摘要:

Editorial Quality into the next century This issue features a number of articles that are based on key papers presented at the QUASIMEME±QUASH Conference held at Egmond aan Zee The Netherlands October 6±9 1999. As ``quality control and assurance'' QUASIMEME±QUASH The QUASIMEME Project was born out of the Ministerial Conference on the North Sea held in London in 1987. It began as an EU funded project in 1992 with 89 laboratories drawn from around Europe. When the EU funds terminated in 1996 the participants elected to develop the programme by subscription and by opening the membership worldwide. Over the four years since 1996 the participation has expanded to 29 different countries and 215 laboratories. Since 1996 QUASIMEME has provided a conÆdential service to all subscribing laboratories worldwide which make chemical measurements in themarine and estuarine environments.1±5 QUASIMEME is much more than a proÆciency testing scheme.Laboratory Box 1 Seawater and estuarine water Nutrients trace metals organochlorine pesticides and volatile organochlorines (VOCs) organophosphorus pesticides triazine herbicides and phenoxy acids Sediment and biological matrices Trace metals polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) organochlorine pesticides chlorinated dioxins (PCDDs) and furans (PCDFs) polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Biological effects measurements Imposex and intersex in marine snailsa Development exercises Chlorobornanes (Toxaphene) in biota Organotins in biota sediment and seawater Chlorophylla a In collaboration with the EU Project ``BEQUALM'' a quality assurance programme for biological effects on marine species.This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 constitutes an important subject area for JEM we have asked David E. Wells QUASIMEME (Quality Assurance of Information for Marine Environmental Monitoring in Europe) Project Manager and QUASH (Quality Assurance of Sampling and Sample Handling) Coordinator from the FRS Marine Performance Studies (LPSs) are organised according to the ISO 43 and provide external Quality Assurance (QA) to support quality management and quality measurement. Participants may use the QUASIMEME assessment of study data to validate internal laboratory QA provide support to accreditation or furnish QA for environmental monitoring data for either national or international programmes.The QUASIMEME LPSs routinely include the following chemical measurements at concentration ranges which reØect those found in estuarine coastal or open water areas (see Box 1) QUASIMEME also coordinates a number of Development Exercises which comprise a stepwise series of News Laboratory Aberdeen UK to provide some context for these papers and to give a brief history of the QUASIMEME/QUASH Projects and the activities conducted under their umbrella. Harpal Minhas Managing Editor interlaboratory studies for new methods for chemical or biochemical measurements. They provide a basis for method performance studies e.g.the Smedes' method for lipid determination.6 QUASIMEME has international recognition and the support from the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) Oslo and Paris Commission (OSPAR) Mediterranean Pollution Monitoring and Research Programme (MEDPOL) Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) the InternationalCouncil for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES) the European Co-operation for Accredited Laboratories (EAL) and a number of NationalMarineMonitoringProgrammes ofmember countries.Currently the project is administered by FRSMarine 69N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Laboratory Aberdeen UK with a core staff of 4 scientists and administratorswith an International ScientiÆc Assessment Group and an Advisory Board whose members comprise representatives of the key internationalmarine regulatory bodies in Europe.The QUASH project focuses on sample collection,handling andpretreatment.4,5 It evolved as an obvious development within a holistic structure of qualitymanagement. QUASHstudies have been conducted on a wide scale with 15±17 laboratories throughout Europe. This has enabled muchof the collaborativeprogrammetobe designedasa seriesofmethodperformance studies.Examples include evaluationof the preservation of nutrients in seawater reliable measurement of lipid content in 70N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 relation to the determination of organic contaminants,6 and the analysis of sediment fractions for trace elements and organic contaminants.Anultimate goal of such interlaboratory studies is to provide clear guidelines to commissions and marine monitoring organizations. In addition to routine LPSs development exercises and small hands-on workshops QUASIMEME and QUASH hold a review conference approximately every three years. The Ærst was held in Crieff,Scotland in 1996andthe conference at Egmond aan Zee was the second. References 1 D. E. Wells and and W. P. CoÆno in Quality Assurance in Environmental Monitoring Sampling and Sample Pretreatment ed. Ph. Quevauviller VCH Weinheim 1995 pp. 255±290. 2 QUASIMEME Quality Measurements for Marine Monitoring Review of the EU Project 1993±1996 ed. G. Topping Mar. Pollut. Bul. 1997 35 (1±6). 3 D. E. Wells A. Aminot J. De Boer W. CoÆno D. Kirkwood and B. Pedersen Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1997 35 3. 4 D. E. Wells and W. P. CoÆno Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1997 35 10. 5 D. E. Wells and W. P. CoÆno Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1997 35 146. 6 F. Smedes Analyst 1999 124 1711. David E.Wells E-mail quasiememe@marlab.ac.uk Web site http://www.quasimeme.marlab.ac.uk/

ISSN:0960-7919    

DOI:10.1039/b007193p

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Unhealthy particles At the beginning of the twenty-Ærst century we still have only a partial understanding of the effects on human health of one of the most basic pollutants particulate matter. Yet recent epidemiological studies suggest the social costs of air pollution are far higher than previously thought. Air pollution has widespread impacts on the environment on quality of life and on human health. The economic costs of air pollution have been studied for many years. We now have excellent data on for example the costs of industrial pollution controls developing cleaner or substitute fuels deposition on forests and vegetation and repairing buildings from acid rain damage. It is increasingly apparent however that the costs of air pollution are measured not only in monetary terms but also in human lives.Yet only recently have we started to quantify the health impacts. Of the many pollutants of potential signiÆcance to health most attention has Box 1 Validating health data EPA's 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter cited two major studies of air pollution and mortality undertaken in the early 1990s. These studies have been the basis for nearly every worldwide assessment of the beneÆts of reducing particulate air pollution by the World Health Organisation EPA and others. In the light of intense pressure from Congress industry the scientiÆc community and others for public scrutiny of the supporting data the Health Effects Institute undertook an intensive reanalysis of the two studies.The reanalysis afÆrmed the validity of the original methodologies and results and provided important new insights from the original data. These included (1) The relation between air quality and mortality appears to be modiÆed by level of education in that estimated mortality effects were higher in the subgroup with less than school education. (2) The use of spatial analytic methods suggested that when the analyses controlled for correlations among cities located near one another the associations between mortality and Æne particles or sulfate remained but were diminished. (3) An association between sulfur dioxide mortality was observed and persisted when other possible confounding variables were included. Furthermore when sulfur dioxide was included in models with Æne particles or sulfate the associations between these pollutants (Æne particles and sulfate) and mortality diminished.Adapted from ref. 3. This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 focused on particulate matter (PM). This is both the most prevalent air pollutant and it turns out also one of the most complex in health terms. Epidemiological studies generally support an association between PM and adverse health outcomes but many questions remain about how PM may cause such effects and who is most at risk. Progressive regulation The sources of particulates are many and varied. They include natural sources such as dust storms and forest Æres and man-made sources such as power plants motor vehicles and industry.1 In addition to the primary particles emitted directly secondary particles are formed from atmospheric reactions of sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxides and certain organic compounds.Diesel exhaust has been singled out as a major culprit. Moves to improve fuel efÆciency and promote public transport Focus in developed countries have led to a large increase in the number of diesel-powered vehicles. Diesel exhaust is a complex mixture of hundreds of chemical compounds in either a gaseous or particle phase and unlike petrol exhaust contains a high concentration of Æne and ultraÆne particles.2 Being highly respirable and having a very large surface area these particles are an excellent carrier for inorganic and organic exhaust products.Many of the organic compounds adsorbed onto diesel PM such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and oxidised PAH derivatives are known carcinogens. Potential health consequences from air pollution Ærst came into the public consciousness in the 1950s and 60s as major cities in Europe North America and elsewhere began to experience smogs resulting from the growth of industry and vehicle trafÆc. Governments responded by passing clean air legislation which removed the worst i.e. the most visible pollution. While these 71N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Focus largely allayed public concern at the time scientiÆc evidence began to emerge that PM should remain a key focus for regulation.Over the last thirty years regulators have moved to control successively smaller particles from PM up to 40 mm in diameter (referred to as total suspended particles [TSP]) to less than 10 mm (PM10) and most recently to less than 2.5 mm (PM2.5). In 1997 the US Environmental Protection Agency decided to retain the existing PM10 standards and to add both a daily and an annual standard for PM2.5 to provide increased public health protection.1 EPA's decision was controversial and was criticised by industry Congress and some in the scientiÆc community who said that the health case for regulating ever-smaller particles was unproven. A recent reanalysis of supporting studies has strengthened the EPA's case however (see Table 1).3 In 1998 the European Union adopted limit values for PM10 and called for new research on Æne particles to determine whether this fraction should also be regulated.Counting the costs A variety of studies over recent years have begun to quantify the health consequences of air pollution and especially PM at local national and international levels. In the UK the Ærst ofÆcial quantitative estimates were published in 1998.4 Looking at estimated health impacts of three common pollutants an expert committee concluded that air pollution accounted for up to 24 000 premature deaths each year in the UK and a similar number of hospital admissions. Particulates contributed to around 8100 premature deaths and 10 500 hospital admissions compared to 3500 deaths and 3500 admissions for sulfur dioxide and 12 500 deaths and 9900 admissions for ozone.Nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide both of which are thought to contribute signiÆcantly to short-term pollution effects were not considered due to insufÆcient data. Commenting on the experts' Ændings at the time Committee Chairman Dr Jon Ayers said the report almost certainly ``underestimated the true health effects of air pollution'' since it failed to take account of the effects of short-term pollution episodes on vulnerable groups such as the elderly and those