ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD01421

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Airborne measurements in the srnoke from the Kuwait oil fires in May and June 1991 indicate that the combined oil and gas emissions were equivalent to the consumption of about 4.6 million barrels of oil per day. The combustion was relatively efficient, with about 96% of the fuel carbon burned emitted as CO2. Particulate smoke emissions averaged 2% of the fuel burned, of which about 20% was soot. About two‐thirds of the mass of the smoke was accounted for by salt, soot, and sulfate. The salt most likely originated from oil field brines, which were ejected from the wells along with the oil. The salt accounts for the fact that many of the plumes were white. SO2and NOxwere removed from the smoke at rates of about 6 and 22% per hour, respectively. The high salt and sulfate contents explain why a large fraction of the particles in the smoke were efficient cloud condensation nucle

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD01247

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Emission factors are presented for particles, elemental carbon (i.e., soot), total organic carbon in particles and vapor, and for various trace gases from the 1991 Kuwait oil fires. Particle emissions accounted for ∼2% of the fuel burned. In general, soot emission factors were substantially lower than those used in recent “nuclear winter” calculations. Differences in the emissions and appearances of some of the individual fires are discussed. Carbon budget data for the composite plumes from the Kuwait fires are summarized; most of the burned carbon in the plumes was in the form of CO2. Fluxes are presented for several combustion pro

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD01370

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

We report trace gas measurements made both inside and outside the Kuwait oil‐fire smoke plume during a flight of an instrumented research aircraft on May 30, 1991. Concentrations of SO2, CO, and NOxaveraged vertically and horizontally throughout the plume 80 km downwind of Kuwait City were 106, 127, and 9.1 parts per billion by volume (ppbv), respectively, above background concentrations. With the exception of SO2, trace gas concentrations were far below typical U.S. urban levels and primary national ambient air quality standards. Ambient ozone was titrated by NO in the dark, dense core of the smoke plume close to the fires, and photochemical ozone production was limited to the diffuse edge of the plume. Photochemical O3production was noted throughout the plume at a distance of 160 km downwind of Kuwait City, and averaged 2.3 ppbv per hour during the first 3 hours of transport. Little additional photochemical production was noted at a downwind range of 340 km. The fluxes of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and reactive nitrogen from the roughly 520 fires still burning on May 30, 1991 are estimated at 1.4 × 107kg SO2/d, 6.9 × 106kg CO/d, and 2.7 × 105kg N/d, respectively. Generally low concentrations of CO and NOxindicate that the combustion was efficient and occurred at low temperatures. Low total nonmethane hydrocarbon concentrations suggest that the volatile components of the petroleum were burned efficie

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD00998

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Ozone depletion occurred in the core of the plume of smoke from the Kuwait oil fires within 100 km of the fires, primarily in regions where NOxconcentrations were high and ultraviolet flux was near zero. Rapid conversion of NO to NO2can explain almost all of the ozone loss. Ozone was produced in diffuse regions of the plume, where the ultraviolet flux was higher than in the core. However, due to the relatively high ratio of nonmethane hydrocarbons to NOx, ozone production was slow. Since ozone was produced in a much larger volume than it was depleted, the plume as a whole was a source of ozone on a regional scale.

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD01369

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Analyses are reported for eight aerosol samples taken from the National Center for Atmospheric Research Electra typically 200 to 250 km downwind of Kuwait between May 19 and June 1, 1991. Aerosols were separated into fine (Dp<2.5 μm) and coarse (2.5

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD01373

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

While the Kuwaiti oil‐fire smoke plumes manifested a pronounced impact on solar radiation in the Gulf region (visibility, surface temperatures, etc.), smoke plume concentrations of combustion‐generated pollutants suggest that the overall chemical impact on the atmosphere of the smoke from these fires was probably much less than anticipated. Combustion in the Kuwaiti oil fires was surprisingly efficient, releasing on average more than 93% of the combusted hydrocarbon fuels as carbon dioxide (CO2). Correspondingly, combustion‐produced quantities of carbon monoxide (CO) and carbonaceous particles were low, each ∼2% by weight. The fraction of methane (CH4) produced by the fires was also relatively low (∼0.2%), but source emissions of nonmethane hydrocarbons were high (∼2%). Processes other than combustion (e.g., volatilization) probably contributed significantly to the measured in‐plume hydrocarbon concentrations. Substantially different elemental to organic carbon ratios were obtained for aerosol particles from several different types of fires/smokes. Sulfur emissions (particulate and gaseous) measured at the source fires were lower (∼0.5%) than predicted based on average sulfur contents in the crude. Sulfur dioxide measurements (SO2) reported herein, however, were both limited in actual number and in the number of well fires sampled. Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from the Kuwaiti oil fires were very low and often could not be distinguished from background concentrations. About 25–30% of the fires produced white smoke plumes that were found to be highly enriched in sodium and

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD00967

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Electrooptical scattering was used to detect aggregated particle chains in the smoke from the Kuwait oil fires. Nonsphericity was detected by the change in light scattering brought about by induced alignment of particles when subjected to a pulsed, bipolar electric field. Measured parameters included the steady state enhancement of light scattering for complete orientation of the particles, and the rotational diffusion constant, calculated from the time required for the particles to relax to a random orientation after the electric field was removed. Chain aggregates of soot formed within seconds of combustion for those fires producing black smoke. These aggregates agglomerated to some extent in the smoke near the fires, but then remained relatively unchanged for several hours of travel downwind. Very little non sphericity was detected for particles in the plumes of white smoke, which consisted primarily of salt brine products emitted along with the oil.

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD01372

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Fast response in situ particle measurements within the Kuwait oil smoke plume showed that about 70% of the particles are cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) active at about 1% super saturation. The CCN size range included the entire measured particle size range between 0.024 and 1 μm. The portion of the aerosol spectrum below 0.1 μm appeared to be internally mixed (various compositions within each particle), while the larger particles tended to be externally mixed (various compositions for different particles but homogeneous composition within each particle). The majority of the CCN are very water soluble (critical supersaturations below 0.2%). This significant CCN source could have important climatic effects by altering cloud albedo and precipitation. However, cloud scavenging will reduce the atmospheric lifetimes of the particles, which is an important consideration in large‐scale atmospheric injections such as nuclear winter scenar

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD00800

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Aircraft‐based measurements of optical extinction, optical scattering, and particle mass concentrations were obtained in the smoke from the Kuwait oil fires during May and June 1991. These measurements were used to derive optical absorption, single‐scattering albedo (ω˜), specific absorption and the amount of soot in the smoke. Measurements were made in smoke from individual oil wells, pool fires and in composite smoke plumes. The value ofω˜for smoke from the individual fires was either 0.35–0.4 (for the black smoke) or 0.85–0.95 (for the white smoke). For the aged composite plume from all of the fires,ω˜ranged from 0.52 to 0.6. The specific absorption of the composite smoke varied from about 2 m2g−1near the fires to about 1.5 m2g

ISSN:0148-0227    

DOI:10.1029/92JD01374

年代:1992

数据来源: WILEY