摘要:

SUMMARYThe vigorous movement towards raising the levels of economic performance and consumption in the underdeveloped areas has become one of the central economic issues of our time. But so far no satisfactory theory has been constructed to explain this movement, its implications and effects.The starting‐point for any attempt to construct a theory of development in underdeveloped countries must be an analysis of the major factors and conditions responsible for economic growth in Western countries. These are: (1) capital formation of an impressive magnitude, as a continuous process increasing in breadth and intensity and including the formation of intellectual capital. The introduction of mechanical means of production was of paramount importance in this process, because it radically changed the rate of progress; (2) operation of effective incentives either in the form of material rewards (profits) or spiritual inducements or both; (3) availability of an expanding market to absorb the rising flow of goods; (4) tendency for a balanced ratio to be maintained between population growth and economic growth; (5) a succession of scientific discoveries and a readiness on the part of entrepreneurs and technicians to utilise them for the continual improvement of techniques of production; (6) apolitical regime and a social order conducive to economic development. Since several of these factors either do not obtain at all in underdeveloped countries, or obtain only partially, a theory of economic development built on the cornerstones of economic growth in the West would not fit conditions in underdeveloped countries.The gradual change to an independent existence with higher standards of living and higher levels of economic performance is being brought about by a transfer of means and techniques of economic development from outside through a process of implantation. In place of the incentives which served in the Western world and which are not reproduced to the extent required to stimulate a comprehensive process of development in the immediate future, substitutes are in operation. Modern nationalism is one of the motive forces of economic development in underdeveloped countries. On the same plane is the acceptance of entrepreneurial functions by governmental agencies.The progress in transferability of modern techniques of production has immensely facilitated the promotion of up‐to‐date processes of production and distribution in underdeveloped countries also. Finally, a difference is to be noted in the economic mechanism by which the various elements of the socio‐economic process are geared together and kept in

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02679.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

SUMMARYIn this paper it has been argued that a comparison between Schumpeter's entrepreneur type and a charismatic leader developed by Max Weber discloses certain factors that can be utilized to make the Schumpeterian construct a more useful conceptual tool.Both Schumpeter and Weber were faced with very similar analytical problems, In each case it was necessary to explain how the dynamics of change could be encompassed within a functional system. In each case a disturbing force was introduced. Schumpeter called his the entrepreneur—Weber's designation was the charismatic leader. Schumpeter attempted to make the entrepreneur endogenous to the system he was attempting to explain. Weber's type was frankly exogenous to any system. The strength of Schumpeter's position was that he could explain in some measure how the entrepreneur could be nurtured. The weaknesss was that the type never remained completely endogenous to the capitalism to which Schumpeter related it.If the entrepreneur‐type is viewed as a sub‐type of the Weberian charismatic leader certain analytical advantages can be realized. The Weberian type is a generalized one that may take a number of forms. The Schumpeterian type is specific and is dependent upon certain objective conditions for it to emerge. In this paper it has been argued that the minimum essentials for the emergence of the entrepreneur‐type from the more generalized type are the following: (1) accessible resources, (2) large markets, (3) an independent banking system, (4) consumer choice, and (5) calcuable law. There is no plea made for the values that may underlie the attainment of these objective conditions but that merely if charisma is to be channeled into entrepreneurship, rather than any of the other numerous paths it may take, then these conditions as they have been explained must be present.A better understanding of the significance and the usefulness of Weber's type can be gained to the extent that a large variety of other sub‐types are constructed and the objective conditions for their operation explored. In this way, it is argued, the significance not only of Weber's type can be better understood but the value of Schumpeter's entrepreneur may be realized both as it stands by itself and as it is supported by a variety of other types. The policy implications of this kind of analysis seem particularly important in a world characterized not only by great change but by a wide variety of conditions that may channel charisma into as wide a variety of d

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02680.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

