. Since then, several North American activities have elaborated on this approach in U.S. environmental programs. Unfortunately, US organizations and agencies have not developed strategies and guidelines for implementing the Precautionary Principle in either statutory or voluntary environmental programs. Recent interest in this approach from some members of the scientific, non-profit, and regulatory communities highlights the need to understand the history and conceptual basis of the Precautionary Principle. In this paper we address several of these issues. First, we summarize the pertinent US history of the Precautionary Principle. Next, we describe the scientific framework for the principle. Finally, we make the case that this provides unique opportunities for scientists to obtain meaning in their work by fulfilling what has been called the new Social Contract.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289211

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

摘要:

The Precautionary Principle, generated during the late 1980s as a unifying principle for regulating discharge of hazardous material into the North Sea, has been broadened to include a shifting of the burden of proof to the proponent of a proposed activity, adoption of a more holistic assessment process, and encompassing all environmental management decisions, not just pollution prevention activities. We argue that the Precautionary Principle remains a management philosophy, not a substitute for risk assessment. Risk assessment is a tool for organizing information used in environmental management decisions. However, increasing attention to reducing the Type II error of risk assessment studies would significantly reduce the skepticism with which many view the risk assessment process. A critical review of default assumptions used in risk assessments, inclusion of indirect effects within an ecologically relevant spatial/temporal framework, and better communication between risk assessors and risk managers also would enhance the acceptability of the process. Risk assessment can provide a sound basis for management decisions regardless of the underlying philosophies of environmental conservation or utilitarianism, but only if the inherent biases in the risk assessment assumptions are acknowledged explicitly throughout the assessment and management processes.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289220

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

摘要:

Current controversy regarding how and when the precautionary principle should be applied to the introduction of new technology has created a false dichotomy, a dichotomy between conventional, risk-based decision making and an alternative paradigm that seemingly denounces risk assessment. As we compare views of the precautionary principle relative to our own operating standards for ensuring human and environmental safety, we perceive no irreconcilable conflict. Due precaution is entirely consistent with sound, cost-effective management of the risks and uncertainties inherent in new technologies. The principle guides prudent risk management actions under a prescribed set of circumstances,i.e.,potentially serious or irreversible risks, or incomplete characterization (high uncertainty). In order to enable technological innovation toward a more sustainable future, it is critical that any preventative measures taken under these circumstances be provisional in nature, pending adequate risk characterization. As with all risk management decisions, we contend that the principle requires consideration of a suite of factors beyond risk assessment, including political, social, legal and cultural considerations to tailor the measures proportionately to the risk at hand. Overall, we are encouraged to find relatively broad agreement in this interpretation with a number of key multinational governmental and trade institutions.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289239

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289248

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor

摘要:

Hormetic effects have been purported to be both beneficial and adverse. The decision of whether an effect is adverse or beneficial can have important implications for public health and risk assessment. A functional approach is proposed for determining the types of responses available for the incorporation of hormesis in the RfD process. These response categories include: (1) beneficial; (2) adverse; and (3) either beneficial or adverse depending on specific circumstances. Examples of endpoints in each category are presented and discussed. Other issues affecting the RfD process include: (1) the integration of multiple hormetic responses; (2) the importance of endpoint selection in determining the type of hormetic response; and (3) the assumption of hormesis when responses are unobservable due to low background response in controls.

ISSN:1080-7039    

DOI:10.1080/10807039991289257

出版商:TAYLOR & FRANCIS    

年代:1999

数据来源: Taylor