摘要:

On the 30th anniversary of the American Vacuum Society, the Vacuum Technology Division presented a session on the History of Vacuum Science and Technology. The author was asked to present a paper on the history of the AVS and the IUVSTA for this session. Topics selected for discussion include the formation, growth, organizational structure, and strategy of operation of the AVS. Other subjects covered are publications, scholarships, and the author’s own personal experience in setting up two major awards for the Society. For a more comprehensive and detailed history of the AVS, the reader should consult ‘‘The First Twenty Years of the American Vacuum Society’’ [J. Vac. Sci. Technol.10, 833 (1978)] and ‘‘The American Vacuum Society—1973 to 1983’’ [J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A1, 1351 (1983)]. Other countries have also organized their own vacuum societies. Many of these, some 22 in number, including the AVS, are members of the IUVSTA, an international confederation of national vacuum organizations. The formation and early history of this organization is described, including its new scientific divisions patterned after the AVS. Various objectives and activities of the Union are discussed.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572651

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Highlights of the development of vacuum science and technology from ancient times to the early 20th century are reviewed. The view of the Greek philosophers that vacuum was an impossibility hampered understanding of the basic principles of vacuum until the mid‐17th century. Verifiable vacua were first produced in Italy by Berti and Torricelli; von Guericke’s dramatic experiments vividly demonstrated atmospheric pressure. Pistonlike ‘‘air pumps’’ were widely used in England and the European continent through the 18th and early 19th centuries to produce and characterize the properties of vacuum (lack of sound transmission, inability to support life, gas discharges, etc.). The Industrial Revolution was made possible through the genius of Newcomen, who designed huge atmospheric engines (based on condensation of steam to form a vacuum beneath a piston, which was then driven by the pressure of the atmosphere). A system of ‘‘atmospheric railways’’ propelled by vacuum pistons was built in England in the mid‐19th century. Serious scientific developments of the 19th century which necessitated vacuum included Crookes’ and Faraday’s gaseous discharge measurements, the first sputtering experiments by Grove, the isolation of the rare gases by Ramsay, the standards work of Miller, the discovery of the electron by Thomson, and of x‐rays by Röntgen. The development of the incandescent light by Edison provided a background for the remarkable achievements of Langmuir in vacuum and surface science at the dawn of the 20th century. An Appendix is included which lists museums containing vacuum‐related exhibits.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572681

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

A brief outline of the development of methods for pumping of fluids is presented, emphasizing parallel progress of conceptual understanding and technological achievement. Early experiments with vacuum pumping in the 17th and 18th centuries are reviewed, but the main discussion is reserved for the developments made during the last 100 years when vacuum technology became an industrial practice. Accelerated progress in the development of new pumping methods and in the design of vacuum pumps was made in response to requirements of industrial applications. These include incandescent lamps, vacuum tubes, vacuum distillation, vacuum instruments such as mass spectrometers, electron microscopes, particle accelerators and cathode ray tubes, nuclear energy, vacuum metallurgy, space simulation, thin film deposition for microelectronics, and surface analysis. Each of the above led to some progress in vacuum pump technology ranging from mechanical pumps and diffusion pumps to turbopumps, cryopumps, and ion‐getter pumps. A brief history of the development of high vacuum pumps in the United States, written by B. B. Dayton, is included in the Appendix.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572699

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

The components used in vacuum systems have undergone profound change during the 20th century. The development has been driven both by the needs of research and of commercial manufacturing. It is, however, remarkable that the sealing wax and string era persisted through the 1940’s even in large research establishments. The present wide range of reliable commercial components became available only with the demand for ultrahigh vacuum capability, and with the development of helium leak detection techniques which permit rapid assessment of vacuum integrity. This paper provides a historical perspective of the evolution of: (a) sealing techniques for feedthroughs and for connections between components, (b) valves for isolation and for control of gas flow, and (c) traps to minimize the backstreaming of pumping fluids.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572708

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

A historical review of the science and technology of pressure measurement, in the vacuum range, is given from the first measurement of a subatmospheric pressure in the 1650’s until 1945. The modern period (from 1945 to the present) is reviewed with emphasis on the elucidation of the processes limiting the performance of various vacuum gauges (both total and partial pressure) and the practical solutions to these limitations. A comparison of the performance of modern vacuum gauges is presented.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572709