suffering from respiratory 72N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 diseases.5 The long-term effects on these groups and on healthy people had also not been quantiÆed.Important questions remained unanswered according to Dr Ayres. ``What we would really like to know is if you live in a town like London is your life signiÆcantly shortened compared to living in a rural areaºIn a large population there may be a very signiÆcant effect'' he said. The British research was followed soon after by very different results from a study in France.6 Looking at the relationship between short-term air pollution excursions and mortality rates in nine French cities researchers from the French Institute of Health (INSERM) estimated that air pollution accounted for 265 premature deaths each year. They found that mortality rates increased by between 3 and 4% for a 50 mg l21 rise in concentration of any of the four pollutants studied– particulates sulfur dioxide nitrogen dioxide and ozone.Cardiovascular deaths increased by between 2 and 5% and respiratory deaths by between 1 and 6%. No major variations were found between geographical and demographic areas. The analysis was based on continuous monitoring of both epidemiological and air quality data between 1990 and 1995 and conÆrmed the results of a previous study for the Paris region. Further studies from Norway and Greece put the scale of estimated health effects similar to those of the British survey and much larger than those estimated by INSERM. The Norwegian study put the total national deaths at up to 2000 with fatalities dying on average seven years prematurely.7 Social costs nationwide mainly lost working days and hospital treatment could cost up to NKr 28 billion (e3.4 billion) per year.For diesel engines the study contrasted the costs of health impacts NKr 3± 10 l21 with the NKr 4 l21 collected in taxes. In Greece using ofÆcial information and WHO methodology Greenpeace estimated that air pollution accounted for around 1300 deaths per year.8 The group called for stronger government action to reduce emissions including a ban on diesel taxis which it says are responsible for more than 20% of Athens' total vehicle mileage. Earlier this year the Health Effects Institute in the US published the results of a major investigation into links between particular matter and mortality.9 The National Morbidity Mortality and Air Pollution Study (NMMAPS) looked at both the health effects of air pollution and at methodological issues in this type of research.In analyses for both the 20 and 90 largest US cities NMMAPS found overall mortality increased by an average of 0.5% for every 10 mg m23 increase in PM10 measured the day after death. This effect was slightly greater for deaths due to heart and lung disease than for total deaths. The morbidity analysis showed an approximate increase of 1% in admissions for cardiovascular disease and about 2% in admissions for pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease for each 10 mg m23 increase in PM10. Further analyses are currently being undertaken on regional differences mortality±morbidity effects and concentration±response relationships.In August The Lancet published what is claimed to be the Ærst study to use comparable data covering more than one country.10 Dr Nino Ku» nzli and colleagues at the University of Basel estimated the impact of trafÆc-related air pollution on public health in Austria France and Switzerland. The researchers estimated cases of illness and death attributable to quantiÆed increases in PM10. They concluded that in the three countries studied 6% of deaths (or more than 40 000 deaths per year) were caused by air pollution half of which was trafÆc-related. Pollution from motor vehicles also accounted for more than 25 000 new cases of chronic bronchitis more than 0.5 million asthma attacks and more than 16 million person-days of restricted activities.Other recent research from the UK has presented evidence for a substantial rise in adult asthma.11 While large increases in childhood asthma are well documented this is one of the Ærst studies to establish a similar trend in adults. The results show a doubling of adult allergic asthma in the two decades to 1996 and although causation was not investigated the researchers suggest emissions of Æne particles from motor vehicles and other sources are the most likely cause. Probing the PM±health link These and other epidemiological studies have advanced considerably our understanding of the health effects of ambient PM. Overall the evidence suggests there is an association between ambient PM exposures and adverse health outcomes–either death or illness.However the magnitude of the effects depends on environmental and biological factors which have yet to be explained. Or as EPA says in its 1999 draft of the Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter ``ºcurrent levels of ambient PM may be harmful to human health but not necessarily equally harmful everywhere or at all times''.1 Current work is advancing on several fronts.12 Some researchers are looking at health endpoints using ambient PM10 and closely related mass concentration indices such as PM13 and PM7. Others are evaluating the effects of different size fractions of ambient PM from PM10 through to ultraÆne particle mass concentrations of PM1 and smaller.The relationship between health endpoints and ambient particle number concentrations is also being addressed while other studies focus on the sensitivity of estimated health effects to air pollution mixtures including PM components. Finally there is much new research into the potential susceptibility of infants and children and into cardiovascular disease as well as asthma and other respiratory conditions. One of the most important priorities is to provide a satisfactory explanation for geographical variations. In the NMMAPS study for example the researchers observed some differences in PM10 effects on mortality between the 90 cities studied with the largest effect being within the Northeast region.9b The investigators were unable to explain this but most likely it is due to differences in the nature of particulate matter from one city to another which is known to vary considerably.The HEI researchers conclude that ``The heterogeneity of effect across cities offers the potential to identify factors that could inØuence the effects of PM10 on health and thus provide valuable insights into the mechanisms by which PM10 causes adverse health effects''. Size matters The variation of ambient particulate matter by size and chemical composition is increasingly recognised as signiÆcant in explaining and estimating health impacts. The terms ``Æne'' and ``coarse'' were originally applied to the two major atmospheric particle distributions which overlap in the size range between 1 and 3 mm diameter.1 Now Æne has come to be often associated with the PM2.5 fraction and coarse is often used to refer to PM10-2.5.However PM2.5 may also contain in addition to the Æne particle mode some of the lower-size tail of the coarse particle mode between about 1 and 2.5 mm. Conversely under relatively high humidity conditions the larger Æne particles in the accumulation mode may also extend into the 1±3 mm range. By deÆnition each of the larger PM indices contains elements of the smaller indices and hence it is difÆcult to determine the relative effects of different PM metrics. In its 1999 draft of the Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter EPA concluded that ``distinctions between Æne and coarse mode particles (in terms of sources of emissions formation mechanisms atmospheric transformation and transport distances and air quality patterns) warrant Æne and coarse PM being viewed as separate subclasses of ambient PM''.1 Thus better characterisation of particulate pollution is critical to efforts to prove beyond reasonable doubt the adverse health effects of particles and the enforcement of appropriate environmental quality standards.In the UK EPAQS an expert panel set up to advise government on air quality issues highlighted the difÆculties in a report issued earlier this year.13 Referring back to a 1997 decision the panel noted ``Since the EPAQS recommendation on PM10 was made evidence has emerged that PM10 might not be the measurement most representative of the fraction of ambient aerosol that is responsible for its harmful effects on health.Evidence has accumulated that this toxicity might lie in a Æner fraction of the particles perhaps below 2.5 mm or smaller. Moreover it has become apparent that PM10 measurements may include an amount of resuspended dust of probable low toxicity leading to difÆculties in compliance with the standard in areas where coarse particles such as wind blown dust or sea spray may make an important contribution.'' For the UK EPAQS estimated the contribution of coarse particles to the PM10 mass as being around 20 to 50% of the urban background mass.While regulators and their advisers have been pondering whether to act against PM2.5 researchers have been turning their attention to ever smaller particles. Some now consider very small particles–those less than 0.1 mm (100 nm) in diameter–to be particularly toxic. Although they constitute only around 1±8% of the mass of PM in ambient air these ultraÆne particles are present in very high numbers have greater total surface area than larger particles and may deposit in greater Focus numbers in the lungs. To date there has been relatively little research on particles in this sub-micron range although one recent animal study found limited evidence that inhaled ultraÆne particles cause inØammation.14 Pollutant cocktails The chemical composition of PM is another aspect which has received limited attention in epidemiological studies.PM is a cocktail of chemically and physically diverse dusts and droplets some of which may be particularly signiÆcant in overall health risks. Hydrogen ions for example reØect particle acidity and sulfate has a well characterised role in deposition. In addition gaseous pollutants are often present alongside PM and are associated with similar health outcomes. So the key question here is whether health effects are the result of either the PM or a copollutant acting alone in combination with each other or through the overall pollutant mix? And if PM alone is to blame are one or more of its components better predictors of morbidity or mortality than PM as a whole? One recent study focusing on the Detroit area attempted to unravel the effects of these pollution mixtures.15 Using publicly available data for 1985± 1990 and 1992±1994 the team compared day-to-day Øuctuations in air pollution with day-to-day Øuctuations in deaths and hospital admissions.PM was found to be more signiÆcantly associated with health outcomes than the Hz or sulfate. However when evaluated with gaseous pollutants in a two-pollutant model the estimated effects of PM2.5 were often reduced especially for ozone. Interestingly the relative risks for PM10±2.5 were similar to those for PM2.5 and sometimes even higher for example with ischemic heart disease and stroke.This Ænding underlines the fact that while the Æne fraction of PM needs further investigation the health risks of the coarse fraction also cannot be ignored. Methodological issues Drawing public health conclusions in the face of so many uncertainties is fraught with danger. Given the prevalence of PM pollution sources and uncertainties in their mode of action the scope for error or misinterpretation is substantial. Three issues are prominent in the debate here. 73N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Focus Deaths real or imaginary? Firstly there is the question of what is actually meant by ``deaths'' associated with air pollution. Are they ``real'' premature deaths or is it more an issue of advancing death by only a few days (what epidemiologists call ``mortality displacement'').If the association is solely in terms of a short-term displacement for those that are already near death then the data may be showing an effect of limited signiÆcance to public health. The US NMMAPS study investigated the signiÆcance of mortality displacement as one of a number of methodological issues underlying associations between PM and mortality.9a Using two different but related statistical approaches