摘要:

Forests exhibit much variation in light environments, and this can affect communication among animals, communication between animals and plants, photosynthesis, and plant morphogenesis. Light environments are caused by, and can be predicted from, the geometry of the light paths, the weather conditions, and the time of day. The structure of forests leads to four major light habitats when the sun is not blocked by clouds: forest shade, woodland shade, small gaps, and large gaps. These are characterized by yellow—green, blue—gray, reddish, and "white" ambient light spectra, respectively. When the sun is blocked by clouds, the spectra of these four habitats converge on that of large gaps and open areas, so the single light environment during cloudy weather will be called open/cloudy. An additional light environment (early/late) is associated with low sun angles (near dawn or dusk); it is purplish. Each light environment is well defined and was found in forests of Trinidad, Panama, Costa Rica, Australia, California, and Florida. Scattered literature references suggest similar patterns elsewhere in North America, Europe, and Java. Perceived colors of animals, flowers, and fruits depend upon the interaction between ambient light color and the reflectance color of the animal or plant parts. As a result, an animal or plant may have a different appearance in each environment, i.e., a color pattern may be relatively cryptic in some light environments while relatively conspicuous in others. This has strong implications for the joint evolution of visual signals and vision, as well as microhabitat choice. Plant growth and form may also be affected by variation in the color of forest light.

ISSN:0012-9615    

DOI:10.2307/2937121

出版商:Ecological Society of America    

年代:1993

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Patterns and rates of generation of CO2and CH4by aerobic and anaerobic soil respiration are a significant gap in knowledge of floodplain carbon dynamics. Gaseous and hydrologic exports of CO2and CH4from the forested floodplain of the Ogeechee River in Georgia, USA, were studied from July 1987 to September 1989. Net emissions to the atmosphere were measured with short (10—20 min) static chamber incubations. CO2emissions were highly seasonal, with largest rates during summer, and were strongly correlated with soil temperatures. Annual total CO2emissions were similar in both years of the study, and averaged 919 g/m2. The contribution of live root respiration to this total was estimated with in situ incubations of attached roots excavated from the soil. Over 55% of the total CO2flux appeared to arise from live roots rather than mineralization of soil organic matter. Significant atmospheric CH4fluxes were found only at flooded sites. CH4emissions were highly variable, with high rates of release of methane carbon (up to 271 mg · m—2 · d—1) occurring irregularly during the warmer months. The temperature effect on CH4emissions appeared to be a step function. No significant CH4emissions occurred when soil temperatures were below 15°C; during warmer periods emission rates were generally positive, but showed no additional correlation with temperature. This effect is hypothesized to represent an interaction of the rates of oxygen consumption and replenishment in the soil. Spatial variability in CH4emissions was also large. Over 90% of the total floodplain CH4emissions came from the 30% of the floodplain that was most frequently inundated. Annual total fluxes of CH4carbon from low habitats averaged 17 g · m—2 · yr—1. Methane oxidation rates were estimated in floodplain surface waters by in situ bottle incubations. Roughly half of the CH4that entered the water column was consumed without reaching the atmosphere. Hydrologic exports of CO2and CH4via surface and groundwater were small, representing ≈1—2% of total export for both species, and were much less important than fluvial exports of organic carbon. Overall, floodplain detrital carbon processing was dominated by aerobic respiration and gaseous CO2export, although methanogenesis did constitute up to 20% of total soil respiration at some sites.

