摘要:

Summary.Forty‐two “aggressive” and forty “withdrawing” children, selected by teachers out of a total school population of 1,002 children, are compared with each other and with a group of “exceptionally well‐adjusted children.” Comparisons are based on rating scales, Bristol Guides to Social Adjustment, a sociometric test, and a test of social adaptation.The results indicate that there are probably rather more problems of aggression than withdrawal but that the severity of the two behaviour patterns is comparable. These indications are confirmed by a limited one

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01515.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.It is argued that moral values are learnt in the course of the child's development, and that consequently any theory regarding their development should be based on the known facts and principles of modern learning theory. An attempt has been made to do so by suggesting that ‘conscience’ is, in fact, a conditioned response built up during the child's formative years by the pairing of conditioned stimuli (arising from aggressive, predatory, and overtly sexual actions) and unconditioned stimuli (slaps, beatings, ‘shaming’, and other punishments) immediately following the conditioned stimulus. Aided by a process ofstimulus generalizationthis should, in course of time, lead to an association between the conditioned stimulus and the fear‐anxiety responses appropriate to the unconditioned stimulus. Certain deductions are made from this hypothesis and are shown to be supported by experimental evidence. It is argued in particular that if the hypothesis is correct, then individual differences in conditionability, i.e., the ease with which conditioned responses are formed, should be related to moral behaviour and the ease with which guilt feelings are aroused. Here also evidence is quoted to suggest that this hypothesis has some foundation in fact. It is concluded that the treatment which children, adolescents, and adults receive in response to immoral acts, should be based upon the recognition of individual differences between them, particularly with respect to their conditionability, as only in this way will the most beneficial results of such treatment be

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01516.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.A particular pattern of goal‐setting behaviour in a level of aspiration test was found to occur more frequently in technical schools and in the “A” streams of modern schools than in the lower modern school streams and in grammar schools. In previous research, this pattern, of setting high goals and adhering to them rigidly, whatever the fluctuations in performance, has been associated with anxiety and similar personality traits. Matched pairs of these children and controls were compared for other possible indices of anxiety in the material of an investigation of which this is a part. The findings are discussed in relation to the possible effects of success and failure involved in secondary school sele

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01517.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.Investigations into the nature of children's definitions commonly imply some classification based on the formal characteristics of the definition (definition by synonym, by class, by description and so on). Examination of a large number of definitions from school children in Leeds suggested that it was impossible to group definitions with confidence in categories of this kind and that any attempt to assess their value should be based on criteria of a psychological kind.Definition by emotional tone appears to be one of the most rudimentary types of definition and though such definitions have frequently very little social value, they evidently occupy an important place in a psychological scale of values.Definition that associates meaning with a specific situation often appears superior to definition by emotional tone because it suggests a more socialised and mature concept: but within this category, many levels may be noted, ranging from the proto‐class to the purely emotional.Definitions that are generic in type, seem to reveal greater social maturity and would appear to be superior logically and psychologically to definitions in terms of specific contexts or emotional tone. Four kinds of definition of this type are distinguished.Various levels of definition are to be found within each of these main categories and it is suggested that the level of definition and its category should be considered separate criteria in any scale of semantic values. In general, the category indicates the extent to which the definition may be logically adequate and the level, the extent to which it reflects maturity of understanding. A good definition is satisfactory by either criterion but any definition that is less complete than this, should presumably, be judged by a criterion of conceptual as well as logical adequacy and in many situations (e.g., psychological tests), the former may be more useful than the latte

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01518.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.Results in the 1953 and 1954 Cambridge examinations in English Language, at ‘O’ level, have been obtained for 1,423 boys and 882 girls, from 197 schools, who were subsequently admitted to universities. Significant differences are shown in the grades awarded to boys and girls, and to arts and science students, of comparable age. Linguists achieved significantly better marks than non‐linguists, but there is no significant difference between the non‐linguists among the arts men and the men who specialised in the ‘pure’ sciences.The failure rates for boys taking the paper for the first time were 1 in 9 for scientists, 1 in 15 for arts students. For girls the corresponding rates were 1 in 42 and 1 in 27. The male scientists who had won open awards to universities were not inferior in English, at ‘O’ level, to arts students in general, though they were inferior to the arts men who won open awards.Among the arts men, those who went to Oxford, Cambridge or London gained significantly better marks than those who entered other universities; a similar difference is found in respect of the men scientists, and of the wome

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01519.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.We consider the hypothesis that, in some circumstances, the variance of the marks awarded by an examiner will increase with the number of scripts he has marked. We test this hypothesis on the data of fifty‐four different class‐lists, and find a small but highly significant effect of the sort predicted. We consider various possible alternative explanations of the observed effect, and conclude that there is fairly strong evidence of the existence of such a b

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01520.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.Non‐equivalence in the performance of the samples of children used in standardising the several members of a series of similar tests results in lack of comparability between the standardised scores obtained with different tests in the series; all the standardised scores from one test may be positively or negatively biassed relative to those from another. The bias is named ‘zero error’.The zero errors of twenty Moray House verbal reasoning tests, all relative to one taken as standard, are estimated and shown to be larger for more recent than for earlier tests. The increase is ascribed mainly to increased test sophistication in the later standardisation samples.Local education authorities should take zero errors into account in their allocation proce

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01521.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.Differences in attainment in English and arithmetic between primary schools in mixed‐language areas of Wales are studied with respect to differences in both intelligence and linguistic background. School attainments tended to increase with intelligence, though not regularly; and the school differences in intelligence did not account fully for the differences in attainment. Generally, the attainment of schools with pupils of a strongly Welsh background—i.e., bilingual pupils—was lower than that of other schools, this tendency being strong in English and slight in arithmetic. It is concluded that a bilingual environment may be regarded as an important factor with respect to primary‐school differences of attainment in English which cannot be accounted for by intel

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01522.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

Summary.Previous investigations undertaken in Wales have yielded somewhat contradictory results concerning the influence of bilingualism on performance in non‐verbal tests of intelligence. More recent surveys, planned on a wider scale, consistently reveal a tendency for mean scores on such non‐verbal tests to decrease with increasing Welsh linguistic background, and also show statistically significant differences in favour of monoglot (English) groups by comparison with bilingual (Welsh) groups. In the present study, reference is made to a re‐analysis of the results of one of these large‐scale surveys in relation to the parental occupations of the pupils tested. The findings of this re‐analysis indicate that, whereas monoglot and bilingual groups which vary significantly in occupational class also differ significantly in non‐verbal intelligence, corresponding linguistic groups of comparable socio‐economic status do not differ significantly in this respect. It is, therefore, concluded that bilingualism need not be a source of intellectual disadvantage. The importance of a thorough examination of socio‐economic factors in any comparative study of monoglot and bilingual children is strongly emphasised, and a study of bilingualism and non‐verbal intelligence which appeared in a recent issue of thisJournalis critically examined on account of its defects in this and in certa

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01523.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0007-0998    

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1960.tb01524.x

出版商:Blackwell Publishing Ltd    

年代:1960

数据来源: WILEY