the investigators concluded that more than a short-term displacement was occurring. They noted however that more experience and better models are needed to measure and explain these displacements for example regarding the role of air pollution mixtures in longterm effects.Measuring exposure Establishing human exposure is another difÆculty. People spend much of their time indoors where exposures resulting from day-to-day activities such as cooking and cleaning can be much higher than those due to outdoor exposures to ambient air. And of course lifestyle factors such as smoking habits hobbies residential furnishings and occupation lead to widely different exposures for people within a given community. Furthermore outdoor exposures also vary considerably due to factors such as weather and trafÆc conditions so that a single monitoring station cannot be relied on as a measure of personal exposure. The issue of exposure assessment is addressed in detail in EPA's 1999 reassessment of the NAAQS.1 It concludes that for those living within the vicinity of a monitoring station over time ambient PM measurements are an appropriate proxy for personal exposures both outdoors and indoors to PM of ambient origin.This is especially true for Æne particulates according to EPA based on studies of ambient sulfate concentrations and sulfate exposures. The effects of measurement error on the relationship between personal exposure and ambient exposure were 74N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 also investigated in the NMMAPS study.9a Using theoretical and actual analyses the researchers tended to refute the criticisms that the associations between PM and adverse health effects could be explained by exposure measurement error.They note however that the absence of measured exposure data precludes making Ærm conclusions. EPA and other organisations are currently funding research to obtain more exposure data that should help to resolve this issue. Monitoring metrics Thirdly there is the issue of which measurement metric to use for regulatory purposes. The PM10 metric is increasingly seen as unsuitable because the measure is dominated by a small number of relatively large particles. Chemistry suggests that the major part of the toxic component of PM resides in the ultraÆne fraction below 1 mm but epidemiological studies have been unable to separate out health effects between coarse and Æne/ultraÆne fractions. There are also fears that measurement of smaller metrics will be more sensitive than usual to loss of volatile elements.This uncertainty presents a dilemma for regulators. Should they move to a PM2.5 metric on the basis of limited data or should they wait until the health mechanisms are better understood? In its recent report for the UK EPAQS concluded that ``There is no reason to suppose that other metrics based on particle numbers or surface area may better represent the toxic element.'' Reliance on such alternative metrics would be ``premature'' EPAQS said. It continued ``The panel thus recommends that the control of particulate air pollution by measurement of PM10 provides adequate protection of the health of the public. We conclude however that there are likely to be advantages in the use of a metric more representative of the toxic component in the future and the UK research programme should be aimed at better deÆnition of this component.'' Into the policy arena Despite uncertainties in the data and the underlying methodologies policymakers are showing a keen interest in the health statistics and an eagerness to use them as the basis for concrete policy actions.As noted above EPA has already introduced criteria for PM2.5. While there are no such standards yet in the UK the Ægure of 24 000 premature deaths derived in the 1998 study featured prominently in the government's White Paper on Transport published earlier this year. In the EU the European Commission frequently cited mortality data in its protracted negotiations with member states over air pollution legislation.Data released by the Commission in March claimed that ozone and particulate pollution would cost an ``extra'' 4000 lives in the EU annually if the member states refused to endorse its proposals for national emission ceilings.16 This Ægure was the difference between the 2000 deaths that would be prevented under the UNECE's 1999 Gothenburg Protocol and the 6000 deaths that would be prevented by the stricter EU directive. In the end the member states opted for a compromise.17 Research challenges The high proÆle afforded to health impacts makes it all the more important that further research is undertaken to help Æll the gaps in our understanding.The scientiÆc agenda is extensive and includes a substantial role for environmental monitoring and the analytical sciences.1,9a,12 Priorities include investigation of Ambient PM exposures including further correlation of personal and ambient exposures and investigation of the effects of exposure measurement errors in time-series studies. Spatial variation of exposures to explain observations between different locations and to ensure comparability between datasets. Size-related effects from the ambient monitoring of size fractions (coarse Æne and ultraÆne) through to dosimetry relationships and health effects. Exposure to gaseous co-pollutants which could play a signiÆcant role in both short-term and long-term exposure studies.Long-term PM exposure including accounting for effects of different size metrics and co-pollutants. Vulnerable groups especially infants and children which recent studies suggest may represent a subgroup at special risk from ambient PM exposure; Non-respiratory causes of death and hospitalisation such as cardiovascular conditions especially in older adults. References 1 Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter National Centre for Environmental Assessment 2000 EPA/ 600/P-99/002a b c. NCEA Research Triangle Park NC. Available at www.EPA.gov/ncea/partmatt.htm 2 Health Assessment Document for Diesel Exhaust Science Advisory Review Board National Centre for Environmental Assessment 2000 EPA/ 600/8-90/057E NCEA Research Triangle Park NC.Available at www.EPA.gov/ncea/diesel.htm 3 Report of the Particle Epidemiology Reanalysis Project Health Effects Institute 2000 Cambridge MA. 4 QuantiÆcation of the Effects of Air Pollution on Health in the UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution (COMEAP) 1998 Department of Health London. 5 ENDS Daily 14th January 1998. www.ends.co.uk 6 French chart air pollution deaths J. Environ. Monit. 1999 1 43N. See also www.inserm.fr 7 Health Effects and Socio-economic Costs of Air Pollution Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (SFT) 2000. SFT Oslo. www.sft.no 8 ENDS Daily 7th July 2000. www.ends.co.uk 9 The National Mobidity Mortality and Air Pollution Study (a) Part I Methods and Methodologic Issues; (b) Part II Morbidity and Mortality from Air Pollution in the United States Health Effects Institute 2000 HEI Research Report 94 Cambridge MA.Available online at www.healtheffects.org 10 Nino Ku» nzli et al. The Lancet 2000 356(9232) (31st August 2000). 11 Br. Med. J. 2000 321(7253) (6th July 2000). Reprint available at www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/321/7253/ 88.pdf 12 Extensive information on current research into particulate matter worldwide is available at the Particulate Matter Research Activities website www.pmra.org 13 Airborne particles what is the appropriate measurement on which to base a standard Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards Focus (EPAQS) 2000 Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions London. Available online at www.environment.detr.gov.uk/airq/aqs/ index.htm 14 Acute Pulmonary Effects of UltraÆne Particles in Rats and Mice Health Effects Institute 2000 HEI Research Report 96 Cambridge MA. 15 Association of Particulate Matter Components with Daily Mortality and Morbidity in Urban Populations Health Effects Institute 2000 HEI Research Report 95 Cambridge MA. 16 Economic Evaluation of a Directive on National Emissions Ceilings for Certain Atmospheric Pollutants. Part A Costeffectiveness. Part B BeneÆts European Commission 2000 Directorate-General Environment Brussels. Available at www.europa.EU.int/comm/environment/ envecol 17 Ministers fudge emission ceilings J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 57N. Mike Sharpe 75N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2

ISSN:0960-7919    

DOI:10.1039/b007194n

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Legislation EU to establish pollution register Plans to create a harmonised EU-wide register of pollution from major industrial plants have been formally approved by the European Commission. Entitled the European Pollutant Emission Register (EPER) the system will be operational by late in 2003 and will contain plant-by-plant data on emissions to air and water of 50 key pollutants from around 20 000 industrial facilities. Under the decision EU countries must report a Ærst batch of data to the Commission by June 2003 covering releases for 2001 or more recent data if available. Further reports will be made in 2006 and 2008 after which annual reporting of the previous year's emissions is envisaged. EPER is being introduced under the 1996 directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) and is modelled on the highly successful Toxic Release Inventory in the US.Pressures for national registers elsewhere in Europe is also building following moves under the pan- European Aarhus Convention. At a recent meeting in Dubrovnik signatories to the Convention asked for governments to be able to create national registers of industrial pollution which are even broader than EPER. Legal requirements for pollutant release and transfer registers expected around 2002 would increase dramatically the availability of public information on industrial pollution in non-EU countries. Citizens' access to environmental information would also be strengthened under a new EU directive announced in July.The proposals will create for the Ærst time in EU law a right to environmental information rather than a mere ``freedom'' of information as at present. In addition the number of public bodies liable to provide 76N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 information will be increased and the scope for refusing requests narrowed. Environment Commissioner Margo Wallstro»m said the proposal addressed many shortcomings of the 1990 directive on access to environmental information [JEM 1999 1 83±86N]. If adopted it will allow the EU itself to ratify the UN Aarhus Convention. European Commission www.europa.eu.int/comm; Aarhus Convention www.unece.org/env/pp EPA moves forward on clean water plan The Clinton Administration is pressing ahead with its Clean Water Plan despite objections from Congress which have delayed its implementation.EPA has introduced a number of changes in the program in response to comments received after its initial proposal including from Congress. The changes provide the states with signiÆcant new Øexibility in implementing the program which is intended to clean-up America's rivers lakes and beaches. Provisions that could have required new permits for forestry livestock and acquculture operations have now been dropped from the legislation. States are to be given four years rather than two to update inventories of polluted waters and will be allowed to establish their own schedules for polluted waters to achieve health standards up to a maximum of 15 years.EPA hopes that these concessions will end the dispute with Congress which blocked the budget for the program earlier this year [JEM 2000 2 57N]. EPA is gambling that the current impasse will be overcome in time for the program to start on 1st October 2001 which coincides with the end of the delay period enforced by Congress. EPA www.epa.gov News UN leads global vehicle emissions agreement International co-operation in developing environmental regulations for motor vehicles has been given a boost by a new agreement brokered by the United Nations. The agreement will help to provide more uniform approaches to environmental protection energy efÆciency vehicle safety and pollution reduction for cars within UN countries.It ensures that regulatory activities will be carried out in an