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

During the past 15 yr surface science has experienced extensive and profound changes. This historical review is devoted to the development of the theme that these changes considered collectively constitute a scientific revolution in the sense described by Thomas Kuhn. The recognition of the consequences of inelastic collisions of fast electrons played a key role in initiating the modern era in surface science. The resulting explosive development of surface characterization spectroscopies is discussed and shown to have led to a fundamental alteration in our perception of a surface or interface. Whereas in the mid‐1960’s an interface was regarded merely as the boundary between two bulk media, today it is seen as an independent entity: a state of matter determined by its history and exhibiting its own unique composition, structure, and electronic properties. The review concludes with a brief indication of the role of the American Vacuum Society in promoting and facilitating the development of surface science and the diffusion of its results during this formative period.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572710

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

For 30 years vacuum technology has responded to spontaneous efforts to extend the limits of vacuum production and measurement and to the demands of diverse fields of application. In the future it is predicted that: vacuum pumps will see incremental improvements, particularly cryogenic pumps; more fundamental and less empirical research will take place on seals and outgassing leading to major improvements; vacuum gauges will improve incrementally; calibration will improve greatly and will be extended to 10−13Pa (10−15Torr); calibration methods will utilize cryogenics; leak detectors with sensitivities approaching 10−13cm3STP s−1will appear commercially; a gauge to assess directly the interaction of ambient gases on surfaces will be developed; more special purpose vacuum facilities, such as storage rings and fusion reactors, will be built; portable systems at ultrahigh vacuum will multiply; microelectronics under vacuum will master the control of fabrication from 10 to 10 000 Å and new products will appear, in particular three‐dimensional structures; there will be a synthesis of vacuum technology with lasers, superconductors, catalysis, and solar energy; pervading all these developments will be an ever‐increasing application of microprocessors and computers to vacuum systems of all kinds.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572711

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

Accurate pressure measurement with most types of vacuum gauges is critically dependent on a knowledge of the composition of the gas being measured. This paper will discuss the gas dependence of measurement with a number of commonly used types of vacuum gauges. Particular emphasis will be placed on recent work in the author’s laboratory which has shown how the accuracy of capacitance manometers can be affected if the possibility of thermal transpiration is ignored. Methods have been derived and proven for applying corrections when capacitance manometers are used with a wide variety of gases. The dependence of other types of vacuum measuring equipment on gas composition will also be discussed and recent investigations with spinning rotar gauges and ionization gauges will be reviewed. In the paper the potential of small mass spectrometers for quantitative gas analysis will be discussed. The most recent results on the evaluation of these instruments will be given for both small quadrupoles and magnetic sector instruments. The various methods of calibrating these instruments will be discussed with particular emphasis on the requirements of process industries and the monitoring of environmental pollutants.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572712

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

The fundamental ionization gauge equationp=i+/(Si−) can be rigorously derived. However, the values of the two currentsi+andi−can only be inferred from measurements of the ion collector currentIcand electron emission currentIe. Measurements are reported in which some physical parameters upon whichi+andi−are dependent were varied under closely controlled conditions. Experimental evidence is presented to show that the sensitivitySof Bayard–Alpert (BA) gauges varies with changes in the electron emission density pattern along the length of the hot cathode. Because the grid intercepts an appreciable fraction of the electron current on each pass through the grid, small changes in the emission density pattern can cause the fraction intercepted to vary widely. Therefore, the amount of ionizing currenti−in the ion collection volume varies causing sizable changes in the rate of ion production and in the gauge sensitivity. It is concluded that these causes of changes in sensitivity in BA gauges are inherent in all ionization gauges in which a change in the emission density pattern can effect the rate of ion production.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572713

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP

摘要:

A primary cause of inaccuracies in Bayard–Alpert (BA) gauges has been previously identified as the unstable and nonreproducible distribution of electron emission from hot cathodes. Because of uncontrollable variations and instabilities in electron emission density pattern along the length of a hot cathode, the assumptions required to apply the fundamental ionization gauge equation,p=i+/(Si−), are not well satisfied in BA gauges or other ionization gauges employing grids. A new class of ionization gauge geometries is described which avoids these difficulties by closely satisfying the assumptions. New geometries are defined so that regardless of where on the hot cathode an electron is emitted, the electron has the same probability of causing ionization as any other emitted electron. Computer simulated electron and ion trajectories are presented for an optimum simple geometry. Testing of hardware has shown that our computer model is a good predictor of actual electron trajectories. Extensive testing including life testing is being carried out but the limits of performance of this new design have not yet been ascertained. These data indicate it should be possible to duplicate the pressure range of the BA gauge in a simple ionization gauge that is fully compatible with existing gauge controllers and which provides considerably better stability and reproducibilty of gauge sensitivity than does a BA gauge.

ISSN:0734-2101    

DOI:10.1116/1.572714

出版商:American Vacuum Society    

年代:1984

数据来源: AIP