ISSN:0012-9615    

DOI:10.2307/2937122

出版商:Ecological Society of America    

年代:1993

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

The balance of forces determining the successful control of ragwort Senecio jacobaea by introduced insects was investigated in a field experiment by manipulating the time of disturbance, the level of interspecific plant competition, and the level of herbivory by the cinnabar moth Tyria jacobaeae and the ragwort flea beetle Longitarsus jacobaeae. We used a factorial design containing 0.25—m2plots arranged as 4 Blocks × 2 Disturbance Time (plots were tilled in Fall 1986 or Spring 1987) × 3 Plant Competition levels (vegetation other than ragwort was Removed, Clipped, or Unaltered) × 2 Cinnabar Moth levels (Exposed, Protected) × 2 Flea Beetle levels (Exposed, protected). The response of ragwort was measured as colonization, survivorship, and reproduction of the first ragwort generation, establishment of juveniles in the second generation, and changes in ragwort biomass from 1987 through 1990. We also made annual measurements from 1987 through 1990 of the allocation of space (the limiting resource in the Unaltered competition treatment) among the categories ragwort, other species, litter, and open space. Natural enemy responses were characterized by relating variation in the concentration of enemies and the concentration of ragwort among patches. We found that abundant buried seed and localized disturbances combined to activate incipient ragwort outbreaks, and that interspecific plant competition and herbivory by the ragwort flea beetle combined to inhibit the increase and spread of incipient outbreaks. Time of disturbance had little effect on the outcome of biological control. Under conditions in the Removed and Clipped treatments (where there was sufficient open space for germination and establishment), reduction in seed production in the first generation caused by cinnabar moth larvae led to a reduction in plant numbers in the second generation, but caused only a weak effect on ragwort cover and no detectable effect on ragwort biomass over the longer term from 1986 through 1990. At the spatial scale examined, inhibition by the ragwort flea beetle and plant competition took the extreme form of elimination of all ragwort individuals except the pool of seed buried in the soil. Our findings lead us to (1) reject the view that successful biological control leads to a stable pest—enemy equilibrium on a local spatial scale, (2) strongly endorse "search and destroy" and weakly endorse "complementary enemies" strategies suggested by Murdoch et al. (1985) as ways to improve control, and (3) emphasize resource limitation in the pest at low density as a key feature distinguishing biological control of weeds from biological control of insects.

ISSN:0012-9615    

DOI:10.2307/2937123

出版商:Ecological Society of America    

年代:1993

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

We studied the influence of piscivorous fishes and prey refuges on assemblages of fishes occupying 52 model reefs in a large seagrass bed off St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. We conducted three experiments: two involving 6 reefs each, lasting 2 and 5 yr, and one involving 40 reefs, lasting 1 yr. Each experiment included replicate reefs in various combinations of five structural treatments: holeless controls, 12 and 24 small holes, and 12 and 24 large holes. Tagging studies indicated that the reefs were sufficiently isolated from each other to comprise statistically independent replicates, and that resident piscivores occupied home reefs. We observed 97 species on or near the reefs, representing all major foraging guilds, and each holed reef supported hundreds of individuals. We examined four categories of fish: (1) large reef associates (too large for the small holes; most of these fish were both predators on smaller fish and prey for larger transient piscivores), (2) moray eels (piscivores that could fit into the small holes), (3) small reef associates (potential prey that could fit into the small holes), and (4) juvenile grunts (potential prey that sporadically were extremely abundant). We tested five a priori predictions of the general hypothesis that predation is an important process structuring reef—fish assemblages. The first two predictions dealt with the role of prey refuges. First, if reef holes function as prey refuges, then prey fish should be most abundant on reefs providing holes near their body diameters, because such holes would make the prey fish safest from predation. Seven of eight experimental comparisons supported this prediction, and five of them were statistically significant. Second, if refuge availability limits prey abundance, then prey fish should be more abundant on reefs with 12 holes than those with no holes, and should be more abundant on reefs with 24 holes than those with 12 holes. The first part of this prediction was verified by all nine experimental comparisons, seven of which were statistically significant. However, there were no strong differences between 12—hole and 24—hole reefs. Thus, between 0 and 12 holes per reef, holes limited local prey populations; between 12 and 24 holes per reef, the number of holes was not limiting. Several lines of evidence suggested that the latter pattern was due to temporary saturation of the study area with refuges when we added 40 reefs to 12 existing reefs. The remaining three predictions dealt directly with the community—level role of predation. First, predators should affect local prey abundance either chronically, in which case a negative relationship among reefs is predicted between the average abundances of predators and prey, or sporadically, in which case a negative relationship is predicted between the abundance of predators and the maximum number of co—occurring prey ever observed at each predator abundance. The former prediction was falsified, whereas the latter was verified. Observations of extreme type III survivorship of recruit cohorts on reefs with many piscivores and occasional direct observations of piscivory bolstered the conclusion that this relationship was causal. Finally, we predicted that predators should affect the number of prey species on a reef. We observed a significant negative relationship among reefs between predator abundance and maximum prey—species richness. Comparing species' relative abundances on reefs at the extremes of this regression, piscivores appear to have nonselectively reduced and extirpated both common and rare prey species, although this relationship remains purely correlative. In our model system, high local species diversity appears to have been maintained despite rather than because of predation. We propose a conceptual model where the local abundances of coral—reef fishes are determined by the relative magnitudes of recruitment by larvae, colonization by juveniles and adults, predation, and competition for refuges, each of which varies through time and space. Multifactorial field experiments will be necessary to test such pluralistic hypotheses.

ISSN:0012-9615    

DOI:10.2307/2937124

出版商:Ecological Society of America    

年代:1993

数据来源: WILEY