open manner and will consider the best available technology the cost effectiveness of these technologies as well as the beneÆts to public health. Under the agreement participating countries may submit candidate regulations that will be included in a compendium of regulations that other countries can adopt. These countries may also collaborate in the development of new global regulations which they could adopt within national legislation. Countries that have already signed up to the agreement include the EU US Canada UK France Germany Russia and Japan.United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ``Agreement Concerning Global Technical Regulations'' www.unece.org/env EU maps noise Noise maps showing the level and location of noise pollution for major facilities and infrastructure are to be required under new EU measures to reduce noise pollution. The proposals are part of a new EU directive on noise assessment and management aimed at harmonising approaches across the EU. As well as drawing up noise maps the directive will introduce a harmonised noise measurement unit and require member states to adopt noise action plans in large cities and towns. Noise maps for cities with populations over 250 000 as well as for major roads railways and airports will be required by the beginning of 2005.The maps will subsequently be revised and their scope extended to smaller cities. By 2010 around 50% of the EU population will be covered. The Commission plans to publish the maps together with the relevant national noise limits expressed in terms of new EU units to allow comparisons. Environmental quality No change for US water quality A crop of recent reports show that water quality in North America is at best stable and in many cases deteriorating. According to data from EPA over a quarter of 1900 beaches monitored in 1999 were affected by at least one advisory or closure most due to elevated bacteria levels from sewage overØows or stormwater runoff. Over the last three years the number of beaches monitored by the states has tripled but the proportion affected by closures and advisories has remained consistent a factor which EPA interprets as indicating continuing impairment of water quality.The results are the latest in the EPA's Beach Watch Program under which state and local governments voluntarily monitor beaches (including around the Great Lakes). EPA will be helping states to improve their monitoring procedures to eliminate major inconsistencies highlighted by the current survey. A similar position of stagnation rather than improvement is painted by the latest report on water quality in the Great Lakes. The International Joint Commission the body charged with evaluating progress in water quality objectives in the Great Lakes Basin says that further concerted action is needed to restore and maintain the integrity of this fragile ecosystem.The IJC makes direct recommendations regarding contaminated sediment airborne toxics urbanisation alien invasive species consumption of Æsh stocks and monitoring and information management. These latest Ændings follow reports from EPA earlier this year which European Environmental Bureau www.eeb.org/press/NOISE26.7.00.doc Austria to regulate mobile masts In the wake of increasing concern about the health impacts of mobile communications [JEM 2000 2 23± 26N] Austria is to limit radiation from mobile phone base stations. The rules mirror standards developed by the International Commission on Non- Ionising Radiation which are supported indicated that 40% of America's waters are still polluted and that 20 000 water courses across the US fail to meet health criteria [JEM 2000 2 58N].EPA's Clean Water Plan aims to address this through widespread clean-up (see separate item this issue). EPA Beach Watch www.epa.gov/ost/ beaches; International Joint Commission ``Tenth Biennial Report on Great Lakes Water Quality'' www.ijc.org US±Canada report air quality improvements US air quality continues to improve according to the annual air quality trends report released by EPA. Even so in 1999 62 million Americans lived in areas that had unhealthy air for at least one of six major pollutants. The report notes that national air quality levels have improved signiÆcantly since the 1970 Clean Air Act.Improvements for the most recent 10 year period (1990±1999) are reductions of carbon monoxide concentrations by 36%; lead by 60%; nitrogen dioxide by 10%; smog by 4%; particulate matter by 18%; and sulfur dioxide by 36%. However the report points out that air pollution remains a problem in many areas including rural areas and some national parks which have experienced high smog levels resulting from pollution emitted many miles away. EPA has also released a revised version of its air quality criteria for carbon monoxide. North of the border the Canadian Government has indicated that it is to declare as toxic the principal substances News by the World Health Organisation.Under the proposals radiation levels would be limited to 4500 mW m22. Austrian NGOs and doctors have criticised the regulations as being too lax citing a recent study from Germany which reported animals on farms close to transmitting stations as displaying abnormal behaviour. Austrian Ministry for Infrastructure www.bmv.gv.at that form Æne particulate matter as part of efforts to cut smog pollution. The notiÆcation under the new Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) covers precursors such as sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxides ammonia and VOCs which can lead to particulate matter less than or equal to 10 mm (PM10). Under CEPA once a substance is added to the List of Toxic Substances the government must take appropriate measures to protect human health and the environment.In a related move Canada has said it is prepared to tighten pollution controls on domestic power plants to reduce domestic and transboundary air pollution. The proposal was made at the latest round of talks with the US on negotiations for an Ozone Annex to the 1991 Canada±US Air Quality Agreement. EPA ``Air Quality Trends 1999'' www.epa.gov/airtrends; ``Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Monoxide'' available at www.epa.gov/ncea; Environmental Canada www.ec.gc.ca UNEP probes regional dimension The United Nations Environment Programme is funding a $5 million research programme to reach a better understanding of the environmental and health risks posed by persistent toxic substances and the measures needed to deal with them.The results of the two year project which started in September will contribute to future priority-setting by the UN's Global Environmental Facility. 77N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 News There is growing recognition that effects of persistent toxic substances are like to vary due to different use patterns and environmental factors affecting their deposition and distribution in the environment. Information on the use and effects of these substances at regional level is scarce however and the project will help Æll this critical information gap. The assessment will be based on an analysis of conditions in each region using information from a variety of sources and applying common methods and approaches.The assessment complements the work currently being undertaken in conjunction with negotiations for a global treaty on persistent organic pollutants [JEM 1999 1 113N]. Twelve POPs are covered by the initial list but many similar substances also pose threats to the environment and human health. UNEP www.unep.org Experts focus on indoor air pollution Air pollution experts in France have called for an increased emphasis on indoor air pollution within air quality policy. In a report on the public health aspects of air pollution they point out that individuals spend up to 90% of their time indoors and that indoor air quality is often poorer than outdoor air even in urban areas.The scientists call for a more integrated approach that targets both outdoor and indoor air quality. This requires a greater effort in monitoring air quality in people's homes and workplaces as well as a coordinated Chemical hazards Hormone chemicals list highlights poor data A draft list of chemicals suspected of being endocrine disrupters has been circulated by the European Commission. The list contains 66 substances which have all been identiÆed previously as potential endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and which should be targeted for further risk assessement and possible control actions. 78N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 research programme into the public health impacts of poor air quality. French Ministry of Health ``Atmospheric pollution and public health how to achieve risk reductions'' www.sante.gouv.fr/htm/ actu/pollution/sommaire.htm French environmental data Data on other aspects of French environmental policies have also recently been published by the French Environment Institute (IFEN).An overview of national environmental policies and indicators describes progress against national EU and international requirements. Areas of concern according to the report include nitrate levels in freshwater and the ability to comply with emission ceilings for air pollutants set under last year's Gothenburg protocol. Compliance with the Kyoto targets for greenhouse gases is also uncertain. On the positive side heavy metal and VOC emissions have been reduced.Other data published by IFEN highlights the widespread contamination of surface and groundwaters by pesticides. During 1997±98 one-third of waters used as sources for drinking water contained pesticides at levels high enough to require treatment. The most common pesticides found were atrazine a herbicide used to protect maize and lindane which is soon to be banned for agricultural use in the EU (see separate item this issue). French Environment Institute www.ifen.fr; Environmental indicators report www.ifen.fr/pages/2pub.htm Compilation of the list highlighted the absence of reliable environmental data on potential EDCs. The draft list was identiÆed from an initial 564 candidate substances derived from various sources.This was then reduced to 147 chemicals that are produced in high volumes or are very persistent in the environment. The Ænal list of 66 was selected from these on the basis of existing evidence of endocrine disruption. However of the original candidate substances 205 could not be assessed because of insufÆcient UK unveils eutrophication plan; announces cryptosporidium results The UK Environment Agency has published its strategy for tackling eutrophication of freshwaters but admits that many sources of nutrient discharges are beyond its direct control. Covering just England and Wales (Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own agencies) the strategy puts the main emphasis on controlling phosphorus.Discharge reductions are to be achieved through working jointly with speciÆc industries and by setting up catchment-based eutrophication control action plans for regions where diffuse sources are most signiÆcant. Key sectors for discussions on nutrient reductions are the water industry the phosphate soap and detergent industries food processing and agriculture. Meanwhile another UK agency the Drinking Water Inspectorate has announced results from the world's Ærst continuous monitoring of the pathogen cryptosporidium. The Inspectorate said that to date no unusually high levels of the micro-organism had been detected. However one water company has stopped using a particular water source as a result of the data.Cryptosporidium arises from animal droppings and in humans can cause digestive problems and even death. The UK introduced continuous sampling last year following two high-proÆle outbreaks in the 1990s. Environment Agency ``Managing Aquatic Eutrophication'' www.environment-agency.gov.uk/envinfo/ eutroph/index.htm; Drinking Water Inspectorate Annual Report www.dwi.detr.gov.uk/pubs/annrep99 data on whether they were persistent in the environment. The setting up of a priority list was proposed under the Commission's EDC strategy published last December [JEM 1999 1 113N]. Consultations are now underway within the Commission and with the member states to decide exactly which and how many substances end up on the Ænal list. Once the list has been adopted further testing programmes will be introduced for those chemicals not already being assessed.Experts concerned about DEHP After a major review of safety data an expert panel in the US has expressed ``serious concern'' about the use of phthalate plasticisers in medical tubing and equipment. DEHP (di(2- ethylhexyl)phthalate) is used in medical tubing and other medical devices for feeding and medicating premature and newborn babies. Panel members said they hoped their Ændings would spur the industry to seek a substitute for these applications. The panel was set up by US environmental and health agencies last year to investigate the risks of DEHP and other phthalate plasticisers leaching from products made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [JEM 2000 2 4±7N].According to the scientists DEHP could leach from continuously used tubing in sufÆcient amounts to possibly affect the development of the male infant's reproductive system. Working over a 15 month period the panel reviewed data on seven plasticisers and generally found ``minimal'' or ``negligible'' concerns about the others. It is due to complete its work by the end of the year. US manufacturers no longer use DEHP in toys intended for mouthing. Soft PVC teething toys have also been banned by the European Union [JEM 2000 2 8N]. Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction http://ntpserver. niehs.nih.gov/htdocs/liason/ CERHRPhthalatesAnnct.html Ozone talks focus on developing countries Measures to help developing countries meet their commitments under the Montreal Protocol were discussed at a recent meeting in Geneva.Under the Protocol developing countries committed to capping their emissions of ozone-depleting CFCs by June of this year. They must now start to reduce them to achieve a 50% cut by 2005 and a complete phase-out by 2010. Developed countries stopped using these chemicals almost completely in 1996. UNEP says that many developing countries are already on-track to meet these commitments. In addition eight of the nine developing countries that are CFC producers have cut production to below baseline levels. They are being helped by the Multilateral Fund an international fund administered by UNEP.Since 1991 the Fund has disbursed more than $1 billion for phasing out the consumption of 142 000 tonnes of CFCs and halons and the production of nearly 80 000 tonnes in over 110 developing countries. The latest disbursements total $40.5 million for 135 projects and activities in 31 countries. The Geneva meeting was in preparation for the next full meeting of Montreal Protocol signatories to be held in Ouagadougou Burkina Faso in December. UNEP www.unep.org/ozone Europe's dioxin spectrum A series of recent reports from across Europe reveal wide discrepancies in national efforts to cut dioxin emissions. The data follow reports from the EU and the US earlier this year which estimate public health risks from dioxins as being higher than previously thought [JEM 2000 2 11N and 59N].In France the main sources of dioxin emissions fell in 1999 but some others may be more signiÆcant than previously realised. The Environment Ministry's latest review estimates annual emissions at 200 g for waste incinerators and 140 g for the metallurgical industry. This is an overall reduction of 65% since 1995 and stricter rules are set to cut incinerator emissions further to an estimated 10 g by 2007. However other sources such as wood burning in domestic and industrial boilers and illicit burning of PVC cables could account for up to 30% of total emissions much higher than previous estimates. In Norway estimated annual emissions have fallen by 96% over the last 15 years according to the Pollution Control Authority.Emissions in 1999 were estimated at 22 g compared to 600 g in 1985. The Agency attributes much of the fall to the introduction of pollution control equipment at a single magnesium works at Porsgrunn an industrial area south-west of Oslo. More stringent regulations the phasing out of chlorinated compounds and industrial closures also contributed. Greece has been rather less successful in curbing emissions. Greenpeace claimed recently that the uncontrolled burning of waste alone was releasing more dioxins than the whole of France. Although there are no municipal incinerators in Greece around 15% of all waste is burned either by individuals or by 5000 unregulated local landÆlls.News Greenpeace estimates these Æres are releasing up to 920 g of dioxin per year. Meanwhile another French study conÆrms previous Ændings that newborn babies fed on breast milk are exposed to levels of dioxin well above international recommended levels. However by seven months dioxin levels have fallen to nearly a quarter while infants aged between 13 and 18 months absorb amounts well below WHO limits. French Environment Ministry www.environnement.gouv.fr; Norwegian Pollution Control Authority www.sft.no; Greenpeace Greece www.compulink.gr/ greenpeace Danes to phase out MTBE Oil reÆners in Denmark are to voluntarily phase out use of the petrol additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) the Ærst European country to do so.Meanwhile oil multinational Shell has said it will push to extend the ban throughout the EU. MTBE has become a big political issue in Denmark which relies on groundwater for drinking water supplies more than any other European country. MTBE makes drinking water taste foul at very low concentrations and a recent television documentary which detailed instances of groundwater contamination heightened public concern. The Danish Petroleum Industry Association has agreed to phase out the substance within four to Æve years and in the meantime will step up efforts to Ænd an alternative substance for motor fuels. The government has already set up an MTBE action programme [JEM 2000 2 30N] which includes a possible DKr5 (E0.67) l21 levy to discourage its use.Denmark's move is likely to renew pressure for the European Commission to reverse its decision of March this year to take no action on MTBE [JEM 2000 2 48N]. The United States the largest user of MTBE is already committed to a phase out [JEM 1999 1 94±95N]. Danish EPA www.mst.dk EU to ban lindane The EU is to ban the controversial insecticide lindane for agricultural use following a decision by a regulatory committee. Once formally approved by the European Commission member states will have 6 months to withdraw 79N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 News approval for plant protection products containing lindane plus a further 12 months to use up stocks of products.Use of lindane as a non-agricultural biocide will still be permitted. Two other pesticides permethrin and quintozene are also to be banned. Another three–bentazone esfenvalerate and triasulfuron–will be added to the ofÆcial list of EU-approved pesticides bringing the total so far to eight. From July 2003 only substances on this list will Public and occupational health Environment linked to cancer There is strong evidence that environmental rather than hereditary factors are the main cause of human cancers according to one of the most exhaustive ever epidemiological studies. The work was undertaken by a team from Sweden's Karolinska Institute led by Paul Lichtenstein and reported in the New England Journal of Medicine.Looking at data from nearly 45 000 pairs of identical twins from Denmark Norway and Sweden the researchers found that cancers were twice as likely to be linked to environmental factors than to hereditary genetic factors. Only in three important exceptions prostate colo-rectal and breast cancer did genes appear to play a signiÆcant role. In breast cancer for example the causation was estimated as being 73% environmental and 27% hereditary. Environmental factors include pollution radiation tobacco alcohol and exposure to occupational toxins as well as aspects such as drugs and diet. The study is notable because it is population based has complete data on outcomes and a sample size at least four times larger than any other.Its Ændings are likely to reopen the nature-versus-nurture debate and lead to calls for further reductions in environmental emissions. Karolinska Institute www.ki.se; New England Journal of Medicine www.nejm.org 80N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 be eligible for use within the EU but the committee has to accept or reject around 900 pesticides in all. EC Standing Committee on Plant Health europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/rc/scph/ index_en.html NAS to study sludge risks The National Academy of Sciences is to review the science and methodology North Americans get the full picture The gulf between Europe and North America in citizens' rights to environmental information has widened with both the US and Canada extending the scope of environmental data accessible to the public.In the US EPA posted information on the internet estimating outdoor concentrations of 32 air toxics nationwide. The move is the Ærst phase of EPA's National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment a detailed look at common air toxics identiÆed as posing the greatest potential risks to public health in urban areas. The Ærst phase assessment includes estimated emissions from industries and other facilities in 1996 and estimated concentrations in outdoor air. In early 2001 EPA will publish a further analysis covering human exposure and health risks. The assessment is wider in scope than EPA's Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) covering emissions from road vehicles and other sources as well as industry.EPA has also released a stateby-state analysis of the 1998 TRI showing a detailed breakdown of emission trends over an 11 year period (1988±98). Across the border the Canadian Government has released the latest version of its toxics register the 1998 National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI). The National Overview report shows that pollutant releases were down slightly compared to 1997 and that more substances are being recycled than are being released into the environment. A new online facility enables Canadians to obtain data for their neighbourhoods behind the land application of sewage sludge to ensure that current practices are fully protective of human health. The Academy's deÆnitive review is designed to ensure that health and environmental standards are responsive to the best and most current science and that sludge management practices reØect this.NAS will work jointly with EPA and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. simply by typing in the Ærst three characters of their postcode. EPA NATA www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw/nata; Toxics Release Inventory 1998 www.epa.gov/tri/tri98; Environment Canada National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) www.ec.gc.ca/npri Greater disclosure needed for chemical information One of the EU's top scientiÆc experts has criticised EU chemicals policy saying that laws on disclosure of information are not strong enough. Speaking at a conference on risk assessment in EU policy making James Bridges Head of the EU ScientiÆc Committee on Toxicology Ecotoxicology and the Environment (CSTEE) said that the assessment of chemical risks in the EU is being hampered because too little information on exposure is made public.``We have to move on from a situation where 90% of toxicological information is marked `conÆdential' '' Professor Bridges said. ``We need more information on how chemicals may or may not be affecting humans in practice. We can't move forward as we ought to unless access to data is much more effective than currently.'' Professor Bridges also criticised current laws which prevent authorities from accessing data from one product to use in assessment of others. ``We're unable to draw on data for other substances'' because there are ``legal constraints on product comparison,'' he said.A major review of EU chemicals policy is currently underway which is likely to shift responsibilities towards industry. In anticipation of the changes the chemicals sector has launched voluntary research programmes to assess the intrinsic hazards of high production chemicals and the long-term health and environmental effects of their products. CSTEE europa.eu.int/comm./food/fs/sc/ sct/index_en.html Research activities New perspectives on climate change Two recent research studies could provide important new insights into our understanding of climate change. In a study published in August NASA scientists presented evidence which suggests that carbon dioxide may not be the leading culprit in global warming.Researchers from the Goddard Institute for Space Studies lead by Dr James Hansen say that climate change in recent decades has been mainly caused by air pollution containing other greenhouse gases particularly tropospheric ozone methane chloroØuorocarbons and black carbon particles. Looking at the generation of various greenhouse gases over an extended period the team found the growth of CO2 in the atomosphere doubled between 1950 and 1970 but levelled off from the late 1970s to the late 1990s. By contrast the heat content of the oceans (a proxy measure of climate change) increased between the mid-1950s and the mid-1990s even after CO2 concentrations levelled off.