SUMMARYLines of Development of Modern Economic Theory. The economic happenings in human society are so complicated and manifold that it is not possible to establish a comprehensive theory. Theorists in economics have always been obliged, in the first place, to deduce simple processes from a few fundamental phenomena. They have to take progressively more and more phenomena into consideration in their models, if they want to provide practitioners—whether economic policy‐makers or enterprisers—with a set of instruments serving to explain the causal nexus underlying the economic phenomena of society. It is dangerous to set up a theoretical model—say, the traditional model of a market with perfect competition—as a goal for economic policy, if the said model is not accessible to genuine value judgements. Furthermore, a large group of models will not, without reservation, lend themselves to the drawing of inferences for economic policy, because, owing to the axioms upon which they are based, they are not able to show those connections in the development of the economic processus of society which are brought about by technical improvements, growth of population, changes in consumer habits, etc.While in the twenties and thirties a growing accumulation of factual material without any theoretical interpretation confronted an abundance of theoretical models without empirical substance, developments in economic theory—especially in macro‐economics—during the last fifteen years or so, and developments in practical research, as practised in, say, the U. S. A., the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries, have been characterised by an effort to bridge this gap. Thus, modern theorists are trying to construct statistically testable models which will enable policy‐makers to gauge the effect of their measures with greater accuracy. National accounting and the models for analysing the interdependence of the processes of production and the connections between income, savings, consumption and investment represent attempts to fill up this gap which have, in some respects, scored a considerable success. We are by no means in sight of the end of developments in this branch of theory, especially as regards dynamic theory.The second important characteristic of the newer economic theory is the further development of market theory. Here, promising attempts are being made, through a conception of a systematic theory of economic behaviour with the aid of the theory of games, to lift economic subjects out of the state of quasi‐isolation which in traditional market theory exists, and to make it possible for morphology to be incorporated

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02681.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

SUMMARYThe fact has been widely recognized that the present stagnation of social sciences is fraught with dangers for the physical existence of humanity. This premise being accepted, the article sets out to discover the factors hampering the development of social sciences. These, it is here suggested, have three sources: (1) the nature of the subject of enquiry; (2) the nature of the empiric method and (3) the limited applicability of the present‐day social sciences to the life of the private individual.The difficulties attributable to the first source are two: the high degree of differentiation in human psychology and the inventive capacity of the human mind. Both of them have the effect of creating a pattern of behaviour distinguished by great variety and rapidity of change. Ensuing, to some extent, from the other two is the third characteristic, namely the fact that some of our lines of behaviour are incapable of being measured quantitatively. Under such conditions, the task of scientific analysis is obviously extremely difficult, and this accounts for the strong “post‐ante” bias inherent in most of our present‐day social sciences.The empirical method of analysis, so much in vogue at present, has contributed two additional difficulties of its own. These are: taxonomic approach and anti‐normative inclination. The former is another way of saying that, unlike their predecessors in the 18th and 19th centuries, which operated on the implied assumption of the perennial uniformity of human behaviour, the present‐day social sciences have adopted the method of dealing with each situation as a unique case. Consequently, the “social laws” derived from this procedure have only a limited validity.It was the very simplicity of the social sciences of the preceding two centuries that made them popular and gave them an influence over the actual shaping of public life, and, incidentally, it is the lack of such simplicity that so effectually prevents the social sciences of today from winning popularity. For it is manifest that, in the present state of social knowledge, an extremely important aim of social science—probably the most important of all its aims—namely, to help the individual to form a comprehensive and consistent outlook on life, is a dream of the very distant future.But, however formidable the difficulties in this field may be, the need for the social sciences of our day to produce a coherent synthesis is most pressing. This is so because of (1) the decline in the influence of religion, (2) the increasing capacity of man for self‐destruction and (3) the existence of sharp political conflict between the communist and non‐communist worlds. This necessity being admitted, a further problem arises. It is a question of popularizing the social sciences. For, assuming that our social sciences are, or will shortly be, capable of serving as a guide to the understanding of social life, it is obvious that unless such knowledge is widely spread it will remain useless. Here the main stumbling‐block is the low earning power of social sciences. Thus it would appear that the prospects of solving the problems connected with the relative underdevelopment of our social knowle

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02682.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02683.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02684.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02685.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02686.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02687.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0023-5962    

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02688.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1956

数据来源: WILEY