``Our estimates of global climate forcings ºindicate that it is the processes producing non-CO2 greenhouse gases that have been more signiÆcant in climate change'' Hansen said. ``If sources of methane and tropospheric ozone were reduced in the future further changes in climate due to these gases in the next 50 years could be near zero.'' The NASA study followed reports from an international team of environmental researchers led by the University of East Anglia UK of a chemical compound with previously unrecognised greenhouse warming potential. Studying stratospheric air Air quality data veriÆed The US Health Effects Institute (HEI) has published the results of its intensive reanalysis of two studies of air pollution and mortality that played an important part in the 1997 debate over the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter.These studies have been the basis for nearly every worldwide assessment of the beneÆts of reducing particulate matter air pollution by samples using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) the team noticed a mysterious peak in the readout. The compound turned out to be triØuoromethyl sulfur pentaØuoride (SF5CF3). Although only present in traces within the atmosphere–about 0.1 ppt–its greenhouse warming potential is the highest of any gas–some 17 500 times greater than CO2 on a per molecule basis. The source of the gas is unknown but it is thought to be a breakdown product of sulfur hexaØuoride SF6 a gas used in electrical switches and metal reÆning which is already controlled under the Kyoto Protocol.Goddard Space Centre http:// gsfc.nasa.gov Lab-on-a-chip The prospect of a handheld chemistry laboratory has been brought a stage nearer with the announcement of a tiny sampling device for detecting and analysing trace chemicals. Developed by the US Department of Energy's Sandia National Laboratory the device is a miniaturised version of a preconcentrator traditionally used to collect sample gases for analysis. It has an active area of just 2 mm2 and could potentially be integrated with other microchemical detectors within small handheld instruments that would avoid the need to send samples to a laboratory.As in a traditional preconcentrator the air sample is pulled over an adsorbent material to concentrate the chemical. The adsorbent material is then heated to release the gas so it can be analysed. In the microdevice the heating element consumes just 100 mW and takes 6 ms to News WHO EPA and others. The results are being published in time to inform the current EPA review of the US air quality standards and the upcoming review of the EU's PM limits. Health Effects Institute www.healtheffects.org (Note The results are explained in detail in the Focus article in this issue) reach 200 �C around 1000 times faster than the conventional method. Special adsorbent materials have also been developed.``This device is receiving a lot of attention because it can work with different types of microanalytical systems'' says researcher Ron Manginell. ``It's small uses minute amounts of power is extremely portable and is inexpensive to produce''. The device is seen as an important step towards Sandia's aim of a chem-lab-on-a-chip. Agency consults on research strategy The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) has published a research strategy setting out its priorities for the period 2002±2010. The Strategy identiÆes six key focus areas which contribute to the Agency's mission. These are exposure assessment; chemical mixtures; susceptible populations; communities and native American tribes; evaluation and surveillance of health effects; and health promotion and intervention.The focus areas will help guide research in areas that have critical data and information gaps and offer many opportunities for collaborative research. ATSDR was established in 1980 under the Superfund legislation as a separate agency of the US Public Health Service. Its mission has been amended and broadened over the years and is now to prevent or reduce the harmful effects of exposure to hazardous substances on human health and quality of life. ATSDR www.atsdr.cdc.gov 81N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 News Canadian research funding New funding for several areas of environmental monitoring and health research have been announced by the Canadian authorities.As part of a major expansion of the Toxic Substances Research Initiative (TSRI) a total of CAN$ 13.5 million has been associated for 97 research projects for the Æscal year 2000±2001. These include 77 renewals and 20 new projects within Æve priority research areas urban air quality and human exposure to airborne pollutants cumulative effects of toxic substances endocrine disrupting chemicals; persistent organcis pollutants; and speciÆc forms of metals in the environment. TSRI is a joint initiative of Environment Canada and Health Canada to support policy-making on toxic substances. In an attempt to understand the Web bytes Environmental fate databases Researchers at the Environmental Science Center at Syracuse Research Corporation have made available a series of environmental fate databases on the Internet free of charge.These online databases identify or provide all of the information necessary for assessing human or environmental exposure to chemicals from occupational and consumer use environmental contamination and food consumption. They cover physical properties (water solubility log P pKa Henry's law constants etc.) degradation or transport information and ambient and efØuent monitoring data. Publication of the databases has been supported by the EPA Procter & Gamble and Du Pont. Environmental Science Center http:// esc.syrres.com 82N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 implications of climatic change for northern regions Natural Resources Canada is Ænding seven projects looking at how global warming will affect issues such as permafrost ice and sea levels and community developments and safety.With a total budget of CAN$ 480 000 these are part of a series of 25 climate change impact and adaptation projects being supported under Canada's Climate Change Action Fund (CCAF). In the area of environmental health the Federal and British Columbia governments have announced CAN$ 16.6 million for research into links between environmental contaminants and children's health. Natural Resources Canada www.nrcan.gc.ca; Environment Canada www.ec.gc.ca; Toxic Substances Research Initiative www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ehp/ehd/tsri/ index.htm Chemical patents The IFI Claims Database is now available free on Chemweb.The database covers all chemical and chemically-related US patents issued by the US Patent and Trademark OfÆce from 1950 to the present. It is the largest collection of US patent references available online and is updated weekly. Full-text records include the patent number expanded titles standardised inventor and assignee names USPTO and IPC classiÆcations. The Æle contains the broad claim abstract for all chemical patents from 1950 to the present. Chemweb http://chemweb.com/databases US regs on CD-ROM The US EPA's updated Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) Chemical Inventory of 64,000z chemicals is now cross- Association sponsors science award Former NIEHS Director David P. Rall is to be remembered through an annual award sponsored by the American Public Health Association. The Rall Award commemorates his ``enormous contributions to environmental health and lead poisoning prevention'' and will recognise people who like Dr Rall himself have made outstanding contributions to public health through science-based advocacy''. A $50,000 endowment is being raised to fund the award in perpetuity. Dr Rall who was director of the NIEHS for nearly 20 years and of the National Toxicology Programme for 12 years before retiring in 1990 died last September after a road accident in France. American Public Health Association www.apha.org referenced with SARA Title III RCRA reporting requirements on CD-ROM. It features Adobe Acrobat (PDF) format instant search/retrieval US Code Chapters CORR PMN DSL/NDSL ELINCS EPA Chemical ProÆles and First Aid Guides. Details from www.env-sol.com/Solutions/ TSCASARA.html Fluoride note The RSC's Environment Health & Safety Committee has produced a note on the Øuoridation of water supplies providing an unbiased overview of the scientiÆc and ethical issues. The note is the latest of a series of occasional papers on environmental issues produced by the Committee and is available free of charge from the RSC website at www.rsc.org/lap/rsccom/ehsc/ ehscnotes.h

ISSN:0960-7919    

DOI:10.1039/b007195l

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Pesticides in Perspective Introduction In the Ærst article in this column Ian Shaw wrote about theUKsurveillance scheme for monitoring pesticide residues infoodwhichistheÆrstissuethatconcerns consumers in connection with pesticide use. However consumers are becoming increasingly aware of environmental issues particularly issues such as global warming and genetically modiÆed crops. With this heightened awareness of the environment and what affects it issues such as pesticides are becoming of increasing interest to the public and this interest is fuelled by pressure groups and the media. With that in mind and the fact that governments obviously recognise that they need to be aware of any potential environmentalrisksfrompesticideuse,the UKgovernmentestablished thePesticides in the Environment Working Group (PEWG) to evaluateUKenvironmental monitoring activities and to make recommendations for the future.The current article is co-authored by Monitoring of Pesticides in the UK Environment{ Summary from the report of the Pesticides in the Environment Working Group (PEWG)–Published by the Environment Agency Bristol UK. R&D Publication Number 69 Introduction The Pesticides in the Environment Working Group (PEWG) was established by the Environment Agency on behalf of the UK Government to look at the overall balance of monitoring activities on pesticides in the {The opinions expressed in the following article are entirely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of either The Royal Society of Chemistry the Editor or Editorial Board of JEM Zeneca Agrochemicals or those of the Column Editor.This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 two members of the PEWG. Dr. Andre�e Carter is a Research Development Manager within the UK Agricultural Development Advisory Service (ADAS). She specialises in policy and research issues concerning the environmental fate of pesticides and their impact in the environment. Her current research interests include pesticide contamination of water with respect to diffuse and point sources the environmental impact of sheep dip and the linking of pesticide fate with exposure of non-target organisms. As an independent member of the UK's Advisory Committee on Pesticides for the last nine years she has advised government ministers on scientiÆc and policy matters concerned with the use and regulation of pesticides particularly with respect to soil and water issues.More recently she has been an ad hoc member of the EU's ScientiÆc Committee on Plants to provide expert advice on matters concerned with the environmental fate of plant protection products in the EU. Andre�e Carter is environment to identify gaps and to make recommendations for improvement. The Group was set up following a recommendation from The Working Party on the Incidence of Pesticides in Water (Department of the Environment 1996) who recognised that there were a number of critical deÆciencies in monitoring and research programmes.The Environment Agency also recognised that monitoring should address all potential uses and impacts of pesticidal products. All pesticides used in the UK must be approved for use by the relevant regulatory authority and Pesticides also Chairman of the UK Soil Management Initiative which promotes the adoption of sustainable soil management. Tim Pepper is a database manager also with ADAS and has over twelve years experience of Æeld monitoring for pesticide residues in the aquatic environment and manages the ADAS database of agrochemical leaching information. With a background in hydrology soils and drainage particularly relating to environmental/ pollution issues he has been responsible for the management of a number of UK government and industry funded studies concerned with strategies to reduce pesticide leaching/contamination from agricultural land and is a member of a steering group co-ordinating the UK research effort in this area.Dr Terry Clark Column Editor Zeneca Agrochemicals UK E-mail Terry.Clark@aguk.zeneca.com extensive environmental safety data are required to achieve this. In order to monitor the use of these pesticides their residues in the environment and their potential environmental impact a range of UK organisations carry out a number of detailed surveys and investigations. This surveillance enables an assessment of compliance with regulatory standards to be made and provides information of any potential adverse effects on the environment.This information has never been comprehensively collated to provide an overall assessment of the national situation for 83N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Pesticides aquatic terrestrial and atmospheric systems and the associated uptake or transfer to food and drinking water. Copies of the full report available from alastair.ferguson@environmentagencyu. gov.uk or at Rio House Waterside Drive Aztec West Almondsbury Bristol BS32 4UD UK The use of pesticides and their residues in drinking water food terrestrial aquatic and atmospheric systems and their impact on non-target species are reported. Information from routine statutory and special surveys has been collated where available from published sources from the relevant monitoring organisation.SpeciÆc examples are used to illustrate the range of monitoring activities undertaken but it is acknowledged that this initial report was unable to consider all available material. This report does not include surveillance of pesticide impacts on human health e.g. operator exposure suspected adverse reactions and incidents reported to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) with the exception of those that directly impact on the environment. The PEWG review has identiÆed that a wide range of monitoring activities are carried out or sponsored by government commercial and voluntary organisations. Examples of very comprehensive well targeted surveillance and associated enforcement actions were identiÆed for speciÆc areas of pesticide use and the associated residues or impact in the environment.However the overview found that a number of monitoring gaps or deÆciencies for pesticide inputs residues and impacts were identiÆed with few instances of duplication or overlap. This report has highlighted that due to the variety of different EU and UK legislation and other initiatives all which may have differing objectives there is no overall integrated approach to the assessment of use residues and impact of pesticides in the environment. Key issues The review has identiÆed a number of key issues relevant to the different monitoring schemes and these are presented for the different surveys of uses residues and impacts of pesticides.Plant protection products Data concerning the use of plant protection products are the most 84N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 comprehensive and are widely available. Long-term trends in use show that the weight of active substance applied (in the 10 year period 1986±1996) has decreased by 19% on average for all crops although over the same period there has been a 23% increase in the formulation treated area. This change in usage could be a function of the shift to using lower dose active substances more frequent applications using lower doses and complex tank mixing at reduced rates. Data also illustrate that there have been signiÆcant changes in the type of active substance used.For example organochlorine pesticide use has decreased due to revocation or restriction of use. Organophosphate insecticides have been extensively replaced by synthetic pyrethroids whose use increased fourfold in the period 1986±1996. Isoproturon the cereal herbicide showed an increase in use of 22% by weight during 1986±1996. Trend data illustrate year by year variation in use which is attributable to the inØuence of weather conditions on product use; for example a warm wet spring may causee fungicide use. The British Agrochemical Association (BAA) sales data for 1998 show that the amount of active substances applied in home and garden situations is 1 887 000 kg this being approximately 65% greater than the amount used in amenity situations however this Ægure includes ferrous sulfate which represents 80% of the reported weight of herbicides used.Although it is likely that the active substances used will be the same as some of those used in the agriculture and amenity sectors there is very little published information available about which active substances are applied or how waste and rinsings are disposed of or their fate in the environment. The most recent survey of pesticide usage in amenity situations (Produce studies Ltd. 1996) conÆrms that since the revocation of residual triazine herbicides for this use in 1993 the main herbicides applied are glyphosate and diuron. A signiÆcant deÆciency of the DoE survey report is the lack of information concerning the amount of individual active substances applied.Assessments are conÆned to chemical groups and therefore the impact of each pesticide cannot be determined. Biocidal products The scope of the EC Biocidal Products Directive is very broad and the types of products manufacturers and users are varied. The active substances used in biocidal products may also be used in many other types of products (e.g. plant protection products) and so speciÆc monitoring for effects of biocidal products will be difÆcult. Very little information is available through the regulatory agency HSE or the different industry associations concerning their use and therefore residue and impact assessments cannot easily be made.Data which does exist with the exception of the rodenticide survey are restricted to special one-off investigations which may in some cases no longer be valid. The HSE needs to prioritise its future approach to surveying the use of biocides. Veterinary products There are no data available in the public domain concerning the total amount of veterinary products used or trends in use with the exception of very limited data released from the National OfÆce of Animal Health (NOAH). Both the VeterinaryMedicinesDirectorate(VMD) andNOAHwill respond to speciÆc requests for usage information. Since 1998 tiered environmental risk assessments must be carried out for new active substances but little information concerning their potential pathways into the environment e.g.via manure or washoff is available in the public domain. Information supplied byVMDand NOAHfor sheep dip use indicates that the use of organophosphate products has reduced signiÆcantly during the period 1986±1998. Alternatives include the use of synthetic pyrethroids endectocides or non-dip products. Discharges Whilst sampling and analysis does take place for consented discharges there are limited data available concerning the loading of the pesticide to the environment. Some restricted data sets have been compiled under the requirements of the Oslo and Paris Commission (OSPAR) which use monitoring and modelling approaches to assess loadings from rivers and direct discharges to tidal waters.The signiÆcance of veterinary or biocide residues in animal wastes as discharges is not known. Analytical issues Analytical methods have changed and developed over time and therefore it is difÆcult to determine trends in data without Ærst investigating the analytical methodology used and the limit of detection. Routine methodology for some active substances may not be available and information concerning relevant metabolites is generally not available. Old data are often treated with suspicion as methods may not have been validated or concentrations conÆrmed. Current monitoring programmes may have lower limits of detection than previously used and different programmes may have different limits of detection due to the objectives of the individual programmes.The cost of analyses can restrict the scale and scope of monitoring programmes. Drinking water Installation of additional drinking water treatment processes together with implementation of additional regulatory and voluntary measures has led to continuing improvement in drinking water quality in respect of the number of breaches of the 0.1 mg L-1 standard for individual pesticides in drinking water. Whilst some stewardship incentives have been successful in reducing water contamination the majority of improvements in drinking water quality are not related to changes in pesticide use. Data reported in the aquatic systems section of this report illustrate continued contamination of environmental waters.Costs continue to be incurred by the water companies for pesticide removal in addition to those spent on the original capital investment. The small number of drinking water exceedences reported are mainly restricted to herbicides from the phenyl-urea triazine and phenoxy acid groups. A total of 147 pesticides are monitored in public supplies in England and Wales but since strategies tend to be ``risk based'' and depend on judgements of the likelihood of particular pesticides being used in the supply zone not all companies analyse for all pesticides. The Water Quality (Water Supply) Regulations deÆne pesticides as insecticides fungicides and herbicides. The revised EC Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) has a wider deÆnition and when the Directive is implemented into national legislation water companies will need to consider whether further active substances will need to be included in their strategies e.g.products registered under the Biocidal Products. Private water supply data is reported by the Northern Ireland Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) (EHS 1997) but is not collated centrally by the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) for England and Wales nor the Water Service Unit of the Scottish Executive. Food The Working Party on Pesticide Residues (WPPR) and the VMD surveys provide very comprehensive information concerning plant protection product and veterinary pesticide residues in food. Trends in residues are difÆcult to establish due to the targeted nature of the sampling programme.However few samples exceed the maximum residue level (MRL) and this is supported by additional information from the food industry. There is no information concerning potential residues of some of the products covered by the EC Biocidal Products Directive e.g. poultry house treatments and any omissions need to be considered. Terrestrial systems The incidents reported by the Wildlife Incident Investigation Scheme (WIIS) are conÆned to those reported by the public the veterinary profession or other interested organisations. Reporting is likely to be biased to larger animals and therefore impacts on smaller species are probably under-recorded whilst several taxa (including plants and aquatic species) are not part of the scheme.Most reported incidents are due to abuse or misuse of pesticides. Incidents are mainly attributable to granular formulations of aldicarb carbofuran bromadialone and alphachloralose. Incidents of poisoning from the use of second generation rodenticides are of concern for several predatory species. Long-term monitoring shows that residues are widely found in barn owls but there is insufÆcient evidence currently available to determine whether this is impacting on population numbers. Long-term monitoring of organochlorines in selected bird species from 1963±1997 indicate a decline in residues of metabolites of DDT and dieldrin. There have been a number of studies concerning the potential impact of pesticides on terrestrial invertebrates but with the exception of the WIIS investigations on bee incidents there is no systematic recording of pesticide residue levels.There are a number of long-running surveys of invertebrates such as the Game Conservancy Trust Sussex study which indicate trends in invertebrate abundance on farmland. Pesticides Little monitoring information is available for assessing the indirect or offtarget effects of pesticides on terrestrial species. Long-term monitoring of farmland bird population has provided valuable insight into the role of farming intensiÆcation in their decline. SpeciÆc studies of grey partridge have provided convincing evidence for the role of indirect effects of pesticides in this species and there is evidence for such effects from autecological studies of other species such as the corn bunting.Numerous studies have been carried out on the effects of pesticides on invertebrates. Such studies have shown variable effects on invertebrate populations but long-term effects on various groups of invertebrates have been shown in one-off studies. Many studies concentrate on the impact of a pesticide but more recently the concept of ``ecologically acceptable concentrations'' has been proposed whereby the population recovery following impact becomes the focus. Monitoring surveys need to consider habitat biodiversity and ecological function to address this.The relevance of collating data on residues in soil or vegetation needs to be considered. No systematic surveys take place to investigate pesticide residues in soils or to determine the community structure and thus health of the soil. Aquatic systems A great deal of monitoring is carried out to determine levels of pesticides in environmental waters sediment and associated biota. Examples of structured monitoring programmes are discussed which have collated extensive data sets. The different monitoring organisations or schemes would beneÆt from liaison to improve the information obtained and its interpretation. For example water quality monitoring for pesticides is not currently co-ordinated with sites where aquatic organisms are monitored.The pesticides which cause exceedances of 0.1 mg L21 in surface and ground waters in England and Wales are mainly the herbicides isoproturon mecoprop diuron and MCPA. Other exceedances include the biocide PCSD/ eulan a moth prooÆng agent and cypermethrin and diazinon which are both used in sheep dip. The number of exceedances of 0.1 mg L21 indicate that contamination of surface waters does occur and where this water serves as a supply for drinking water the pesticides present must be removed by treatment 85N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Pesticides processes. Pesticides which most frequently exceed Environmental Quality Standards (EQSs) originate mainly from the use and disposal of sheep dip and discharges from the textile industry i.e.permethrin cypermethrin diazinon cyØuthrin and propetamphos. Trend data from the harmonised monitoring sites in England and Wales indicate that the number of detections of isoproturon and cypermethrin have increased in line with their increased usage whereas detections of atrazine and simazine whose use in amenity situations was fully revoked in 1993 have signiÆcantly decreased. Notable reductions in the concentrations of other revoked or restricted pesticides in waters such as dieldrin DDT and lindane have also been observed. In Scotland and N. Ireland monitoring surveys have detected few pesticides in surface water and none of those monitored have exceeded any EQS. Groundwater concentrations are generally low in England and Wales but have not been monitored in Scotland or N.Ireland though there are plans to do so in the future. Herbicides were also prominent in samples taken from marine waters but diuron may also be used as an antifouling paint therefore its pathway to water may also be direct. TBT is the pesticide that most frequently exceeds its EQS but levels in some places are showing declines where the impact of revocation for use on small vessels is evident. Monitoring of certain species and diversity has shown some recovery which have been attributed to reductions in TBT levels. Surveys show that despite the reduction of pesticides like dieldrin and DDT in environmental waters they continue to be detected in sediment and biota indicating their continued persistance in some environmental compartments.The surveys of residues and impacts on aquatic species appear to have been prioritised according to known environmental problems but this potentially excludes many species and active substances. Most surveys have been concerned with monitoring impact. Consideration needs to be given to the monitoring of population recovery or determining whether the concept of ecologically acceptable concentrations of a pesticide can be supported. Atmospheric systems The review of pesticides in air and rainfall found limited information partly 86N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 because of the availability of analytical techniques. The scale of the problem is therefore difÆcult to quantify.In agricultural ecosystems impacts of pesticides via aerial deposition are negligible compared with that from their direct agricultural application. There are no data available to determine whether sensitive non-target plants or ecosystems might be affected. No assessments have been made for biocides or veterinary products. The current approvals system for agricultural pesticides only determines the likelihood of contamination and may determine the proportion of applied active substance lost to the atmosphere but it does not consider overall loadings of pesticides to air. From pesticide usage patterns and physico-chemical properties modelling techniques could be employed to predict which pesticides might occur in air and rainwater.Recommendations Inputs Plant protection products The relevant government departments should re-survey the amenity sector and include the use and disposal of home and garden products in order to assist in determining their potential impact on the environment. The relevant government departments should survey the products and active substances used in forestry in order to assist in determining their potential impact on the environment with particular reference to environmental fate pathways of contamination and disposal routes. Biocidal products The implementation of the Biocidal Products Regulations in the UK in 2000 requires that monitoring of inputs is carried out and therefore this deÆciency in data collection must be urgently addressed.Commodities should be prioritised with respect to their use and their potential environmental impact. Information concerning their mode of use fate and subsequent distribution in the environment is also required under the regulations. HSE should take the lead role in compiling the required information in conjunction with other relevant organisations. Veterinary products VMD should make available to those carrying out environmental monitoring programmes data on sales of veterinary pesticides and information they hold on where and when such products are used. Subject to the protection of conÆdentially sensitive material VMD should also provide data on the environmental impact of such products which have been provided by manufacturers in support of applications for marketing authorisations.Such information includes data on the fate and behaviour of active ingredients and their subsequent distribution in the environment. PEWG should explore avenues for collecting further data on the usage of veterinary medicines. Discharges Existing data on the monitoring of discharges and receiving waters should be reviewed by the relevant environment agencies and recommendations made as to whether sufÆcient information is available to determine loadings to the environment and potential toxicity. Recommendations Residues and impacts Drinking water The DWI and the Scottish Executive should consider the beneÆts and practicality of collating data on pesticides in private water supplies in England and Wales.Food Pesticides Safety Directorate (PSD) and VMD should consider whether the implementation of the biocides regulations requires that additional active substances be monitored. Terrestrial systems PEWG should carry out an investigation to prioritise which terrestrial biota should be investigated in order that a baseline of residue levels and their impact of pesticides can be established. Characterisation of residues in soil and vegetation is not considered to be a priority area. However it is recommended that PEWG reviews the existing data on residues in relation to priority habitats and species under the biodiversity action plan and evaluates them in the context of population dynamics and recovery.Aquatic systems PEWG should investigate which aquatic biota should be prioritised considering the variability in response the need for further information on habitat population dynamics and recovery. Environment agencies and other relevant organisations should include assessments of the impacts of pesticides on aquatic organisms. PEWG should carry out an integrated review of aquatic systems which links all monitoring data with information on biological effects. Atmospheric systems Relevant government departments should carry out a desk study to determine priority substances and then a survey of wet and dry deposition which employs current standards of analytical expertise and a wider range of active substances.Data should be interpreted with respect to impact on sensitive habitats. General points PEWG should seek to establish a mechanism for improving the availability of regulatory assessments and monitoring data and analytical methodologies (within the limits of conÆdentiality) between the different regulatory agencies and within the public domain. All monitoring organisations should review the substances monitored to ensure that they include appropriate relevant metabolites. Examples of the trends in pesticide use residues and impacts in the environment have been presented in this report. PEWG should consider whether more detailed interpretations of the existing survey data should be carried out particularly with respect to integrating data from different surveys in order to determine future priorities for monitoring of use residues and impacts.PEWG should develop a general framework using collated information and modelling to provide predictions of the fate residue and impact of pesticides in order to identify environmental compartments of concern and susceptible organisms to assist the prioritisation process. The implications of undertaking such an approach would require further investigation of the cost resources and possible time-scale. PEWG should determine whether the Pesticides monitoring surveys could include a wider remit such as assessment of offtarget impacts or the indirect effects of pesticide use waste minimisation techniques adopted adoption of best practices. PEWG should consider opportunities for using the resources and infrastructure of existing usage survey programmes to obtain information on the use of other pesticides or activities. National surveillance of pesticide residues and their impact may not be appropriate in all cases. PEWG should consider the establishment of intensively monitored representative locations where the most important processes biodiversity ecology of species of concern and impacts can be monitored. This approach could be considered in the context of the requirements of the proposed Water Framework Directive where a catchment is identiÆed as the fundamental management unit. Tim Pepper and Andre�e Carter ADAS Gleadthorpe Research MansÆeld UK 87N J. Environ. Monit. 2000

ISSN:0960-7919    

DOI:10.1039/b007196j

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC