摘要:

CHEMICAL INVENTION AND DISCOVERY Everything. that distinguishes modern from primitive man was discovered or invented by someone or other at some time or other. Invention and discovery is therefore a topic well worth discussing. It needs contributions from three classes of students scientists and technologists who alone can understand what the pioneer accom-plished; sociologists who are best qualified to analyse the changes in the pattern of our lives which discovery and invention produce; and economists who can evaluate the factors which lead to the commercial success or failure of an invention or discovery. Hitherto studies of invention and discovery have been largely catered for by technologists or scientists with a biographical or historical bent or by biographers and historians with a technological one.A number of economists have recently started taking an interest in the subject-a very welcome development. The contri-bution from sociology is still thin. Professor Carter’s studies, originally undertaken for the British Association have now been available for some twelve months and 1958 sees the publication of a most informative work by Professor Jewkes of Oxford in collabora-tion with Sawers and Stillerman. * Professor Edwards’s contribution is eagerly awaited by the cognoscenti who are aware that it is on the stocks and who are waiting to learn the facts about how new industries are started from small beginnings. When all three works are available it will be possible to see the subject in perspective or at least to begin to.Jewkes and his co-authors list some sixty-one inventions in the text and include fifty detailed case histories as Part 11 which amounts to more than a third of the whole work. Of the sixty-one inventions quoted twenty-two were primarily chemical in nature while a further thirteen involved such properties of materials as required the chemist to play a leading role though he might have been disguised as a metallurgist food technologist or solid-state physicist. The twenty-three inventions in the field of pure chemistry include acrylic fibres bakelite methacrylate polymers polythene and terylene. The professional chemist would regard this selection as somewhat arbitrary equally with the selection of penicillin and streptomycin to represent the antibiotics.At first sight no very satisfactory statistical deductions can be made from lists whose length is inflated by expanding synthetic fibres through inclusion of * The Sources of Invention by John Jewkes David Sawers and Richard Stillerman. Pp. xii + 428. London Macmillan & Co. Ltd 1958. 31s. 6d. net, 2 1 2 16 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL individual examples and omitting altogether such discoveries as the M and B type of chemotherapeutic agents ion-exchange resins. and membranes or the phthalocyanine dyes. Second thoughts suggest that such a criticism may be superficial. Jewkes is not concerned to expound the achievements of chemistry so much as the fate of chemical inventors and there is no a priori reason to suppose that if the latter are affected by social and economic factors high polymer chemists are less representative of the whole than those who work in the field of chemotherapeutics or dyestuffs.Jewkes of course draws his own conclusions from the data he presents and the interested reader who studies the case histories in detail will probably draw his own which may or may not agree with the author’s. Initial reaction must be to some extent subjec-tive and coming to one’s own conclusions does not commit one to ingratitude for so valuable a collection of facts on which to work. One of my own preoccupations for instance is the ‘Not invented here’ complex of reactions which exercises such an inhibiting effect on the results of institutionalised research. I therefore commence by regarding the question of who an inventor was and where he happened to be working at the time when he made his discovery as of secondary importance compared to that of the reactions he provoked in and the support he got from the leading research centres thereafter.By contrast Professor Jewkes seems concerned to deter-mine whether the numerical incidence of inventions external to the main centres of institutionalised research is an indication that all is not well with the latter. If one was affected by his sense of unease over this issue would it not lead one to an untenable position, namely a denial of the individual quality of inventive inspiration? How are research centres to spot inventive talent before it has manifested itself? How for example was the late Sir Wallace Akers supposed to ensure that Dr Ziegler was born an Englishman and found employment at I.C.I.Ltd? The issue surely is not whether Ziegler should originally have been an I.C.I. servant but whether I.C.I. should have ultimately become a Ziegler-licensee. Only time and the Patent Offices in the world’s principal capitals will give us the answer to this question. What Professor Jewkes’s collection of case histories manifests beyond a peradventure is the dominance of two factors in the mosaic namely the importance of the inventor with a professional training in science and technology on the one hand and on the other the importance of pre-established industry. Under either heading the advantage of the cobbler sticking to his last is also well in evidence.In the field of chemical inventions quoted only the catalytic cracking of petroleum products and the discovery of insulin seem to have involved major contributions by professiona 1!158] cllHMI(:AL INVE.N1 ION AN11 1)ISCOVHRY 217 scientists or technologists other than chemists and for comparison, only in the case of tetraethyl lead does one find an example of an engineering firm entering the chemical industry. Only a few rare pioneering inventions seem to lie so far from the pattern of pre-established industry that a new-comer to the industrial field proves viable and leaves a name recognisable by stockbrokers The Bakelite Corporation The Goodyear Rubber Co. or the Polaroid Corpora-tion for example. Only a minority of successful inventions start with independent backing and only a few of these resist absorption into the pre-established pattern of industry.Generalisation on this aspect of the matter is misleading without a clear perspective of the state of science and industry at the time when an invention is made. Goodyear was an empiricist. Car-others had a theory to guide him. Baekeland fell both historically and technically between the extremes represented by each. Cross-linking polycondensation and polymerisation meant no thing to Goodyear were empirical facts for Baekeland and theoretical subjects for Carothers. Is it then surprising that Goodyear and Baekeland founded concerns independent of pre-established industry while Carothers developed his ideas within the framework of an established concern ? Deep insight into such questions cannot be provided by historians of technology only.The survival of Goodyear and Baekeland depended not only on rubber technology or phenol-formaldehyde resins but also on the pattern of industry and the state of the investment market at the time when their ideas were being developed. The economist must contribute his characteristic analysis at this point but before he can do so he must have facts. We can therefore be grateful to Professor Jewkes for his painstaking collection thereof. HALSBUR CHEMISTRY IN A CHANGING WORLD By PROFESSOR WILLIAM WARDLAW c.B.E. D.SC. F.R.I.C. * I t is well for all of us to step aside from time to time out of the traffic of our daily duties and from some vantage point-such as our Conference here provides-to scan the way by which we have come and the destination to which our steps are bent.To most members of the Institute there must come moments when they ask themselves what is the purpose of all our manifold activities. I t is then that they seek a reassurance that what is being done is worth while. From the earliest times the practitioners of a specialised art have always shown a tendency to draw apart from the rest of the com-munity. The merchant and trade guilds surviving into our own days were typical examples of such segregation among the followers of particular arts and crafts. The lines of demarcation both social and professional were much more rigidly drawn in former times and produced much more distinctive types of person. Nowadays the barriers are broken down and men of all careers mix with one another.But there still remain and always will remain certain typical attributes which the lifelong pursuit of a particular calling engenders. These differences and peculiarities lend colour and interest to social life and the followers of each vocation have their own distinctive contribution to make to the variety as well as to the welfare of the community. While we rightly claim that devotion to a common calling tends to create a sense of professional brother-hood there is on the other side of the account a tendency which is not so meritorious-a tendency to resist all changes. Those who by the expenditure of much time and labour have acquired expertness in the practice of a system which they have mastered are naturally disinclined to scrap what they have found to work well enough.The beaten path is so much easier to tread. The truth is that no profession no calling is immune from this tendency. Happily in our day open-mindedness is becoming more prevalent and there is on all sides a greater readiness to receive new ideas. No one can give over forty years of his life to any pursuit without accumulating much information concerning it and coming to a few conclusions as to what it has all been about. Today I propose to share with you some reflections on chemists and chemistry in a changing world. A progressive age is so briskly erasing the past that one’s memory is apt to be faulty. I do remember however, * Presidential Address to the Royal Institute of Chemistry to be delivered On Thursday 18 April at Adam House Chambers Street Edinburgh.21 CHLMISTRY IN A CHANGING WORLD 2 19 that when I graduated before the first world war a chemist engaged in chemical industry might expect a starting salary of L8O to &lo0 per annum and that the skilled craftsman was earning a weekly wage of 30 to 40 shillings. The industrial position was interesting. The main concern of chemical industry was the manufacture of heavy chemicals although dyestuffs and intermediates were made on a limited scale. In this country we relied on Germany to provide us with the bulk of dyestuffs fine chemicals drugs pharma-ceuticals laboratory glassware and scientific instruments. The outbreak of war with Germany in 1914 placed us in a difficult position.The wide range of chemical imports ceased and the manufacture of these vital commodities as well as the manufacture of munitions on an unprecedented scale had to be undertaken by ourselves. For the first time our Government was made fully aware of the essential role that chemistry must play in the modern state. By drawing upon industry and the teaching profession the Government was able to secure large numbers of chemists but the demand exceeded the supply. Salaries of chemists were reasonable at this period but the status of the chemist was low. I t was significant that medical men entering the army were immediately gazetted as captains whereas chemists with honours degrees who joined the Chemical Corps entered with the rank of corporal, The Institute had made representations to the authorities about this matter but without any success.The process of educating our masters was only beginning. During the four years of strife, 1914 to 1918 the Institute did valuable work for the country and this period was marked by further progress in the organisation of the profession of chemistry within the Institute. Before 19 14, although the Associateship of the Institute was widely sought after, many honours graduates declined to take the examinations of the Institute and as a result a steadily increasing body of chemists remained outside its ranks. The means of overcoming this difficulty had been discussed in 1913 but owing to the outbreak of war the solution of the problem was not determined until 1917.I n that year the Fellows and Associates in an Extraordinary General Meeting settled the lines upon which the Regulations for the Associateship were based until recently. These regulations made it possible for graduates with first- or second-class honours in chemistry and holders of equivalent diplomas to apply for the Associateship. This decision has had a profound influence on the fortunes of the Institute and over the years its wisdom has been fully established. At the end of hostilities in 1918 the Universities and Colleges were crowded with ex-servicemen who had received government grants to enable them to qualify for their life’s work. Chemistry was a popular subject for there was a widely hel 220 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL lNS?.ITIJTE OF CHEMISTRY LAPRII, belief that there would be a continuing high level of demand for industrial chemists.Unfortunately so many men qualified and left the universities and colleges at the end of the same session that the supply was much in excess of the demand at that particular moment. A few days ago one of my friends was recalling his experiences in trying to secure a suitable post in the early 1920s. The first time he was summoned for an interview he was told that the firm had received over three hundred and fifty applications for the vacancy and that he was one of the lucky six who had been selected for consideration. Naturally there was wide and keen disappoint-ment amongst young men who had hoped to find a career in the chemical industry. Teaching for some graduates has always been a calling for others it is a ‘job insurance.’ Many turned to science teaching at this juncture and the schools secured some excellent recruits.This was reflected in the high standard of science teaching in the schools at this period. It is not my purpose today to give you an historical account of the rise of the profession of chemistry. My object was to recall earlier days of the Institute and to remind you that the calling of the professional chemist though always of the greatest importance to the country was within the experience of many of us neither properly organised nor properly recognised. Over the years, however we have been able to see that calling take its legitimate place among the professions and attain to the recognition that is its due.Some interesting sidelights on the economic position of chemists during the decade 1929 to 1939 are found in an article by D. Chapman published in the autumn of 1939. This survey, entitled “Chemists during the depression,” was based on material available in the Journal and Proceedings of the Institute from 1930 to 1939. His investigation revealed that at the beginning of the trade depression in September 1929 only 1 a 2 per cent of the membership of the Institute was unemployed. The peak was reached in November 1932 when the numbers unemployed were swollen by the seasonal influx of new graduates. At that date 3.3 per cent of the membership was without employment. In his comments on these figures Mr Chapman states that the most striking feature is their extreme smallness.At this period the number of insured workers unemployed rose rapidly to 20 per cent of the total by the beginning of 1931 and remained at this level until June 1933. The figure for industrial workers before the slump in 1929 was just below 10 per cent. I t seems clear that unemployment amongst chemists even during these difficult times was never serious. An examination of the returns made in 1930 and again in 1938 to 19581 CHEMISTRY IN A CHANCING WORLD 22 1 questionnaire of the Institute about salaries indicated that the remuneration of chemists over the period 1929 to 1939 slightly deteriorated. I have mentioned that after the outbreak of the First World War government recognition of the importance of science and of the application of scientific knowledge to defence problems to trade and to industry had steadily grown.Again during the Second World War the attitude of the government was profoundly influenced by the experience gained by the Defence Departments. These departments had learned that science was a vital element in the strategy of war and that it was essential to the effective mobilisa-tion of resources to the production of new weapons and to methods for countering the enemy’s weapons. In September 1945 the Government completely reorganised the Scientific Civil Service. Under the new scheme scientists in government service were given improved remuneration and better conditions of employment and this trend of expansion and intensification of active government interest in science was also seen in varying degree in other civil departments employing scientific staffs.The attractive advertisements now appearing in the public press indicate that Britain is short of scientists and technologists. How-ever we are not alone in this matter. A recent survey indicated that in Western Europe Canada and United States shortages of scientific manpower exist in all branches of science. Among the practical measures which have been suggested to alleviate this condition is that the optimum use should be made of existing scientists that teaching systems and methods should be modified with a view to training a greater number of scientists and that special steps should be taken to bring home to the public and in particular to young people the importance and advantages of careers in science.Recently a writer in the Times Educational Supplement commented on science teaching in these terms “At last people are beginning to see the harm that years of bad science teaching has done. But the dreary dictation and copying of notes the half-hearted experiments, the ever-failing demonstrations the assumption that science was a collection of facts (mostly useless) to be handed on like the tablets of the law-all this has frightened generations of able boys into classics history and modern languages. And in the circumstances the boys were right.” Nevertheless one of our distinguished Fellows Sir Alexander Fleck recently said that “the traditional courses of study in chemistry physics and biology, overburdened as they often are with obsolete and irrelevant factual detail have a stultifying effect on students.Worse still they desiccate those who teach,” The need for good teachers is obvious and the One does not forget the good men. These are hard words 222 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL avoidance of teaching by science graduates threatens the whole future expansion of scientific manpower. The Institute is fully alive to this problem and also to the need of bringing home to the public and in particular to able young people the advantages of a career in chemistry. Through the Educational Trust Fund this last objective is being actively pursued under the chairmanship of‘ Dr Kent-Jones. “If I were founding a university,” wrote Stephen Leacock thirty-five years ago in an article called “Oxford as I see it,” “I would found first a smoking room then when I had a little more money in hand I would found a dormitory then after that or more probably with it a decent reading room and a library.After that if I had still more money that I could not use I would hire a professor and get some textbooks.” Although the University Grants Committee and the Ministry of Education do not take the same whimsical view as Leacock about higher education there is much in his statement that gives food for thought. One of the complaints about the university graduate in science is his narrow specialisation. I t may well be that if we can develop residence in the universities we may offset the effects of academic specialisation. I t has been said of the older universities that graduates get about half their education from the Dons and the other half from themselves.The bulk of the Colleges of Advanced Technology will this session be functioning substantially in their new role, The Council for Technological Awards has done a good job. I t has accepted that hostels exist only on paper. I t is tolerant to the slow emergence of liberal studies but on the technical quality of accepted courses it has compromised not at all. The last fifteen years have witnessed a revolution in the physical sciences. The development of nuclear reactors and other nuclear devices has largely been in the hands of physicists and engineers. But the impact of nuclear fision has had scarcely less far-reaching implications for the chemist.The synthesis of ten new elements has been successfully achieved some on a full industrial scale. This has added to chemistry a considerable volume of new material relating to the preparation and isolation of these new substances. Among these new elements are substances with rich and varied chemical behaviour. This is demonstrated by the formation of unusual compounds which in some cases display an extraordinary complexity in solution. Owing to the radioactivity of these sub-stances it has been necessary to develop new and unconventional procedures to permit of their study in safety. A problem of great interest to chemists is the interpretation of the relationship of these new elements to each other and to the rest of the elements in the Periodic Table The attention which has been focused on nuclea 19581 CHEMISTRY IN A CHANGING WORLD 223 power on rocket and jet propulsion and electronics has resulted in a marked increase in the amount of research in inorganic chemistry; for progress on many fronts in these new technologies is dependent on progress in this branch of chemistry.As a consequence of such research activity a new journal devoted to Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry has been launched the principal contributors being British French and American scientists. In 1956 a Russian Journal of Inorganic Chemisty began publication. I t is rich in original work much of very high quality and it covers a wide variety of topics. In this changing world the resurgence of inorganic chemistry is one of its notable features.Although inorganic chemistry is the oldest branch of chemistry it was eclipsed by the newer fields of organic physical and biochemistry that developed during the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth for these new disciplines offered so many opportunities for fruitful research. I t can hold its head high. The 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Sir Cyril Hinshelwood and to Nikolai Semenov of Russia for their brilliant and independent research on chemical kinetics. Recently the Nobel Prize for 1957 was awarded to Sir Alexander Todd for his contributions to organic chemistry. Mr Bernard Hickson of the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers has stated recently that the United Kingdom chemical industry is now probably the second largest in the world.He stresses that the index of production for the industry as a whole has doubled since 1948-a rate of increase nearly twice as fast as that for all manufacturing industries taken together. The most spectacular growth has occurred in the petrochemical sector where the total investment amounted to L45 million by the end of 1955; it will be double that figure by the end of 1958. Obviously there is in the chemical industry an urgent and continuing need for well-trained chemists to solve the many problems of research and development. Some authorities assert that there is little to be gained by trying to assess the extent of existing shortages of scientific manpower in quantitative terms. They contend that quality is the key factor in the demand for and supply of scientists.Nevertheless it is essential that the universities and the colleges of technology should be set a target in order that present and future demands for scientists should be met. With this in mind the Ministry of Labour and the Social Survey recently embarked on an enquiry into the numbers of scientists and of engineers now employed in Great Britain. The objects of the enquiry were first to discover the numbers and distribution of scientists and engineers already in employment; and secondly to obtain an idea of the additional number that would be What is the world position of British Chemistry 224 required by the end of the period 1956 to 1959. A period of three years was chosen as being the furthest ahead that employers in general could be expected to forecast their probable requirements.This enquiry revealed that the number of qualified chemists em-ployed in 1956 was 20,700 and that the demand in the next three years would raise this figure to 25,200 at the end of 1959. Amongst scientists the greatest demand numerically is for chemists. It does appear that the substantial number of chemists completing full-time courses in 1957 and 1958 will probably make the attainment of the target possible by the end of 1959. I t will be apparent that every year now sees new applications of chemical science in the service of mankind and the opening up of new fields of activity for the professional chemist. It is clearly in the interest of all such chemists that they should co-operate in furthering the welfare of their profession and that there should exist a respresentative body to which government departments the community and the members themselves should be able to turn for advice and assistance.The Royal Institute of Chemistry over the years has advanced in prestige and usefulness and stands high among the professional bodies of the Commonwealth and in the esteem of all who are able to appreciate the services it renders. There is no royal road to be followed into the future. Perhaps the words of Montaigne are appropriate here “I am of opinion that the most honourable calling is to serve the Public and to be useful to the many.’’ JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY THAMES VALLEY SYMPOSIUM A Symposium on Radiation Chemistry of Organic Systems, arranged by the Thames Valley Section will be held at Cockcroft Hall, Harwell on Friday 9 May at 11 a.m.by courtesy of the U.K. Atomic Energy Authority. Papers which will be reviews rather than specialised accounts of original research will be given by Dr W. Wilde Dr R. Roberts Dr D. S. P. Roebuck Dr W. H. Stafford and Professor J. Weiss. The number of tickets is limited and application should be made forthwith to Dr E. S. Lane Chemistry Division Building 429 A.E.R.E., Harwell; remittances for lunch and tea if required should be sent at the same time (3s. 6d. to members of the Institute 6s. to non-members) DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND RESEARCH IN THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA By W. S. RAPSON M.SC. D.PHIL. F.R.I.c. F.R.S.S.A. Director National Chemical Research Laboratory South African Council f o r Scientijc and Industrial Research The Union of South Africa has a total area of 472,550 square miles making it approximately five times as large as Great Britain.In addition South-West Africa which is administered by the Union, has an area of 317,725 square miles. The Union and South-West Africa fall almost entirely in the south temperate zone and with an average of 7-5-9-4 hours of sunshine per day throughout the year, constitute a veritable land of sunshine. At least 40 per cent of its area has an elevation of over 4,000 ft high escarpments rising in the east and south-east and sloping gradually away to desert or semi-desert plains on the west coast. On its east and south-east coasts sea temperatures are determined by the westerly drift of the warm Agulhas current from the Indian Ocean.On the west coast, on the other hand there is a northward drift of the cold Antarctic waters of the Benguela current. Over large areas rainfall is unpredictable. Only about a quarter of the country receives more than 25 in. of rain per year, 65 per cent receives less than 15 in. and nearly 30 per cent less than 10 in. Rainfall diminishes generally from east to west and except for coastal regions is heaviest in the summer months. Two of the most important rivers are the Orange and the Lim-popo which between them drain most of the interior plateau. The Orange River which flows westward to the Atlantic Ocean has a catchment area of over 250,000 square miles and the present industrial development of the Transvaal is dependent on the waters of its main tributary the Vaal.The Limpopo drains the lower bushveld areas of north and east Transvaal and discharges into the Indian Ocean through Portuguese East Africa. From the point of view of industrial development river systems such as that of the Tugela which drain the eastern and south-eastern escarpment are of great importance. Owing to the configuration of the country, none of the rivers is navigable. An important aspect of life in South Africa is the multiracial character of its population. In 1956 this population included over 9 million Bantu over 400,000 Asiatics about 1,300,000 Coloureds, 225 I t is however a land of many contrasts 226 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL and nearly 3,000,000 Whites.With the phenomenally rapid growth of industry in recent years a rapid urbanisation of the Bantu has been in progress. At the present stage of development however, responsibility for educational scientific and technical development lies with the ‘European’ rather than the ‘non-European’ section of the population and this must be kept in mind in assessing the pattern and scale of scientific development. As in so many other countries development of industry has accelerated tremendously since 1940 and this has resulted in a corresponding development of science and of research. The full extent of this will become clear in what follows. Figure 1 shows the main lines of communications in relation to the centres of population and certain of the natural resources upon which development is based.ACTIVITIES IN SPECIFIC FIELDS Astronomy Apart from the activities of naturalists there was little scientific activity in South Africa in the nineteenth century. In fact the only scientific institution which operated prior to 1890 was the Royal Observatory at Cape Town founded in 1820. It is the oldest scientific institution in the Union and is still operated by the British government. I t is however now only one of a series of observa-tories sponsored from overseas which exploit the favourable observing conditions in South Africa. These include the Radcliffe Observa-tory in Pretoria with its 74.41. telescope which is operated by the Radcliffe Trust (London) ; the Boyden Observatory originally erected at Bloemfontein by Harvard University but recently taken over by a group of European observatories; the Lamont-Hussey Observatory in Bloemfontein which is not in use at present; and a station of the Leyden Observatory at Hartbeespoort.In addition the Union government operates its Union Observatory in Johannesburg together with what is known as the Union Observa-tory Annexe at Hartbeespoort. Agriculture As might be expected the settlement of new areas and the development of pastoral and farming activities gave rise to the first demands for scientific services and research. Thus the Colonial Bacteriological Institute erected in Grahamstown in 189 1 and the Veterinary Laboratory at Allerton near Pietermaritzburg in 1897, were the forerunners of the South African Institute for Medical Research established in 19 12 and the Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Institute established near Pretoria in 1908 19581 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH IN SOUTH AFRICA 227 rr 0 &-n 228 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Scientific services to the State as a whole were for many years almost entirely confined to the control of two Departments namely those of Agriculture and of Health.Thus in 1923 the Division of Chemistry within the Department of Agriculture was given respon-sibility for all State chemical services and in recognition of this was renamed the Division of Chemical Services. I t remained part of the Department of Agriculture and now maintains laboratories at Pretoria Johannesburg Cape Town and Port Elizabeth.Its activities include control and investigational work in connection with customs and excise chemico-legal work foods drugs insecti-cides fertilisers farm foods soils and so forth. I t combines the functions of a Government Analyst’s office with those of a Division of Chemistry within the Department of Agriculture. Though suited to the demands of 20-30 years ago this arrangement is not satis-factory in present conditions and a revision of the organisation is under consideration. The Division of Chemical Services is only one of a number of technical divisions within the Department of Agriculture designed to serve the needs of agriculture. These include Divisions of Veterinary Services Entomology Botany Horticulture Plant Pathology and so on.A full description of all the extensive scientific and technical services of the Department would be out of place here, but mention must be made of the Department’s close association with university faculties of agriculture and of its development of specialised research institutes to cover certain fields. Examples of these are the Western Province Fruit Research Station at Stellen-bosch and the Central Tobacco Research Station at Rustenburg. Although organisations representative of farmers’ interests have from time to time made contributions towards research on agricul-tural problems only one agricultural research institute in the Union is operated without State support. This is the Experiment Station of the South African Sugar Association at Mount Edgecombe in Natal established in 1924.I t is maintained jointly by sugar growers and manufacturers but is concerned almost exclusively with growers’ problems. Health Before the Union in 1910 each of the four colonies had its own health legislation and administration. Although many health services remained with the provinces after Union some were taken over in 1919 by the Union Health Department which was given responsibility ‘to promote or carry out investigations in connection with the prevention or treatment of human diseases.’ As indicated above the South African Institute for Medical Research was already in existence at this date having come int 19581 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH IN SOUTH ,AFRICA 229 being in 1912 through joint support by the Union government and the mining industry.Its functions included research diagnostic services production of vaccines and sera and teaching and the scientific needs of medical and dental health were served by it and by the medical faculties of the universities until 1945-the Depart-ment supplementing activities only in particular instances e.g. by the establishment of the Malaria Research Station at Tzaneen and the Plague Research Laboratory in Johannesburg. In that year the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R.) came into being and this new Council was assigned the responsibility amongst others to be described later of providing support for medical research. This it has achieved in the intervening years with the advice of a Medical and Dental Research Committee by the establishment and mainte-nance of medical research units at universities and other institutions, by awards to research workers and by annual grants to the Institute for Medical Research.Research units currently supported by the C.S.I.R. deal with Amoebiasis Bilharzia Natural History Cardio-pulmonary Research Clinical Nutrition Dental Research Family Health Research Cardiac Research Human Biochemistry Viruses, Tuberculosis and Pneumoconiosis. Other medical research agencies in the Union include the Poliomyelitis Research Foundation the National Cancer Association, the Cancer Clinic Association and the Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines. The first of these was established as a result of public subscriptions in 1948 and the Poliomyelitis Research Laboratory operated under its auspices works in close co-operation with the Institute for Medical Research.The National Cancer Association established in 193 1 does not operate laboratories but raises funds and applies these funds-amongst other things-to the sponsorship of research work on cancer. The Cancer Clinic Association on the other hand applies funds collected by it to the operation of the Liesbeek Clinic in Cape Town where treatment of cancer and research on cancer are carried out. The Chamber of Mines carries out medical research at its Dust and Ventilation Laboratory in Johannesburg and at its Applied Physiology Laboratory. These laboratories are concerned with problems arising from the incidence of pneumoconiosis amongst miners and with investigations of the effect of heat humidity, nutrition and the like on the welfare and performance of miners.Apart from its activities in these directions the Chamber is support-ing strongly the development of the Pneumoconiosis Research Unit of the C.S.I.R. The general account of medical research in the Union given above indicates a not inconsiderable measure of activity and i 230 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [AFWL 1954 a Commission of Enquiry was appointed to make recommenda-tions on the possibility of better co-ordination of medical research under one body. This Commission’s report is now under considera-tion and it seems likely that-if its recommendations are accepted-research in medical sciences will be co-ordinated in the future under the auspices of a new Council operating possibly within the frame-work of the existing C.S.I.R.Mineral Resources Whereas the needs of agriculture and of human and animal health provided the first stimulus for the development of science in South Africa the second stimulus came from the growth of mining activities. From the discovery of the first diamond in Hopetown in 1867 and the opening of the Witwatersrand gold field in 1886, mining operations became of increasing importance. South Africa was gradually revealed as the fortunate possessor of a great variety of minerals. Apart from diamonds and gold which have contributed so much to the national income (gold production was valued at L198,452,680 in 1956 and diamond production at L29,865,931), large reserves of coal platinum metals chromite iron ore man-ganese asbestos antimony corundum and (more recently) uranium as well as lesser deposits of very many other minerals were gradually discovered and mining-chiefly for export-became a major industry.To meet the needs of the mining industry a Geological Survey Division and a Minerals Development Division were early established within the Department of Mines and under the auspices of this department also mineral research activities at the University of the Witwatersrand were promoted as from 1934 and what is called the Government Metallurgical Laboratory established at the University in 1944. This laboratory is equipped for mineralogical ore dressing and mineral processing investigations and has played an important role in the development of the uranium industry in South Africa in recent years.Apart from these government agencies the mining industry-through the Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines and in individual mine laboratories-supports a consi-derable body of research work. The Chamber’s Research Labora-tories opened in 1951 in Johannesburg have made contributions to a wide variety of problems such as dust suppression and ventilation, preservation of timber and fabrics in mines and the effects of humid heat on underground workers. Fuel certainly prove in the long run to be the most valuable. Of all the natural deposits in South Africa coal will almost Know A view of some of the buildings at the new research centre of the South African near Pretoria ~~ The main building Royal Observatory Cape Town, This observatory was established in 1820 by the British Board of Longitude to complement the work of the Royal Greenwich Observatory.It is still maintained by the British Admiralty The mai Aerial view of the Research Department of African Explosives and Chemical Industries Ltd at Modderfontein Transvaal Research Laboratories of the Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines Johannesbur 19581 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH IN SOUTH AFRICA 23 1 deposits have been conservatively estimated at 75,000 million tons, but there are vast coal fields which have not yet been systematically surveyed and the total reserves may well approach 200,000 million tons. Most of this coal is at shallow depths and in thick seams with the result that South African coal is the cheapest in the world today.Costs vary from 5s. 6d. per short ton at the pit head in the case of the Sasol plant mentioned below to an average of less than 11s. per ton at the main collieries. The importance of these coal resources and of the provision of research facilities to deal with fuel problems generally was recognised in the establishment of the Fuel Research Institute in 1930 in Pretoria. This Institute is responsible in collaboration with the Division of Geological Survey of the Department of Mines for the investigation of the coal resources of the country as well as for scientific and technical research on all matters relating to fuels in general. I t also provides services for the grading of coal for export and other matters.Its funds are derived partly from the proceeds of levies on producers of coal and other fuels and partly from the government via the Department of Commerce and Industries. A reflection of the potential importance of coal in South Africa’s economy was the recent establishment of the South African Coal, Oil and Gas Corporation (Sasol) to produce petrol and chemicals from coal by the Fischer-Tropsch process. This tremendous enterprise-in which over ~50,000,000 have been invested-is making gradual progress towards full-scale production of its rated output of 55 million gallons per year of motor spirit and 16 million gallons per year of other products. Forestry Positive development of forestry and the exploitation of marine resources lagged behind agriculture and mining up to 1940.South Africa is a sparsely wooded country in which indigenous forests cover only about 0.2 per cent of the total area. The result was that in earlier times comparatively little activity was based on forestry or forest products. This position began gradually to change when it was realised that in areas of higher rainfall in the east, certain imported trees such as eucalyptus pines and wattle grow 10 to 15 times as fast as in Canada and five times as fast as in Scandi-navian countries. The Union Department of Forestry took the initiative in exploiting this situation and in 1955 over half a million acres were under State plantations. Private industry has not been slow in following and as a result the Union will within the next 20 years become a major producer of timber.In the early stages of development the main interest has not unnaturally been on the silvicultural side and although th 232 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Department of Forestry has operated a Forest Products Research Institute in Pretoria the emphasis placed on this aspect of the Department’s activities to date has not been great. With the recent phenomenal growth of lumber milling wood-processing and pulping operations there are indications that this situation is changing rapidly and that forest products will become increasingly a focal point for investigational work. An important aspect of forestry in South Africa is the cultivation of the black wattle whose bark yields tannin products.Production of wattle extract began in Natal as early as 1916 and has assumed the dimensions of a considerable industry in Natal and the eastern Transvaal. Production of extract alone has considerably exceeded 100,000 tons per annum in recent years. The growers through the medium of the Wattle Growers Union have established and operated the Wattle Research Institute in Pietermaritzburg in recent years. The Institute is concerned almost exclusively with the silvicultural problems of the industry and has been financed so far by the growers with but minor support from the government. Marine Resources South Africa and South-West Africa are endowed with extremely rich fishing grounds particularly on the west coast with the result that the fishing industry has grown in the past 10 years until it is large even on world standards.For example in 1954 the total catch of pilchards and maasbankers alone exceeded 500,000 short tons. To this total have to be added the proceeds of the trawling industry (ca 80,000 tons per annum) the rock lobster fishery and line fishing. There is also a healthy off-shore whaling industry (catch in 1955 1,310 whales). Research on fisheries resources and the control of fisheries is vested in the Division of Fisheries of the Department of Commerce and Industries. The Division has laboratories in Cape Town and well-equipped research ships. I t does not concern itself however, with the technological problems of the fishing industry. In this respect the fishing industry is served by the Fishing Industry Research Institute which is affiliated to the University of Cape Town and financed partly by the industry and partly by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.The Institute has recently occupied well-equipped new laboratories on the University campus. Water In a country of restricted water supplies such as South Africa, it would be difficult to overestimate the importance of all aspects of water conservation and usage. This was recognised recently by a revision of the water laws of the country and the changing of th 19581 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH IN SOUTH h m c x 233 name of the Department of Irrigation to the Department of Water Affairs. The siting and growth of industrial and other activities in South Africa is perhaps more dependent on water supplies than on any other factor and great emphasis is being given to the study of water resources and their use.On the hydrographic side respon-sibilities are vested with the Department of Water Affairs but chemical and hydrobiological survey activities and technical aspects of water treatment and use are the responsibility of a rapidly growing Water Research Division of the National Chemical Research Laboratory of the C.S.I.R. This has its central laboratories in Pretoria and regional laboratories are being built up in Natal and South- W es t Africa. Atomic Energy Research Two factors have precluded the active development of an atomic energy research programme in South Africa so far. The first of these is the abundance and relative cheapness of coal supplies even when these have been transported almost 1,000 miles to the Cape coastal areas.The second has been the preoccupation with research and development work on uranium production. This has now been established on a considerable scale and South Africa is one of the world’s largest uranium producers (production in 1956 4,336 tons U,O,). The first steps have now been taken however towards the formulation of a programme of research and development by the Atomic Energy Board. Defence Research The Department of Defence is advised on matters pertaining to defence research by a Defence Research Advisory Council under the chairmanship of the President of the C.S.I.R. This Council has but recently (1957) been established.Archaeology and Palaeoanthropolog y South Africa is very rich in Stone Age artefacts and despite the small number of workers and the great lack of university departments dealing with archaeology much has been learned about the history of man on this sub-continent. A number of very interesting finds of human Stone Age skeletal remains have further contributed to this understanding. Palaeo-climatological work has also helped to give greater understanding of the Pleistocene history of the sub-continent and the relationship of climatic changes here to those in the Pleistocene of Europe. One of the major contributions of South Africa to Pleistocene research in the fields of archaeology palaeoanthropology an 234 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL palaeontology has resulted from the discovery and study of the Australopithecines a group of extinct higher primates which appear to represent the stock from which the human line arose.Current knowledge of the stage immediately preceding that of true tool-making man is almost entirely due to study of the Australopithecines, known at present-with negligible exceptions-only from South Africa. The contribution of South African research to an understanding of the origin and history of man is thus of very considerable impor-tance just as it already has been in regard to the origin of mammals. THE SOUTH AFRICAN COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ( c.s.I.R.) This the most important research agency in the Union was established by Act of Parliament as recently as 1945.Although it is a corporate body it receives annual allocations of funds from the Treasury and must therefore be regarded as a semi-state organisa-tion. Its spheres of interest include the promotion and financial support of research at universities the carrying out of both funda-mental and applied research the support of research by industry, and the fostering and support of medical research. Its budget has grown in the 12 years of its existence to an estimated level of -Q,900,228 in the year 1958-59. The organisation of the Council’s activities is illustrated in Figure 2. I t will be noted that the Council operates eight national research laboratories or institutes of which the National Chemical Research Laboratory and the National Physical Research Laboratory are the largest and in addition operates a standards organisation known as the South African Bureau of Standards.The existence of an active National Institute for Personnel Research is to be noted. This Institute has been engaged amongst other projects in the development of personnel selection tests for a wide variety of purposes for industry and has been particularly effective in develop-ing tests for the selection of Bantu and other labour for special purposes on the mines and in industry generally. Apart from this the Council subsidises the operation of five co-operative industrial research institutes serving the leather fish, M. 001 sugar milling and paint industries respectively. Services to industry are not restricted to the subsidising of these institutes, how ever since the national laboratories all undertake research on a contract or fellowship basis for individual firms.In the National Chemical Research Laboratory for example a quarter to one-third of all activities are currently of this type I I I I I I I I I I I LABORATORY NATIONAL NUTRITION RESEARCH INSTITUTE NATIONAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH INSTITUTE NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ROAD RESEARCH PARLIAMENT OF THE UNION OF MINISTER OF ECONOMIC COUNCIL PRESIDENT ADMINISTRATION & CENTRAL I I I I I FIGURE 2. Chart showing the organisation of the South African Counci 236 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL ADVISORY COUNCIL ON SCIENTIFIC POLICY From what has been described above it will be clear that the government sponsors scientific activities through a considerable diversity of channels.In order to achieve co-ordination of these activities there has been established recently an Advisory Council on Scientific Policy which reports directly to the Cabinet. RESEARCH BY INDUSTRY Research by industry itself is as yet on a relatively modest scale, but the position is changing exceedingly rapidly. In the early stages of industrialisation there was an almost complete dependence for research upon the laboratories of overseas principals and this dependent attitude has persisted in many cases. Almost all the larger manufacturing establishments now either have or are building up research facilities. The largest industrial research laboratory in the country is that of African Explosives and Chemical Industries Limited.Until 1952 its Research Department was a small unit intended to provide a service to the Company’s production departments in the solution of ad hoc manufacturing problems. Since that time however the Department has undergone a controlled expansion involving the expenditure of a quarter of a million pounds in the construction and equipment of new laboratories and workshops a considerable increase in staff and the initiation of long-term research aimed at providing background knowledge to the Company’s manufacturing interests. These interests include chemicals explosives fertilisers and crop-protection products implying a very wide range of topics of research and the staff has therefore been built up to include not only chemists and chemical engineers but physicists mathema-ticians engineers biologists and agronomists.At the present time the graduate staff (recruited from both South African and oversea honours and research graduates) totals about 70 and the whole staff about 220 with an attendant annual expenditure of about k350,OOO. The South African Iron and Steel Corporation Limited is also constructing and equipping research laboratories of considerable size to serve both its own needs and those of a number of associated companies. Expenditure on buildings since 1952 has beenL496,000, and on equipment L243,OOO. TRAINING OF SCIENTISTS IN SOUTH AFRICA The supply position as regards scientific and technical personnel in the Union is a cause of considerable concern to all who are involved.Although the training of laboratory technicians is now beginning in technical colleges professional training is possible onl 19581 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH IN SOUTH AFRICA 237 at the universities. Although there are eight universities in South Africa with a total enrolment of over 30,000 students (over 1 per 100 of the white population) and although the enrolments in the engineering science and medical faculties have risen steeply over the past 10 to 15 years the output of graduates trained in research is relatively small. Their numbers are further reduced by the fact that a significant proportion of them go overseas for a final broaden-ing of their training and experience and some of these do not return.The needs of rapidly developing industries are tending to draw science students away from the universities at the bachelor’s degree and honours degree level with the result that on the average there are fewer research students in university science departments than there should be. Although support of university research by the C.S.I.R. is causing marked improvement of the position the present state of affairs is far from satisfactory. A serious lack of training facilities exists in chemical engineering and in biochemistry. Although courses in chemical engineering are given in three of the eight universities in only one has a chair of chemical engineering been established and this only in 1957. There is no chair of biochemistry in the science faculty of any South African university.An aspect of this problem is the increasingly unsatisfactory position in regard to the teaching of science in schools. This has resulted from decreased interest in science teaching as a profession, following on the demand for scientists in industry and what in the light of present conditions appear quite inadequate rates of pay for science teachers. I n general the position in South Africa at present reflects inadequate recognition of science as a profession. Until this has been corrected recruitment of an adequate number of students to the scientific professions cannot be expected. The position is rendered even more difficult in that this recruitment must for some considerable time continue to take place from one section of the population.SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES Scientific societies in South Africa include the following : S.A. Chemical Institute Royal Institute of Chemistry (a Section operates in the Cape only) Cape Chemical and Technological Society (operates in the Cape only) Royal Society of South Africa Institution of Chemical Engineers (S.A. Branch) Institute of Sewage Purification (S.A. Branch) S.A. Association of Assayers Chemical Metallurgical and Mining Society of South Africa Geological Society of South Africa S.A. Association for the Advancement of Scienc 238 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY S.A. Institute of Physics S.A. Institute of Civil Engineers S.A. Institute of Electrical Engineers S.A. Institute of Mechanical Engineers Entomological Society of South Africa S.A.Ornithological Society Botanical Society of South Africa Archaeological Society of South Africa Anthropological Society of South Africa S.A. Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns The Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of South Africa has as its members 16 of the larger societies and professional bodies and can thus present the views of a considerable proportion of South African scientists and engineers. A considerable number of these societies publish their own journals. No national scientific journals are published as yet. CONCLUSION Scientific activity in the Union of South Africa has expanded at an exceedingly rapid rate during the past 10 years. The expansion has been based upon a rapid growth of industrial activities and upon an increasing appreciation of the role of science in the exploitation of natural resources.So far however the growth of an appreciation for scientists has lagged behind and in the face of competing opportunities recruitment to the scientific profession has not been occurring on an adequate scale. The result is that there is a growing shortage of scientists and engineers in the Union and more particularly there is currently a shortage of research-trained scientists and engineers. Measures to meet this situation are under consideration and if this problem is tackled as vigorously as has been the provision of scientific facilities over the past 10 years science should be able to play its full part in the development of South Africa.ANNUAL CONFERENCE LECTURE The Annual Conference Lecture entitled “Cozymase-A Study in Synthesis,” to be delivered by Professor Sir Alexander Todd F.R.s. in Edinburgh on 18 April will be published in full next month BOOK REVIEWS Introduction to Enzymology. Alan H. Mehler. Pp. viii + 425. (New York Academic Press Inc.; London Academic Books Ltd, 1957.) 86s. A chemist who finds no fascination in some aspect of enzyme action has become bored with his subject. I t is possible to isolate from certain bacteria a series of enzymes which when shaken at 30°C with air will convert p-cresol to p-hydroxybenzaldehyde oxidise it to p-hydroxybenzoic acid hydroxylate the latter to protocatechuic acid and finally open up the benzene nucleus rapidly and quantitatively.An organic chemist who is not stimulated when he contemplates such systems would be better employed in those wider and vaguer aspects of human activity so strongly commended to the attention of the ‘narrow’ scientific specialist by educa-tionalists who have never known either the thrill or the compulsion of an unsolved problem. The interest of active physical chemists must surely be aroused by enquiries concerning the architecture of enzyme active centres and the nature of the forces that lead to lowering of energies of activation and so permit these reactions to proceed rapidly at physio-logical temperatures. The symposium of the Biochemical Society held at Leeds in 1956 has shown that inorganic and theoretical chemists feel that their studies have much to contribute towards an understanding of the still mysterious role of metals in the activity of many enzymes.Reflections on these lines may bring out the loss to science entailed by its division into separate compartments; but few would dispute that the phenomenal extension of knowledge in the present century has made this division inevitable. The complete enzymologist must possess not only a sufficient appreciation of the physiology and anatomy of the whole cell in relation to the development and function of the enzymes he studies but he must be familiar with a formidable range of techniques in addition to those acquired by a pure chemist in his formal training. Anyone who doubts that such a training has its limitations in this connexion is recom-mended to dip into the 3,956 pages of Methods in Enzymology (4 vols; edited by S.P. Colowick and N. 0. Kaplan); or if this material is familiar to browse amongst the 9,408 references of that Herculean publication. Such books are of the greatest value for the research worker; but it is mainly due to the efforts of authors like Dr Alan H. Mehler that the further fragmentation of biochemistry is prevented. Introduction to Enzymology surveys in some 400 pages the vast literature relating to enzymes and the presentation will be of great value nut only to specialists but also to students of biochemistry and to biologists and chemists who wish to know about the more significant developments in this rapidly-expanding area of science. The book achieves what would appear at first to be the impossible; namely a masterly general survey combined with considerable detail about the isolation assay and function of many enzymes.This is made possible by a wise selection of the enzymes chosen for detailed description; general concepts are then developed as the individual reactions are discussed. Reactions have been viewed as components of metabolic sequences so that the interrelations of enzyme activities have been brought out. The main chapter headings are hydrolysis of peptides and proteins; fermentation and oxidation of major metabolic fuels ; biological oxidation; sugars and sugar derivatives ; polynucleotides and their components ; 23 240 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [ApmL amino acids; acids and acid derivatives; and organisation of structure and function.As an example of the way in which detail is combined with an admirable general survey there are some 300 references to the litera-ture in the chapter concerned with fermentation and oxidation and over 200 of them are to papers published in 1950 or later. In fact it is well-nigh incredible that in a book published in 1957 details should be given of the ‘glyoxylate bypass’ suggested by Kornberg and Krebs in 1957; c.r of the mechanism of cleavage of P-ketoadipate also published in full in that year by Katagiri and Hayaishi. Dr Mehler is to be congratulated in particular upon part of a chapter devoted to thermodynamics. Some years ago the professional physical chemist perusing an occasional biochemical publication might have wondered how long it would be before he encountered the name of Lewis Carroll in a list of authors.‘High energy’ compounds were sometimes referred to as though bio-chemists had to deal with a special class of highly reactive molecules encountered nowhere else in Nature; a high ‘bond energy’ did not mean a strong bond but one that was easily broken; the free energy change of a reaction was sometimes equated with the change in standard free energy; and worst of all ‘high energy’ bonds were regarded as possessing a sort of localised energy that could be bandied about from one molecule to another during a reaction. The existence if only on occasions of such nalve views of chemical reactivity in the biochemical literature made one nervous of meeting colleagues devoted to a study of organic reaction mechanisms.Dr Mehler’s brief section on free energy is readable; and above all it is orthodox. S. DAGLEY Organic Colloids. Bruno Jirgensons. Pp. xiv + 655. (Amsterdam : Elsevier Publishing Co ; London distributors Cleaver-Hume Press Ltd 1958.) 85s. Under this modest title and in a space of 650 pages the author covers an immense range of topics in all branches of chemistry. In such a relatively small space the author cannot deal in any detail with the multiplicity of subjects upon which he writes. That however is not his declared intention. His idea is to write a readable book for those who do not possess a deep knowledge of chemistry but who want to know what has been happening in fields which are not normally dealt with to any large extent in the more general chemical courses at most universities.In this task he has succeeded. Organic colloids might normally be expected to comprise the classical colloid systems in which the disperse phase is organic in nature. In fact the book deals with synthetic and natural polymers and also particularly with polymers of special biological significance. It is in fact a curious mixture of classical colloid chemistry and modern macromolecular chemistry. It would have been better really to have dealt with the main subject matter namely macromolecular chemistry and thus given the book a modern flavour without mixing the old and the new in a rather arbitrary fashion. The first part of the book deals with the preparation and properties of organic colloids.On the synthetic side there are described all the methods for synthesising high polymers. Next there follows a chapter on the preparation of colloidal solutions followed by a short chapter on surface phenomena. Then there is a switch to the methods of determin-ing the size of molecules and of particles. The viscosity of solution 19581 BOOK REVIEWS 24 1 naturally gets extensive treatment. The behaviour of organic colloids in solution is covered in five chapters and gels and membranes together with a brief chapter on mechanical properties of polymers complete the first half. The second part of the book deals with specific systems in five chapters; synthetic macromolecules of all the well defined types are compactly surveyed. The polysaccharides claim another four chapters.Proteins and nucleic acids similarly occupy four chapters. Then follow a number of chapters of some biological interest. Colloidal phenomena in solution, and tissues blood and milk are all separately dealt with. Even a chapter on disease and colloidal phenomena finds a place in this book. Emul-sions detergents dyes and pigments conclude the story. There is therefore a tremendous wealth of information of an easily digestible character throughout the book. Covering as it does such a wide variety of subjects it lacks a well defined theme but it would be impossible to devise a theme to weld the book into a well defined unity. H. W. MELVILLE An International Symposium on Aldosterone. Edited by A. F. Muller and Cecilia M. O’Connor. Pp. x + 232. (London: J.& A. Churchill Ltd 1958.) Aldosterone one of the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland is important in adjusting the urinary excretion of sodium according to the dietary intake of this element and to the needs of the body. The discovery and isolation of this hormone was an important British contribution to scientific knowledge as was also the elucidation of its structure which was established in collaboration with Swiss workers. The volume records a symposium held in June 1957 to take stock of the available knowledge of this hormone. The clinical biochemist will find a valuable account of the effects of this hormone on the body as well as of the relationship of altered urinary excretion in various disease states and will be enabled to appreciate the reasons why clinicians are so anxious for him to measure this hormone in body fluids.Although much of the subject matter is highly clinical there is a paper by Moolenaar and Querido on a method of measuring urinary aldosterone depending upon paper chromatography formation of the 2 4-dinitrophenylhydrazone and spectrophotometry. Neher and Wettstein describe analyses for aldosterone and other steroids in human adrenal glands and tumours, but the paper of greatest interest to the chemist will be that by the British group of workers on the metabolism of tritium-labelled aldo-sterone. The metabolic pathways are clearly complicated and require further elucidation so that the interpretation of urinary analysis is difficult even if wholly satisfactory techniques were available.Each paper is followed by a useful discussion. 40s. net. C. H. GRAY Chemistry Problems in Jet Propulsion. S. S. Penner. 394. (London Pergamon Press Ltd 1957.) 90s. net. Pp. xiv + The technology of jet propulsion by rocket and air-breathing engines, which has developed so rapidly during the last twenty years has now led to a considerable literature and Professor Penner’s present book i s the latest addition 242 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL I n introducing it the author expresses the belief that “the most productive type of (co-operative) scientific investigation will result through the efforts of research workers who have some understanding of principles utilised in sciences outside their major field of specialisation” and offers his book as a contribution to this worthy cause.It is based on a course of lectures given to graduate students at the Jet Propulsion Centre of the California Institute of Technology and covers such subjects as atomic structure the nature of the chemical bond and molecular vibrations bond energies and heats of formation fuels and propellants, combustion thermodynamics (including what is somewhat inappropriately known in this country as ‘internal ballistics’) chemical kinetics the properties of diffusion flames and laminar premixed flames and combus-tion processes in liquid fuel rocket engines. Chemical aspects of jet propulsion which are only cursorily dealt with are solid propellants high energy fuels and scale effect in combustion. Chemical problems of constructional materials are not considered at all.The first and most important comment that must be made is that Professor Penner has certainly succeeded in his main task and has written a book the reading of which will help aeronautical engineers and aero-dynamicists to a better appreciation of the properties of the fuels and working fluids which they use and of the reactions which they undergo. He has effectively outlined what may be called the physico-chemical background of jet propulsion. But the author has not shown indeed he has hardly essayed to do so how and how far the chemical principles which he sets out in his essentially theoretical treatment apply to the practical problems of engines. To this extent the book may give a rather misleading impres-sion for while the choice of rocket fuels and the study of their potential performance is solidly based on chemical thermodynamics the design of rocket and turbo-jet systems is complicated by physical factors and is not correspondingly based on chemical kinetics nor for that matter on the study of laminar flames.One illustration of this point is the fact that the rocket surely the most ‘chemical’ of all propulsion systems, operates at high pressures and temperatures which favour chemical reaction and ensure that in normal circumstances the rate-controlling processes are exclusively physical. To the professional chemist this book naturally has less to offer than to the engineers to whom it is addressed. P. LLOYD Chromatographic Techniques. Edited by Ivor Smith.Pp. xiii + Paper chromatography as an analytical technique has now been in use for about 13 years and its applications are still being extended. When books are written on rapidly expanding subjects they tend to become out-of-date almost before they are published. Nevertheless in paper chromatography a stage has been reached where certain methods have stood the test of time. Paper chromatography is in essence a simple technique but it is surprising how often by neglecting certain basic principles thoroughly bad and uninterpretable chromatograms are produced. This is unfortunate enough for the operator but sometimes these chromatograms are reproduced in scientific papers and bring disrepute on a perfectly good method. Adherence to the instructions outlined in this book should eliminate this unfortunate trend.309. (London William Heinemann 1958.) 45s. net 19581 BOOK REVIEWS 243 The Editor has gathered together a number of contributors who, like himself are specialists in their particular applications of the technique. They deal with paper chromatographic separations of the amino acids, indoles organic acids purines sugars and steroids. These classes of substances are dealt with in detail and they are done extremely well. He advocates the use of a standard piece of equipment for the chromato-graphic separations of all the substances with which he deals-with the exception of the steroids. This consists of a slightly larger edition of the frame invented by Datta Dent and Harris (Science 1950 112 621), using sheets of filter paper 10 in.x 10 in. The number of sheets per frame has been reduced from 12 to 5 to give wider spacing between the sheets. In support of this method he emphasises the reproducibility of the results obtained. Whilst established practitioners of paper chroma-tography are unlikely to forsake their own methods there is good reason to recommend that those about to take up paper chromatographic work should follow the suggestions outlined in this book. In fact one chapter is devoted to providing exercises for use in the teaching of students. Clinical medicine is one field which has exploited paper chroma-tography to the full and where it has proved of great value. Chromato-grams of urine blood and cerebrospinal fluids are now carried out in many pathological laboratories.Whilst the full interpretation of these results can only be attained with experience it is of considerable help to have the illustrations of typical chromatograms from various disease states which are included in the volume. The title of this book even allowing for the sub-title Clinical and biochemical applications is hardly justified. The important field of column chromatography is not included and whilst it deals comprehensibly with the paper chromatography of selected groups of organic substances no mention is made of the important aspect of the application of this tech-nique to inorganic substances. Nevertheless the book can be recommen-ded wholeheartedly to those about to embark on paper chromatographic analyses and since it is a laboratory manual rather than a treatise it is likely to be found more frequently on the bench than on the library shelf.R. G. WESTALL The Analytical Uses of Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid. F. J. (New York D. van Nostrand Go. Inc., Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) was first used as a titrant by Schwarzenbach and his co-workers in 1945. Since that time it has become one of the most widely used analytical reagents and more than a thousand papers describing its application have been published. No serious attempt has yet been made to assess the many alternative processes which have been described and it is probable that several years have yet to elapse before details of any such attempt are made available. In the meantime Professor Welcher has done a valuable service in collecting and presenting the essential details of all the available literature.The book contains 18 chapters salts and complexes of EDTA in analysis ; end-point detection ; metal indicators ; determination of cations in mixtures; determination of water hardness; eight chapters on the determination of a large number of metals; determination of anions; polarographic and amperbmetric determination of metals ; colorimetric determinations ; use of EDTA in qualitative analysis ; and elimination, Welcher. Pp. xvii + 366. 1958.) 64s 244 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL of interference and separations. This list indicates the scope of the text and indeed the author claims that “all the significant work done on the application of EDTA in inorganic analysis is included.” Since he lists 963 references there are justifications for this claim.Most analytical chemists will be familiar with Professor Welcher’s great four-volume treatise on organic reagents ; the present volume follows the same pattern for no attempt is made to be critical or to suggest that one procedure is better than another. This in no way detracts from the value of the work; before one can be critical it is advantageous to have some experience with the methods and before that it is necessary to survey all the available literature. To most chemists this is the least attractive part of the operation and so Professor Welcher deserves our thanks for undertaking it. The way is now open for those who cry for a critical survey to start where Professor Welcher has left off.Some non-selective precipitants can be made very selective when used in conjunction with EDTA as masking agent. This is one of the most interesting applications of EDTA. Some of this work seems to have been overlooked for one or two of the more important contributions are not mentioned. Likewise one looks in vain for methods for the deter-mination of fluoride. There are some errors which might be corrected in a further printing. For some years the literature has ascribed the discovery of the redox indicator properties of 3-3’-dimethylnaphthidine incorrectly and the error has been perpetuated in this volume; also other heavy metals than those listed on p. 47 give colour reactions with phthalein complexone. These are minor flaws in such a comprehensive work and are to be expected when the literature is so extensive and scattered.Professor Welcher has made another outstanding contribution to the literature of analytical chemistry and it is to be hoped that he will feel sufficiently encouraged by its reception to keep the text up to date. R. BELCHER Purity Control by Thermal Analysis. Edited by W. M. Smit. Pp. xii + 182. (Amsterdam Elsevier Publishing Co.; London distributors Cleaver-Hume Press Ltd 1957.) This book contains the sixteen papers read at The International Symposium on Purity Control by Thermal Analysis held in Amsterdam in 1957. The symposium which was sponsored by The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry was organised by its Commission on Physico-Chemical Data and Standards to discuss the advantages and disadvantages attendant on the use of various current techniques.Thermal analysis depends on the depression of freezing point of a solvent by impurity and although the measurements and their interpre-tation under ideal conditions are easy yet in practice many difficulties often arise. Seven authors from the United States five from Great Britain two from Holland one from Poland and one from Germany described their methods. The techniques used may be divided into one or other of two types namely dynamic procedures where heat is added to or subtracted from the system while temperatures are measured and static procedures where temperatures are not read until equilibrium has been established after each addition of heat to an adiabatic system.An excellent paper from the U.S. Bureau of Standards demonstrates that these methods yield the same results under favourable conditions. A paper from the U.S. Bureau of Mines which reports observations collected 24s 1.9581 BOOK REVIEWS 245 over several years shows the inherent limitations of the static method and emphasises how rarely behaviour as an ideal solution occurs. The high degree of automation possible in thermal analysis is demonstrated by a description of an apparatus which allows five samples of the same com-pound to be studied simultaneously and by a paper which gives the first account of an adiabatic calorimeter for use from 50” to 330°K that will operate continuously. A short digest of the discussion occupies eight pages and is prepared in an unusual form which will not please all readers.Approximately half of the short subject index of one and a half pages is devoted to the names of compounds mentioned in the text. At the end of the meeting (see p. 180) a motion was passed of which the following is an abstract “From Professor Timmermans’ summary of the symposium it is evident that the melting curve (freezing curve) is not always a reliable criterion of purity. Therefore the Symposium on Purity Control by Thermal Analysis recommends as a result of the meeting that this fact be recognised.” The reader should not be too dismayed by this conclusion because it is still true that thermal measure-ments suitably controlled by other observations are valuable for purity estimation and indeed anybody concerned with the preparation of pure chemicals will find this book indispensable.The Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. E. F. G. HERINGTON N. I. Sax et al. (New York Reinhold Publishing Corporation; This book is described as a revised and enlarged edition of the major author’s Handbook of Dangerous Materials. It has certainly been enlarged considerably and the revision might easily be called a recasting. The new work is an improvement on a book that was already quite useful. The team responsible for the work has mainly been drawn from the United States Atomic Energy field. Their aim has been to provide a ‘Bible’ for those needing some knowledge of the risks attendant on the use of chemicals in the widest sense of the term and they have achieved a good measure of success in their task.The short general account of toxicology with which the book begins gives general principles and provides a useful introduction for the non-medical reader. Its primary purpose is to indicate the method of express-ing toxicity data used in the main section of the book. The section on ventilation is more detailed and is based on the concept of a hazard rating. It is adequate for a non-specialist in ventilation who needs to assess probable requirements but is insufficiently detailed should a complex system have to be designed. The section on personal protection and personal hygiene covers what the title would lead one to expect. The short summary of fire protection seems clearly to have been inserted as a guide to the methods used for indicating fire properties in the main list of chemicals.The account of the storage and handling of hazardous materials is heavily overweighted in favour of explosives and it is here that one meets examples of the difference between American and British industrial terminology A ‘tank’ of a liquified gas would be a ‘cylinder’ in Great Britain. The chapters dealing with radiation hazards and reactor protection doubtless represent modern American thought on these sub-jects. Pp. viii + 1467. London Chapman & Hall Ltd 1957.) 180s. net 246 The chapter on allergic diseases is very interesting and gives the non-medical reader an insight into this subject which is often a source of anxiety to those concerned with safety.The major part of the book is devoted to an alphabetical list of chemi-cals giving the authors’ assessment of the dangerous properties of each one. The basis of the assessment is given in the preceding chapters on toxicology ventilation and fire prevention. Numerical data have been included when the authors consider them reliable. The value of such a list is considerable and the authors have done a welcome service in preparing it. This latter would have been improved if it had more examples of chemical works ‘jargon’. There is a list of American shipping regulations as laid down by the Interstate Commerce Commission. One questions the need for the inclusion of material without comment which can presumably be obtained for the asking. There are several bibliographies but all these refer almost entirely 10 American sources and one would have thought that a wider field could have been explored in this direction.One must, however give a warning as to its use. The terminology toxic limit figures statutory requirements and so on are American and may not always be acceptable in Great Britain. The meaning of this different terminology is usually clear from the context. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY There is also a useful list of synonyms. This book is good and quite worth what is charged for it. ALEC WEBSTER BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED An essay in the History of Industry. J. D. Scott. Pp. 279. (London Weidenfeld & Nicholson 1958.) 35s. net. Siemens Brothers 1858-1958. Some Modern Trends in Organic Chemistry.-D.H. R. Barton. Inaugural Lecture delivered 3 December 1957. Pp. 71-76. (London : Imperial College of Science and Technology 1958.) 2s. Industry Fights Corrosion. The Proceedings of the Corrosion Convention 15-16 October 1957. Pp. xxxii + 108. (London: Corrosion Technology Eden Street N.W.l. 1957.) Pp. xvi + 284 + Advertisement Section 83. 1 Lowther Gardens London S.W.7.) 21s. net. Handboak of Scientific Instruments and Apparatus 1958. (The Physical Society, 6s. British Standards. 903 1958. Methods of Testing Vulcanized Rubber. Parts B6 to Determination of Indentation and Recovery Number of Ebonite. Pp. 6. 3s. net. 1428 Part A1 1958. Carbon and Hydrogen Combustion Train (Pregl Type). Microchemical Apparatus.Group A Com-bustion Trains for the Determination of Elements. Pp. 19. 5s. net. BIO. Determinations of Sulphur. Pp. 25. 6s. net. Part D6. (Obtainable from B.S.I. 2 Park Street London W. 1 . INSTITUTE AFFAIRS GRADUATE MEMBERSHIP EXAMINATION PART 11, SEPTEMBER 1958 Theoretical examinations will be held in London Birmingham and Glasgow and if required in other centres on Monday and Tuesday, 8 and 9 September. Practical exercises will be carried out in London and subject to confirmation in Birmingham and Glasgow on Wednesday to Saturday, 10 to 13 September inclusive. Candidates will be asked to state their preference as to the centre for their theoretical papers and the period and centre for their practical exercises; but it must be clearly understood that no guarantee can be given that their wishes will be met.Candidates who have not yet been accepted for examination and who wish to present themselves in September should obtain from the Assistant Registrar without delay the prescribed Application Form so as to allow ample time for obtaining the necessary signatures certifying that they have complied with the Regulations concerning their courses of training. The completed Application Form must reach the Institute not later than Monday 9 June. No application will be considered if received after that date. Entry forms will be sent as soon as they are ready to all accepted candidates. The last date for the receipt of Entry Forms is Wednesday 25 June. No Entry will be accepted if received after that date.POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA EXAMINATIONS Examinations for Postgraduate Diplomas in Applied Chemistry will be held in the week beginning Monday 1 September in London or elsewhere at the discretion of the Council. Last dates for application and for entry are the same as for the Graduate Membership Examinations (see above) except that candidates in Branches other than D and E must submit their Entry Forms not later than 9 June. THE GRADUATE MEMBERSHIP EXAMINATION Changes in Requirements and Conditions The Council at its meeting on 21 March 1958 considered proposals submitted by the Study Group on the Structure of the Graduate Membership Examination (see below) and by the Membership Com-mittee and adopted the following recommendations :-(1) That the German translation test-Part I (b)-be abolished.No further translation tests will be set. Future Part I examinations, including that to be held in June 1958 will comprise chemistry papers only. The requirement to pass Part I ( b ) will lapse on 1 July 1958. As from that date all students who have passed or been exempted from Part I (a) will be deemed to have passed or been exempted from the whole of Part I. Applications for election to Graduate Member-ship from candidates who have passed Part I1 but had failed in Part I ( b ) will be considered after 1 July but cannot be accepted until the Council Meeting on 16 July 1958. 24 24.8 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL (2) That a candidate for Part 11 who has either passed Part I or has been exempted from it under Regulations F may apply if he so wishes to take only the theoretical section-Part I1 (a)-or the practical section-Part I1 (b)-at his first entry,.provided that he takes the other section when the next Part I1 examination is held; but that no applicant shall be admitted to either section unless he has been accepted as a candidate for the Part 11 examination as a whole.The performance of a candidate who elects to take only the theoretical or the practical section of Part I1 at his first entry will not be finally assessed until he has taken both sections and no information about the result of either section of the examination can therefore be issued until the whole of Part I1 has been completed. This new provision will become operative for the Part I1 examina-tion to be held in September 1958.(3) That a small number of selected colleges of technology be invited to enter into ‘special relationship’ with the Institute in respect of Part I1 of the Graduate Membership examination; and that colleges in such relationship be authorised to set their own Part I1 examination papers, subject to the moderation of these papers and the external assessment of the marked scripts by the Institute’s examiners or other assessors appointed by the Institute and subject also to the papers being set specifically for Part I1 of the Graduate Membership examination and bearing the imprint of the Institute. I t has been agreed that invitations to participate in the special relationship scheme shall be issued in the first instance to the following five colleges lvliich during the past 5-6 years have furnished very large numbers of entrants to the Institute’s final examination and corres-pondingly large numbers of successful candidates :-Birmingham College of Technology Bristol College of Technology Mull College of Technology Liverpool City College of Technology Salford Royal Technical College Details of the scheme have not yet been fully worked out but it will be prescribed that applications for entry to a Part I1 examination held in a participating college shall be accepted only from students on the current register of that college.I t will not be necessary for examinations in these colleges to be held simultaneously (or at the same times as the ordinary Part I1 examinations) but from preliminary consultations with representatives of the colleges named above it seems that the majority might favour holding an examination in June each year possibly with another in January.Subject to the acceptance of invitations by the individual selected colleges and to agreement being reached on administrative arrange-ments it is envisaged that the scheme should come into operation in June 1959. Until this experiment has been running for a year or two the Council would not expect to extend the application of the scheme to additional colleges or still less to accept any further diplomas of individual colleges as complete exempting qualifications 19581 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 249 The Basis of the Changes The Study Group on the Structure of the Graduate Membership Examination which was set up in May 1957 has now completed a general review of its field of work.It has been specially concerned with investigating possible changes in the requirements and conditions of the examination which might without any lowering of standards provide candidates with better opportunities particularly in Part 11 for dis-playing the varied knowledge and abilities they have acquired through diverse kinds of training and ranges of experience. The following summary of the views of the Study Group on various aspects of the subject indicates the basis on which the changes reported above came to be recommended. Part I.-The main purpose of the chemistry papers constituting Part I ( a ) is to hold back or eliminate candidates whose basic knowledge and understanding of facts and principles are insufficient to justify their proceeding to more advanced studies.As this section of the examination did not become fully operative until June 1957 it is too soon to assess the extent to which it is fulfilling this purpose but the Study Group believes that tlie form and content of the papers are generally satisfactory. The German translation test constituting Part I ( b ) of the examina-tion involved only the translation into English \vith the aid of dictionaries, of two short passages from German scientific texts. It was not intended as a test of serious linguistic or literary attainments but merely of ability to consult original papers in a language widely used for scientific publica-tions. Now that other languages especially Russian are of growing importance in the scientific field the preparation of translations is becoming increasingly a matter for specialists.In these circumstances the Membership Committee took the view that the retention of a German translation test as a specific requirement in the Graduate Membership examination could no longer be justified especially as the passing of such a test had ceased to be an obligation on candidates claiming partial or complete exemption from that examination under Regulations F 2,4,5,6. The recommendation for the abolition of Part I ( b ) was fully endorsed by the Study Group and its adoption is reported as item (1) above. This decision does not imply that students of chemistry are being discouraged from pursuing the study of modern languages after leaving sLhool.On the contrary it is hoped that more will do so and thus obtain direct access not only to the scientific publications but also to the general literature and culture of other countries. It may be noted that under the Regulations introduced in 1956 it became possible to choose a foreign language as the third ancillary subject. Part 11.-It was broxght to the notice of the Study Group that some candidates have found it a very heavy strain to take the four-day practical section of the Part I1 examination in the same week as the theoretical section or very soon after it and have contended that the quality of their work suffered seriously in consequence. The adoption of the recom-mendation reported as item (2) above will enable candidates if they so wish to take one section of the examination several months after the other.The Study Group has been made fully aware of the difficulties en-countered by students in taking a wholly external examination at the high level of Part 11 and has been concerned to find means whereby candidates who have reached the required standard may be enable 250 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL more readily to demonstrate that they have done so. As a step in this direction the Study Group proposed in an interim report that the balance of the theory papers should be improved and a wider choice of questions provided in each. This proposal has already been implemented by the Examiners and appears to have been helpful to candidates.Consideration has been given in consultation with the Examiners, to other possible ways of catering more effectively for the needs of students who have had diverse types of training and ranges of experience e.g. by introducing additional or alternative papers in special fields of pure or applied chemistry. It is clearly difficult in a common examination to go far enough in such directions as to afford substantial advantages to a great variety of candidates and the Study Group has not so far been prepared to recommend any major changes in the general character and scope of the Part I1 examination. On the other hand there would be much greater opportunity for experiment in making innovations if arrangements were made for special Part I1 examinations to be set in relation to the Graduate Membership courses provided in a few selected colleges of technology.This is one of the attractive features of the special relationship scheme the adoption of which is reported as item (3) above. This scheme is similar in some respects to that applied successfully at various times by the University of London to a number of affiliated colleges but represents an entirely new development in the practice of the Institute. The operation of the scheme in the selected colleges will involve close consultation between the ‘internal’ examiners in each college and the ‘external’ examiners or assessors appointed by the Institute. It is hoped that this collaboration will lead to the setting of more varied and appropriate papers not only for the special internal examinations but also for the ordinary Part I1 examination.Appointment of Education Officer.-Mr D. G. Chisman B.SC., A.R.I.c. who joined the administrative staff of the Institute in December last ( J . 1957 822) has been given the title of Education Officer. Looking to Chemistry for a Career.-A pamphlet with this title has recently been introduced to replace the earlier leaflets How to Become a Chemist and Careers in Chemistry. Copies are being sent to all Secondary Grammar Schools in England and Wales (including Recognised Indepen-dent and Direct Grant Secondary Schools) Senior Secondary Schools in Scotland Recognised Grammar and Independent Schools in Northern Ireland and Secondary Technical Schools England and Wales, Arrangements have also been made for copies to be sent to Education Officers Youth Employment Officers Teacher Training Colleges and Institutes of Education in the U,K.Further copies are available on request, Wecagnitian of Colleges,-The North Lindsey Technical College, Scunthorpe has been granted provisional recognition for the training of gtudents to the level of Part I of the Graduate Membership Examination, The Liaison Officer for the College will be Mr G. Redpath Fellow, Head of the Department of Science and Metallurgy 19581 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 25 1 Advisory Committees.-The following members have been nomi-nated by the Council to serve as the Institute’s representatives on newly-constituted Advisory Committees of technical colleges : Advisory Committee in Chemistry Battersea College of Tech-nology Dr C.C. Hall. Science Advisory Committee Salisbury and South Wiltshire College of Further Education Mr L. C. Thomas. The Council has also nominated the following to succeed members Advisory Panel for the Chemical Industry Regional Advisory Council for the Organisation of Further Education in the East Midlands Mr W. Keane (in succession to Mr R. R. Betteridge). Advisory Committee for Science Luton and South Bedfordshire College of Further Education Dr I. D. Morton (in succession to Mr J. W. Fisher). who retire: Honorary Representatives in Universities.-The names of Honorary Representatives of the Institute in Universities and University Colleges will be found on p. 290. A list of the newly appointed Liaison Officers in Technical Colleges was given in February (J.142). Index of Films on Chemistry.-The Council has approved a recommendation submitted by the Education Committee to prepare an index of films on chemistry so that up-to-date information on such films may be available to members on request. This will be particularly valuable to teachers of chemistry and to members who are responsible for organising scientific film shows. In order that this index should be as complete as possible the Institute would welcome details of amateur or professional films on any aspect of chemistry including techniques research and manufacturing processes that are available on loan or for hire but are not listed in the general film catalogues. Material for the index is being collected by the Chairman of the Films Sub-Committee of the London Section Dr J.H. Pryor 3 Forsyte Crescent Upper Norwood S.E. 19 to whom relevant information should be sent. The particulars requested are title of film length producer and distributor whether black and white or colour whether 16 mm or 35 mm whether available on free loan or for hire a brief account of the contents of the film and the audience for which it would be suitable. The assistance of all those in a position to provide information would be greatly appreciated. Films on Qualitative Analysis b y Semi-micro Methods.-A film on this subject made under the direction of Mr H. Holness was recently listed (see Film Notes No. 80 J. 91). Subsequently a silent film in black and white produced by the Department of Chemistry University of Melbourne in 1954 has been appraised by the London Section Films Sub-committee.It is a film for teaching purposes with a written commentary available for use during projection 252 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL During the 20-minute run it compares conventional and semi-micro techniques the construction and use of apparatus for semi-micro manipu-lations and a general account of the formation and identification of gases and precipitates. The Institute holds a copy one of two known to be in this country. Because of this scarcity borrowers are urged to take special care to prevent damage to the film while it is in their hands or being projected. The purchase price is L15. Women in Science and Technology.-The British Federation of University Women has found that there is a steady demand from Education Authorities Schools Parent-Teacher Associations and other organisations for speakers on opportunities for women and girls in science and technology from the point of view of both opportunities available and educational problems.To meet this demand the Federation is forming a panel of speakers mainly of women scientists to address such meetings. Members able and willing to address audiences of the types mentioned above are requested to write to Mrs Constance E. Arregger, M.SC. Leader of the Working Party on Women in Science and Technology, British Federation of University Women 1 7 ~ Kings Road London s.w.3. New Institute Monographs.-Nos 5 and 6 in the 1957 series of Lectures Monographs and Reports are being distributed with this Journal.They are I-lydrazine and its Deriuatiues by Dr R. A. Reed price 6s. and Lithium and its Compounds by Dr D. S. Laidler price 5s. Further copies are available from the Institute at the prices stated. PERSONAL NOTES Honours and Awards Sir Alexander Fleck K.B.E. F.R.s. Fellow is to receive the honorary degree of Doctor of Science of the University of Nottingham at a Congre-gation to be held on 16 May. Sir Christopher Ingold F.R.s. Fellow has received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science of the University of Oxford. Dr A. Marsden M.B.E. Fellow has been honoured with the Insignia Award by the City and Guilds of London Institute. This is one of five Special Annual Awards for 1958. Dr P. A.Ongley Fellow lecturer in the Department of Chemistry, College of Technology Birmingham has been granted leave of absence to enable him to visit educational institutions in the United States, Australia and New Zealand. He has been awarded a grant by the Nuffield Foundation to assist him in this purpose. Dr D. D. Pratt c.B.E. Fellow is to receive the honorary degree of LL.D. of the University of St Andrews on 1 July. Dr D. Woodcock Fellow Hon. Secretary Bristol and District Section, has been awarded the degree of Doctor of Science by the University of Durham for work on the relationship between chemical structure and biological activity of various types 1958 J INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 253 Post-Doctorate Awards in Canada.-The following Associates have been awarded Post-Doctorate Fellowships by the National Research Council of Canada:-R.Howe D. A. Landsman B. S. W. Smith, H. M. Smith. The Fellowships of the following Associates have terminated :-K. E. Bharucha I. Husain S. W. Kennedy. Societies and Institutions Dr J. H. Hamence Fellow has been re-elected President of the Society for Analytical Chemistry. Royal Society.-The following Fellows have been admitted to the Fellowship of the Royal Society Professor B. Lythgoe professor of organic chemistry the University of Leeds; Professor R. S. Nyholm, professor of chemistry University College London. Royal Society of Edinburgh.-The following Fellows of the Institute have been elected Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh : Professor D. McKie professor in the history and philosophy of science, University of London; Professor R.A. Raphael regius professor of chemistry University of Glasgow ; Professor F. S. Spring F.R.s. Freeland professor in the Royal College of Science and Technology Glasgow. Educational Mr R. W. De Miklouho-Maclay Associate has been appointed senior science master of Sydney Grammar School with the additional responsibility of designing and reorganising science facilities in a new science block. Mr G. R. Hall Fellow of A.E.R.E. Harwell has been appointed to the readership in nuclear technology tenable at the Imperial College, London. Dr J. E. Kench Fellow senior lecturer in chemical pathology at the University of Manchester has been appointed to the chair of chemical pathology on the joint medical staff of the University of Cape Town.Dr R. J. Magee Associate Hon. Secretary Belfast and District Section has left for the Continent on a four months lecture tour. During his absence Mr W. F. Kirkpatrick Fellow 25 Belsize Road Lisburn, Co. Antrim will be Acting Won. Secretary for the Section. Professor C. Tyler Fellow will take charge of the new Department of Physiological Chemistry at the University of Reading which will be established in October and which will absorb the existing Department of Agricultural Chemistry. Mr James H. Young Fellow has been appointed lecturer in paper technology in the Textile Chemistry Department of the Manchester College of Science and Technology. Public and Industrial Mr M. H. M. Arnold Fellow has been appointed a director of Bowmans Chemicals Ltd.Mr J. Lindsay Bryson Associate has resigned from his post with Howards of Ilford Ltd on his appointment as a chemical engineer in the Development Department of the Imperial Smelting Corporation Ltd 254 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Dr M. F. Clarke Associate of Monsanto Chemicals Ltd has been appointed assistant manager of the patent department. Mr J. H. Collins Fellow has relinquished his position with the Permali group of companies and has set up in consulting practice at High Briars Shurdington Cheltenham as a consulting chemist and plastics technologist . Dr A. H. Cook F.R.s. Fellow has been appointed director of the Brewing Industry Research Foundation in succession to Sir Ian Heilbron, D.s.o. F.R.s. Fellow (q.u.).Dr J. W. Corran Fellow has been released for a year by J. & J. Colman Ltd to undertake an assignment for the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations connected with the setting up of research laboratories with special reference to food under the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Dr Corran left this country at the end of March and will be stationed in Lahore. Professor K. S. G. DOSS Fellow formerly Deputy Director-in-Charge of the Central Electrochemical Research Institute Alagappa College P.O. India has been appointed Director. Mr H. R. Forman Associate of the Mond Nickel Co. Ltd has been appointed process manager of the Clydach Refinery. Mr J. Frisken Associate has been appointed General Manager-Works in the Fertiliser Division Fisons Ltd.Mr C. F. Maxwell Fryd Associate has been seconded from the Department of the Government Chemist to the position of Director, The Chemical Directorate Iraq in succession to Mr C. G. Daubney, Fellow. Mr Allan Hill Associate technical manager plastics chemicals division the Geigy Co. Ltd has joined the Board of the Aliphatic Research Co. Ltd (and not as stated in J. 187). Mr Allen Hill Associate has relinquished his post bvith British Industrial Solvents to take up an appointment as personal assistant to the Development Director Chemical Division of the Distillers Co. Ltd. Sir Cyril Hinshelwood P.R.s. Fellow opened the new laboratories at the Midlands Research Station of the Gas Council at Solihull, Warwickshire on 1 April. Mr J.F. B. Jackson Fellow who joined the board of A.P.V.-Para-mount Ltd in 1954 has been appointed managing director. Dr H. W. Keenan Fellow of Beck Koller & Co. (England) Ltd, has been appointed a director of Reichhold Chemicals. Mr D. C. Lee Fellow has retired from the consulting practice of George Lewi and Partners in order to join Abbott Laboratories Ltd. Mr W. G. Livesley Associate has resigned his post with F. W. Berk & Co. Ltd on his appointment as process engineer with the Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd Fawley Refinery. Mr D. C. Murphy Associate of the Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd has been appointed industrial hygiene officer to the company. Dr G. H. J. Neville Associate has been appointed section manager in the Research Department of the British Titan Products Co.Ltd, Billingham 19581 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 255 Mr E. Pedley Fellow has been appointed director of the North Western Forensic Science Laboratory at Preston. Mr P. H. Prior Fellow until recently deputy head of the Technical Division of the Reed Paper Group has been appointed head of the newly formed Paper and Board Research and Development Division. Dr M. A. T. Rogers Associate OF Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd has been appointed research controller in succession to Mr R. M. Winter (4.v.) Mr Norman Sheldon Fellow has been re-elected chairman of the British Chemical Ware Manufacturers’ Association Ltd for the 19th year. Mr Raghbir Singh Associate has been appointed by the Punjab Government as research officer Bhakra Dam in charge of a Central Concrete Research Laboratory at Nangal Township and its five sub-ordinate field laboratories at the Bhakra Dam site.Dr G. Swann Fellow has been appointed assistant managing director of Beck Koller & Co. (England) Ltd. He will continue to act as research director. Dr R. E. H. Swayne Associate formerly of Allen & Hanburys Ltd, has been appointed research liaison manager Pfizer Ltd. Mr A. J. Turnbull Fellow has relinquished his post with Idris Ltd on his appointment to the staff of the Nest16 Co. Ltd Hayes Middlesex. Mr H. P. Wilson Associate of the Telegraph Construction & Main-tenance Co. Ltd has been appointed to the Board and will later assume the title of managing director Telcon Cables Group. Retirements Sir Ian Heilbron D.s.o. F.R.s. Fellow has retired from the post of director of the Brewing Industry Research Foundation to which he was appointed in 1948.Mr B. B. Niyogi Fellow has retired From his post at the Indian School of Mines Dhanbad. Mr H. Slack D.c.M. Fellow has retired as chief chemist in the laboratories of Associated Lead Manufacturers Ltd Chester after 37 years’ service. Mr H. M. Spiers Fellow has retired from his position as senior chemist to the Woodall-Duckham Construction Co. Ltd but his services are being retained as a part-time consultant. Mr J. W. Steventon Fellow has retired from his post as works controller of Fisons Ltd. Mr J. B. Wilton Fellow has retired and has disposed of his interest in Fumigation Services Ltd. Mr R. M. Winter Fellow has retired from his post of Research Controller Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd after 30 years’ service with the company SECTION ACTIVITIES ABERDEEN AND NORTH OF SCOTLAND A joint meeting with the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry was held in the Physiology Department, Marischal College on 13 February.Professor J. Baddiley of King’s College Newcastle gave a lecture entitled “Recent Developments in the Biochemistry of Nucleotide Coenzymes. ” Professor G. M. Burnett was in the Chair. Professor Baddiley described the structures of the more important nucleotide coenzymes and discussed their functions in general terms. He emphasised the importance of the uridine diphosphate group and considered in some detail the reactions of uridine diphosphate glucose. The lecturer then described the isolation and structure of two bacterial nucleotides cytidine diphosphate glycerol and its ribitol analogue.These appear to be concerned in the synthesis of a polymeric compound in the bacterial cell. This polymer contains glycerophosphate ribitol phosphate glucose and alanine residues. He presented evidence which suggests that the polymer is related to the cell walls of certain bacteria. After discussion the vote of thanks was proposed by Professor W. 0. Kermack F.R.S. Plastics. Mr G. Dring of Bakelite Ltd gave a talk entitled “A Plastics Jubilee 1907-1957” at a meeting held on 7 March. Although this was primarily a Society of Chemical Industry Jubilee Memorial Lecture it was held jointly with the local members of the Chemical Society and the Institute.In a most interesting and stimulating lecture Mr Dring spoke of the history of plastics and their impact on a large number of industries dealing separately with each of the five decades between 1907 and 1957. Dr W. T. H. Williamson was in the Chair and after a lively discussion the vote of thanks was proposed by Professor G. M. Burnett. The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held on 24 March in the Physiology Department Marischal College. Professor W. 0. Kermack F.R.s. was in the Chair. The Hon. Secretary’s annual report and financial statement were read and adopted. Officers and Members of Committee elected for 1958-59 are as follows Chairman, Professor W. 0. Kermack; Vice-chairman Mr D. W. Menzies; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer Dr H.G. M. Hardie; Members of Committee, Drs W. T. H. Williamson S. Davidson H. A. Robertson R. H. Thomson and G. W. Youngson and Mr W. D. B. Hamilton. Dr T. J. Morrison, Dundee District Member of Council is an ex-oflcio Member of Committee. Dr W. J. Donaldson was elected Hon. Auditor. Nucleotide Coenzymes. Annual General Meeting. BELFAST AND DISTRICT At a joint meeting of the Section with the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry on 27 February in the Agricultural Lecture Theatre Queen’s University Dr B. W. Bradford Research Director Imperial Chemical Industries Limited (Billingham Division) gave a lecture on “Gas Chromatography.” Dr Bradford began by defining the limits of gas chromatography and summarising the types of process involved. He outlined the methods of Gas Chromatogru.b.25 SECTION ACTIVITIES 257 separation frontal displacement and elution analysis which are usually employed and contrasted the differences between gas chromatography with a solid stationary phase and a liquid stationary phase. The importance of the technique was illustrated by many examples including the separation of alcohols phenols ethers aldehydes nitriles, permanent gases tert.-butyl hydroperoxide and di-tert.-butyl peroxide. Studies on the relation between retention volumes of hydrocarbons and the number of carbon atoms in the molecule showed that large numbers of constituents could be identified by their retention volumes. Dr Bradford concluded his lecture by discussing the different types of apparatus currently used in gas chromatography.In connection with the means employed for detection of constituents he was of the opinion that while each had its advantages under particular conditions the katharometer was best for routine work. At the end of the lecture Dr Bradford presented a short film showing the operation of gas chromato-graphic apparatus. Several members took part in the discussion after the lecture and the vote of thanks was proposed by Dr M. Hall. Annual Dinner. The Annual Dinner held jointly with local members of the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry was held in the Great Hall Queen’s University Belfast on 21 March. Dr P. G. R. Bacon of the Chemical Society presided. The principal guests were Professor E. L. Hirst c.B.E. F.R.s. President of the Chemical Society Professor J.Heslop Harrison and Mr A. W. Barnes. The toast to “The Three Societies” was proposed by Professor Harrison and Professor Hirst replied. Professor H. B. Henbest proposed the toast to “The Guests” and Mr Barnes replied. A meeting of the Section was held on 26 March in the Agriculture Lecture Theatre Queen’s University when a film entitled “Polarography” was presented. This film prepared by the Czecho-slovak Polarographic Research Institute under the direction of Professor J. Heyrovsky was designed as a comprehensive introduction to the subject. It deals with the theory and applications of the classical method and is the result of Professor Heyrovsky’s thirty years of experience. The film is in three parts introduction and charging currents diffusion processes and special polarographic processes.Dr J. Masek a colleague of Professor Heyrovsky was present at the showing introducing the film and afterwards answering in a very competent manner a large number of questions which the film stimulated. Mr Sloan thanked Dr Masek on behalf of the meeting for bringing this excellent film to Belfast. Film Show. Annual General Meeting. At the A.G.M. on 28 March thefollowing Officers and Members of Committee were elected Chairman Mr A. J. Howard; Vice-chairman Dr C. L. Wilson; Hon. Secretary Dr R. J. Magee; Hon. Treasurer Dr W. Honneyman; Members of Committee : Dr D. Hamer; Messrs W. F. Kirkpatrick D. W. Neil1 and J. McG. Jackson. Professor C. Kemball the District Member of Council is a Member of Committee ex @cb.Mrs N. I. Bell failing whom Dr H. K. Lawton was elected Hon. Auditor 250 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [A4PRIL BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLANDS Fine Art Fakes. On 4 March Professor P. D. Ritchie spoke on “Fine Art Fakes” at a meeting held at the College of Technology Chta Green. The lecturer began by outlining the development of the scientific examination of works of art from some very early observations by Sir Humphry Davy through the pioneer work of A. P. Laurie and others in the first quarter of this century up to the present day when most major art galleries and museums have a well-equipped scientific laboratory manned by highly skilled staff. There are for example, in this country fine laboratories at the National Gallery under F.I. G. Rawlins at the British Museum under H. J. Plenderleith and at the Courtauld Institute of Art where the lecturer himself worked for some years. Some of the work done in such laboratories is of obvious relevance; for example the study of up-to-date methods of restoration conservation and storage and the detection of fakes and forgeries. Some of it less obvious but of real importance is the gradual accumulation of well-authenticated data on the materials and techniques employed by artists and craftsmen at various epochs and in various localities. This latter information is of major interest to the art historian; it also forms the basis of scientific detection of forged works of art where success depends upon the identification of materials or techniques incompatible with the alleged period or provenance of the object investigated.This point was illustrated by a chart showing the dates at which many of the important pigments used by artists are known to have been introduced, and the dates at which a few of them ceased for various reasons to be widely applied. By way of indicating the principal ways in which a picture forger can betray himself through use of inappropriate materials the lecturer described and illustrated the successive stages whereby the Italian painters of the Quattrocento produced a typical tempera painting. Here, happily a good deal of first-hand documentary evidence is still preserved in the contemporary writings of the fifteenth century painter and teacher Cennino Cennini; and armed with this knowledge of what materials are most likely to have been used the laboratory team can then proceed to the examination of a suspect painting.Sometimes simple visual inspection followed by a common-sense assessment of the evidence in close collaboration with say an art historian or a practising painter, suffices to condemn the picture as a forgery; sometimes more involved chemical and physical examination is required ; sometimes despite the most careful study no objective evidence can be obtained to confirm an initial subjective suspicion. The speaker then described in turn the main scientific tools required for diagnosis and authentication-microscopy of various kinds ; micro-chemical and spectrographic analysis with the accompanying major problem of taking micro-samples from a valuable work of art; radio-graphic examination by means of soft X-rays; visual and photographic examination of the fluorescence excited by ultra-violet light; and photo-graphy by means of infra-red radiation.The particular merits of each technique were outlined but their limitations (some by no means obvious) were equally emphasised in the hope of dispelling some of the mystery which in the eyes of the layman and in particular of the juryman in a court case surrounds them. To bring out these points the lecturer Mr E. M. Joiner was in the Chair 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 259 showed lantern slides illustrating some spectacular successes and some equally spectacular failures in the examination of suspected forgeries by the methods listed above.Some of the slides illustrated the speaker’s own investigations; others were taken direct from evidence submitted in famous court cases notably the notorious Van Meegeren scandal. The approximate dating of oil paintings by cautious application of Laurie’s work on the slow but steady change in refractive index of linseed oil films on ageing were discussed; and the lecturer concluded by showing a few slides of the extraordinary results achieved by the great picture-restorers as a tribute to their knowledge vision and manipulative skill. The vote of thanks to the lecturer was proposed by Dr P. F. R. Venables. BRISTOL AND DISTRICT At Gloucester Technical College on 20 February Mr F. A. Paine of the Printing Packaging and Allied Trades Research Association spoke on “Plastics in Protective Packaging.” He said protective packaging can be defined briefly as a means of deliver-ing goods in perfect condition and convenient quantity at the lowest cost, and went on to explain that during the course of his lecture he would include such controversial ‘plastic’ materials as cellulose film and rubber, because although these materials were not properly defined as plastics, it was not possible to leave consideration of such materials out of a lecture on this subject.First of all it was necessary to clarify the position of plastics as packag-ing materials. Apart from decorative packaging the cost of plastics materials was largely responsible for the small amount used and he gave some figures to illustrate this particular point referring to the data pro-duced in the United States on the use of plastics andother packaging materials in a recent year.Given that the quantity of plastics used was relatively small and also that cost could play an important part in determining whether or not a particular plastic might be employed there was a wide field for these materials in packaging. These uses were dealt with by the lecturer as follows : ( a ) Outer containers. In general limited to special instances where the containers are returnable. Some containers are produced partly of plastic materials and partly of other materials such as timber. ( b ) Inner containers. Used for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Most of the rigid plastics and many of the thermoplastic varieties are suitable for this purpose, ( c ) Cushioning Materials.Many plastics notably expanded poly-urethane are coming to the forefront here The lecturer outlined much of the research work which is being carried out by Patra on these materials and showed slides of the equipment and some of the results obtained. ( d ) Plastics as Barrier Materials The field of protection against climatic and other hazards had been considerably expanded by the advent of new plastic materials Much of the increase in production for example ofpolythene has been due almost entirely to its use as a barrier material rather than any other purpose. The lecturer showed slides giving the data on the relative efficiencies of various materials but pointed out that in many instances the best material for a packaging purpose was not necessarily the technically superior material but that which would carry Plastics in Protective Packaging 260 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL out the purpose required at the minimum possible cost.This particular aspect of the problem must always be borne in mind when considering which is the best packaging material or best package for any particular purpose. The lecturer answered questions on gas and odour transmission. The Chairman was Mr S.J. Gardiner and Mr K. Pollard Chairman of the Western Section of the Plastics Institute proposed the vote of thanks. Some Studies of Very Rapid Reactions. On 27 February in the Chemistry Department of Bristol University Professor G. Porter of the University of Sheffield gave a stimulating lecture on the study of reactions involving short-lived chemical species by the method of flash photolysis.After initiation by a high intensity discharge of short duration the course of the reaction is followed by photographing the spectrum of the reaction mixture at a succession of short intervals or by photoelectric methods. Professor Porter illustrated this principle with an ingenious experiment in which a solution containing methylene blue and ferrous ions was decolourised by a flash from a photographic flash-bulb. The oxidation of the leuco base by the ferric ions was then apparent as the blue colour returned slowly. Four typical reactions were then discussed : ( a ) The formation of C10 from C1 and 0 and its decomposition to the elements.( b ) The recombination of iodine atoms in the presence of a ‘chaperon’ molecule. Although it has been known for some time that the third body is required to remove the excess energy resulting from atom re-combination the detailed mechanism has only recently been established by flash photolysis. A transient complex between an iodine atom and the ‘chaperon’ is formed which then reacts with a second iodine atom. The efficiency of the ‘chaperon’ is roughly proportional to its polarisability. (c) The observation of the triplet state of molecules in solution. Spectroscopic transitions from the triplet state have been successfully observed for anthracene naphthalene and chlorophyll and many other organic molecules in solution. This is of particular interest in the decomposition of dyed fabrics.The reaction of duroquinone (a model of the dyestuff) with a hydrocarbon was shown to involve the abstraction of hydrogen from the hydrocarbon by the excited singlet molecule. The resulting free radicals react together and with oxygen the first result being oxidation of the hydrocarbon and regenera-tion of the sensitiser. Professor D. H. Everett was in the Chair and Dr W. J. Dunning expres-sed the thanks of the audience to Professor Porter for an excellent lecture so enthusiastically delivered. The lecturer at this joint meeting with the Institute of Fuel (Robert Horne Lecture) on 6 March was Mr S. W. K. Morgan of Imperial Smelting Corporation who was introduced by Professor W. E. Garner F.R.S. After an historical survey of zinc smelting Mr Morgan described recent developments at Avon-mouth that had resulted in a greatly improved process.He paid tribute to the work of his colleagues many of whom were in the audience. Dr A. C. Monkhouse proposed the vote of thanks. After the meeting there was an Informal Dinner at the Grand Hotel given by the Imperial Smelting Corporation. The decomposition is a bimolecular process. ( d ) The mechanism of photosensitisation by dyestuffs. Recent Developments in the Zinc Industry 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 26 1 EAST ANGLIA At the 9th meeting of the session at the Oriental Cafe Ipswich Mr Cyril Hall was in the Chair and Mr E. Lloyd of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd (Plastics Division) gave a talk entitled “A Chemist looks at some of the Newer Plastics.” Mr Lloyd showed how modern developments were directed towards finding new plastic materials which retain their strength toughness and so on over a wide temperature range.Research was directed along three main lines. One was the development of new molecules or re-arranging the spacial configuration of known molecules. The second was blending polymers or co-polymers and the third chemically grafting polymers on to one another. In the first group are the polypropylenes the polycarbonates and the polyethers. Mr Lloyd showed how these might be considered as related to polythene in which certain atoms had been substituted by different atoms or groups and pointed out the way in which these substitutions altered the spacial arrangement of the molecules and therefore their properties.By the use of suitable catalysts and reaction conditions these compounds and also the better known compounds such as polythene, P.V.C. and polystyrene could be prepared in such a way that a range of mixtures of crystalline and amorphous material was present in the finished product the physical properties of this product being dependent on the proportions of the two types of matter. Mr Lloyd also showed how compounds such as nylon could be modi-fied by varying the chain lengths between the amide groups. By so doing the amount of hydrogen bonding in the compound could be varied to give a variety of products possessing a range of desirable properties. The physical blending of polymers produced material with properties intermediate between those of the parent materials.Similar ranges of properties could be obtained by chemical grafting of different types of polymer. This grafting technique was still in its infancy but offered great possibilities. The basic step in grafting was the production of reactive sites in the polymer molecules to which other polymers could attach themselves. This could be brought about by such methods as transfer of hydrogen atoms to the parent polymer molecules by irradia-tion degradation by ultrasonic radiation or milling or by peroxidation with powerful oxidising agents. Some Newer Plastics. The vote of thanks was proposed by Dr J. F. Williams. EAST MIDLANDS Professor C. A. Coulson F.R.s. University of Oxford gave a lecture on “The Hydrogen Bond” to a large audience at Loughborough College of Technology on 13 February at a meeting arranged jointly with the Loughborough Colleges’ Chemical and Chemi-cal Engineering Society.Dr A. G. Catchpole Chairman of the Section, presided. The hydrogen bond is a name given to a very common type of chemical binding involving a hydrogen atom but different from normal chemical binding in several ways. These include (a) relatively weak binding energy; ( b ) changes in certain frequencies of vibration of mole-cules concerned; ( c ) changes in the intensity of absorption; and ( d ) influence on crystal structure. The Hydrogen Bond 262 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Since the energy is low (order 4-10 kcal/mole) the bond cannot be a conventional electron-pair type.The essential problem is to see whether it is simply due to electrostatic forces or whether a small degree of covalent bonding is also present. In view of the fact that the H atom is always between electronegative atoms such as C1 0 or N it is certainly largely electrostatic in character. A large part of the sublimation energy of ice is traceable to dipole-dipole interactions and in the dimer of formic acid, it can be shown that the resonance effects are not large enough to account for the extra stability. One important problem is the relative importance of electrostatic, delocalisation dispersion and repulsion contributions to the total energy. In the case of ice these can be estimated. Another important problem is the nature of the potential function governing the vibrations of the proton.This is very far from the con-ventional harmonic type of potential and leads us to the conclusion that if we could reduce the 0 . . . 0 distance in 0-H . . . 0 to about 2-4 A the proton would take up a central position as in F . . . H . . . F instead of being unsymmetrically placed as it usually is. Hydrogen bonds are if possible straight though packing conditions in a crystal (e.g. urea) will sometimes bend the angle N-H . . 0 to as little as 145°C. The significance of this for understanding proteins is con-siderable. After a lively discussion the vote of thanks to Professor Coulson was passed with acclamation. EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND On 20 February members were privileged to hear a vivid account by Professor R.S. Nyholm of “Recent develop-ments in inorganic stereochemistry.” Professor Nyholm gave an authoritative exposition of the ligand field theory as applied to d4 com-plexes including an introductory treatment of simpler compounds of non-transition elements. He also discussed his recent work on compounds of general formula (Ph,MeAs),MCl, the stereochemistry of which depended on the co-ordination number and electroneutrality of the metal atom. The lecture in spite of simultaneous University celebrations, attracted a large audience and many questions ranging from queries as to the preparative methods to the applicability of nuclear magnetic resonance measurements were asked. Dr F. J. C. Rossotti expressed the audience’s appreciation in proposing the vote of thanks.The Section held a joint meeting with the Chemical Society on 11 March when Professor W. Klemm of Munster University delivered a Centenary Lecture on “Metalloids and their compounds with alkali metals.” It was a rare pleasure to have another account within a few weeks of Professor Nyholm’s of very recent advances in inorganic chemistry. The Section is indebted to the Presi-dent and Officers of The Chemical Society for making this most interesting joint meeting possible. Inorganic Stereochemistry. Metalloid-alkali metal compounds. GLASGOW AND WEST OF SCOTLAND At a meeting of the Section on 14 February in the Royal College of Science and Technology Dr P. W. Brian delivered a lecture on “The effects of gibberellic acid on plant growth and development.” Professor Hugh Nicol was in the Chair.Gibberellic Acid and Plant Growth 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 263 Gibberellic acid a metabolic product of a fungus Gibberella fujikurio, has been intensively investigated in the past few years originally in Japan and more recently in this country and the U.S.A. Its main effect on the vegetative growth of plants is an increase in the length of the internodes giving increased height and sometimes an increase in dry weight. With branching plants gibberellic acid sup-presses branching and one main axis is obtained. Other effects are that the leaves may change in shape and their area is often greater while in many cases they become paler in colour. Long-day plants when exposed to insufficient light to promote flowering will flower when treated with gibberellic acid whereas short-day plants, grown under suitable conditions for flowering will not flotver when treated similarly.Flowering in biennial plants can be promoted in the first year while dormancy in seeds and tubers can be broken. In-creased dry weight in grass has been obtained for a first crop buta second cutting shows a reduced yield so that the total yield from the two crops is that normally obtained from untreated grass. The effect of gibberellic acid in plants is due to increase in cell length as with the auxins but chemically it differs from these and appears to act in a different way. Hormones with physiological properties similar to those of gibberellic acid have been detected in many plant tissues.They are particularly abundant in immature seeds and gibberellin A, (a dihydro-derivative of gibberellic acid) has been isolated from immature runner-bean seeds. After some interesting discussion the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr R. Hemingway. The effect on flowering depends on the type of plant. LEEDS AREA The Annual Open Meeting organised jointly with the Yorkshire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry was held on 6 February in the large ballroom of the Queen’s Hotel Leeds. There was an attendance of over 300 members and their ladies and guests and we were greatly honoured by the presence of the President of the Institute Professor W. Wardlaw c.B.E. and Mrs Wardlaw. The President opened the proceedings by expressing his pleasure at being able to be present at a gathering of this kind and stressed the importance of social and personal contacts in strengthening the bonds which unite members of professional bodies.In pursuance of our aim of making known more widely the impact of chemists’ activities on civilisation generally the theme of the meeting was “The Petroleum Chemist’s Contribution to Home Life,” and Mr R. C. Tarring of the Shell Chemical Co. Ltd ably demonstrated how greatly the petroleum chemist had succeeded in easing the housewife’s lot brightening her surroundings and generally uplifting her morale. A few slides of refineries dispelled any preconceived ideas of spade-and-bucket opera-tions and after a brief account of the processes involved we were taken through the whole gamut of the benefits brought by oil to the person and the home.Shampoos creams lipsticks hair-oils salves and oint-ments for personal beautification ; terylene Acrilan and nylon for outward adornment ; detergents for lightening the eternal drudgery of cleaning; paints lacquers and varnishes for sparkling decor ; plastics for innumerable uses of convenience; waxes for polishes and fire-lighters; every corner and activity of the home was invaded by petroleum products and for Open Meeting 264 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL the younger members at least under the spell of the lecturer life before petroleum became impossible to imagine. The surroundings of the Queen’s Hotel ballroom were unfortunately not compatible with the kind of demonstration which Mr Tarring would have liked to arrange, but a film was used effectively to illustrate the operation of detergents and their disadvantages to ducks.The President expressed our gratitude to the lecturer and paid tribute to his skill in marshalling his material and lacing it with humour. Dr A. G. Lipscomb Chairman of the Yorkshire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry voiced the thanks of the meeting to the organisers and exhibitors and especially to Professor Wardlaw for coming to preside and to Mrs Wardlaw for gracing the event with her presence. Before and after the lecture the company were able to inspect an exhibition of the whole range of products covered by the subject and goods long familiar in the shops were viewed with new understanding and appreciation.A buffet supper completed the social enjoyment of a most successful occasion. High Pressure Chemistry. A meeting was held on 10 February at the University of Leeds. Professor F. S. Dainton F.R.s. Chairman of the Section presided and Professor D. M. Newitt M.c. F.R.s. lectured on “High Pressure Chemistry.” The upper limit of pressure now attainable in the laboratory by conventional methods is about 200,000 atm and experiments carried out in this range have revealed a number of interesting phenomena associated with the close packing of the molecules. In particular the short-range repulsive forces represented by the apparent shape and size of the molecules assume a growing importance and there are orientation forces in close-range encounters which may be expected powerfully to influence chemical reactivity.The oxidation of hydrocarbons under pressure affords an excellent example of the way in which pressure may influence the course and rate of a chemical reaction whilst certain well-known polymerisations illustrate the pressure effect on orientation forces and steric factors. In general oxidation reactions are accelerated by increase of pressure, and it thus becomes possible to bring about reaction at much lower temperatures than would be necessary at atmospheric pressure and thereby to recover some of the intermediate products of partial oxidation. In this way it has been shown that methyl alcohol may be obtained from methane and phenol from benzene by isothermal oxidation at pressures of about 100 atm. Polymerisations usually show the charac-teristics of chain reactions and are initiated by the catalytic thermal or photochemical formation of an active radical; the reactions then proceed by successive additions of single or complex molecules to the radical.With growing length of the chain the steric factor which is strongly dependent on pressure will decrease with an exponential fall in the reaction rate; these phenomena are well illustrated by the behaviour of cyclopentadiene and ethylene. One of the important achievements in recent years has been the use of shock-wave techniques to develop transient pressures of the order of 106 atm. In this region profound changes in the structure of matter are on theoretical grounds expected to take place and preliminary work has given indications that this is so 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 265 The ensuing discussion covered a wide range of topics including the effect of pressure on dissociation constants of acids the influence of the accompanying changes in viscosity the formation of two-phase gas systems and the possibility of cis-trans isomerisation such as would convert gutta-percha into rubber.Dr R. S. Bradley moving the vote of thanks to the lecturer said that pure chemists tended to be a little shy of apparatus in which they could not see what was going on. He acknowledged. the great help which visitors to Professor Newitt’s laboratory always received from him and expressed the audience’s appreciation of a most interesting lecture. LIVERPOOL AND NORTH-WESTERN Imperfections in Solids.On 9 January a meeting was held at Birkenhead Technical College. Mr J. Ashley-Jones Hon. Secretary opened the proceedings and introduced the speaker Dr F. S. Stone lecturer in the Department of Physical and Inorganic Chemistry University of Bristol, who spoke on “Some Chemical Consequences of Imperfections in Solids.” Dr Stone discussed briefly dislocations and lattice defects the two main types of imperfection to be found in solids. He then described, with reference to particular examples the various ways in which these imperfections affect the reactivity of solids. Oxidation of metals re-duction of oxides decomposition of salts and sintering of solids were among the processes he discussed and he drew attention to the use of studies of kinetics conductivity and magnetism in elucidating details.The second part of the lecture dealt with the effects of imperfections in chemisorption and catalysis. Dr Stone made special reference to the importance of selective electron-transfer processes at solid surfaces and showed how this led to correlations between the semi-conductor type and the catalytic activity of metallic oxides. He concluded by illustrating how irradiation of catalysts and ‘doping’ of catalysts with suitable im-purities could be used to vary the numbers of electronic and ionic defects and give rise to marked changes in catalytic activity. Dr Stone enlivened his lecture with a number of analogies of a humorous nature. After a discussion the vote of thanks was proposed by Dr D. P. Graddan. Crystal Structure and MeEting.The first meeting of the Section to be held in St Helens took place on 23 January at the Technical College. In spite of thick fog and snow several members managed to attend. Dr W. B. Whalley presided and introduced the lecturer Professor A. R. U bbelohde F.R.s. Professor of Thermodynamics in the Department of Chemical Engineering Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Professor Ubbelohde who spoke on “Crystal Structure and Melting,” described early attempts to develop the concept that the crystal lattice becomes mechanically unstable when the amplitudes of thermal motion of the units of crystal structure reach a critical value. Modern theory stresses the thermodynamic instability of the crystal when the free energy of a liquid phase attains a lower value that that of the crystal.Surveying relationships between crystal structure and melting he explained one structural generalisation that whereas in crystals the units of structure show long-range order of positions on the points of an ideal crystal lattice in liquids no long-range order is found though the packing of nearest neighbours is often similar to that in the crystals. All crystal 266 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL therefore undergo an increase of positional disorder on melting involving a contribution of positional entropy to the entropy of fusion. Professor Ubbelohde said that most forms of positional defect involve an increase of volume either because of lattice holes or to minimise the repulsion potential energy of interstitial defects.I n consequence most crystals melt with increase of volume. Simple examples of positional melting are presented by inert gases. For quasi-spherical molecules, such as certain globular terpenes or molecules whose axes are practically randomised in space above a ‘rotational transition’ in the crystal, positional entropy still constitutes the main or sole mechanism of melting. For other non-spherical molecules repulsion potentials in the crystal prevent ‘rotation’. The expansion in volume on melting often lessens such repulsions sufficiently to permit the onset of ‘rotation’. In such case orientational entropy as well as positional entropy contributes to melting. However some molecules such as rigid polyphenols do not rotate even on melting.For certain molecules with special structures, important additional contributions to melting are observed. The lecturer quoted as examples ‘flexible’ molecules which can show a very large increase of configurational entropy on melting if the molecules contain many flexible links. Again certain ionic crystals give rise to various association complexes on melting accompanied by corresponding contributions to the entropy of melting. Professor Ubbelohde gave a clear exposition illustrated with lantern slides and elucidated difficult points with simple analogies. The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr W. J. Merren. On 6 February Professor G. E. Coates of the University of Durham gave a lecture on “Some Recent Develop-ments in Organo-Metallic Chemistry” at the University of Liverpool.Dr Whalley presided. Professor Coates discussed three topics selected from the large and expanding subject of organo-metallic chemistry namely developments in the use of organo-lithium compounds some reactions of the electron-deficient alkyls of elements in Groups I1 and 111 and the circumstances in which transition metals form organic derivatives, Lithium reagents are particularly useful in organic synthesis on account of their high reactivity and the variety of their reactions. Giving examples of halogen-metal exchange reactions the lecturer drew attention to the importance of the correct choice of solvent and referred to the effect of those ethers that are strong donors (e.g. tetrahydrofuran) in promoting metallation and coupling reactions.The formation of sodium and potassium derivatives of polycyclic hydrocarbons is also greatly facilitated by this type of solvent and several of these organo-sodium compounds undergo reactions with application to many branches of chemistry. The speaker touched briefly on the constitution of the electron-deficient alkyls of beryllium and aluminium and discussed a few of the newer applications of the aluminium alkyls. The formation of o-bonded alkyls and aryls by transition metals is facilitated if they can make use of the same kind of strongly directional orbitals as are involved in their co-ordination complexes. The lecture ended with reference to some of the recently prepared organic compounds of chromium(II1) stabilised by co-ordination to oxygen and to some Organo-Metallic Chemistry 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 267 organic compounds of palladium stabilised by co-ordination to phos-phorus.The lecture was one of the most interesting of the session and was well illustrated with slides. The vote of thanks was proposed by Dr A. K. Holliday. Lead Tetraethyl as an Engine Anti-knock. A joint meeting with the Institute of Petroleum Stanlow Branch was held at the Blossoms Hotel, Chester on 26 February. Dr Whalley took the Chair and introduced Professor A. D. Walsh of the Physical Chemistry Department University of Dundee who delivered a lecture entitled “The Mode of Action of Lead Tetraethyl as an Engine Anti-knock” (see J. 22 1 for summary). Mi- A. Cluer proposed the vote of thanks. LONDON Recent Advances in the Chemistry and Function o f the Vitamins.Dr J. H. Pryor presided at Norwood Technical College on 10 February and introduced the lecturer Dr J. Green who began by saying that the field covered by the title of his lecture was large and that he intended to cover only a small portion of it. First he dealt with the chemistry of vitamin A carotene and vita-min D with particular reference to the methods of synthesis involving the use of new techniques and reagents. He stressed the difficulty of building a particular conjugated chain compound the importance of which lay in the fact that the biological activity varied considerably with the stereoisomerism of the molecule. This difficulty has been overcome particularly in the case of p-carotene which is now manufactured on a large scale.He then spoke of the rapid developments in the elucidation of the structure of vitamin BIZ its industrial preparation as a by-product of the Streptomyces fermentations and its use in the treatment of pernicious anaemia. The physiological aspect of vitamin E and its relation to seemingly different diseases in various animals were summarised. The lecturer concluded by pointing out the difficulty of defining a vitamin as requirements are usually discovered from the study of deficiency diseases which are in themselves complex. Anti-vitamins, which are under investigation were also mentioned. The lecture was illustrated by slides showing formulae and methods of synthesis of the substances discussed. The vote of thanks was proposed by Dr M.J. Birchenough. An Organo-chemical Contribution to the Inorganic Chemistry o f Nitrous Acid was the subject of a lecture given by Professor Sir Christopher Ingold, F.R.s. at a joint meeting with the Sir John Cass College Chemical Society on 11 February. Dr Lindsey welcomed the lecturer and the Section, and the Chairman Dr C. C. Hall then congratulated Sir Christopher Ingold on his recent honour. The lecturer indicated how in the course of the study of some organic reactions hitherto unknown facts about the inorganic chemistry of nitrous acid had been obtained and particularly about electrophilic substi-tution reactions. Reaction of an electrophilic reagent with a substrate results in the transfer to the substrate of a group which is then bound by electrons supplied by the substrate.Of the possible carriers of the group X (e.g. NO) ibr the transfer of this group to the substrate the simplest would be X+ (e.g. NO+); others were of the type X-Y (e.g 268 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL NOBr) which might be an ion or molecule but in which the ease of separating the Y group as Y - by the reaction X-Y + X+ + Y- would be an important factor in the efficacy of the carrier. A second important factor would be the limiting concentration of X-Y which might be present as such in the reaction medium. Of the possible carriers of the NO group in nitrosation the following, which are arranged in order of increasing basic strength of the combined base might be considered : NO+ NO.OH,+ NO.Hal.NO.NO, NO.NO, NO.& NO.OH. In the catalytic nitration of phenols two types of reaction were observed the first being kinetically of zero order and due to the well-established course of nitration by the nitronium ion. The second reaction arose from the catalysis and was of second order the reactions in acetic acid medium with nitric acid in excess of nitrous acid being: slow ArH + stoichiometric HNO -+ ArNO + H,O ArNO + HNO -+ ArNO + stoichiometric HNO, and fast Under these conditions nitrous acid is present mainly as N,O, molecules which will be slightly dissociated 2N0 + N204 $ NO+ + NO,-Hence both NO+ and N204 are possible carriers. Other possibilities are H,NO,+ HNO and N,O, but these would not explain the observed kinetics of the reaction under various conditions.It has in fact been shown that although the concentration of NO+ ion is considerably less than that of the N,O molecules the nitrosonium ion is specifically the more powerful nitrosating agent. In the case of the diazotisation of aniline and other aromatic amines in weakly acidic solutions containing small amounts of perchloric acid as the only strong acid the list of possible carriers reduces to NO+, NO.OH,+ NO.NO and NO.OH. By studying the effect of changes in reaction conditions including addition of halide ion when NO.Hal. becomes a possible carrier on the kinetics it was found that the reaction could proceed by any of the following routes: fast HN02 + H,N02+-ArNH2-\ ArNH2 fast tArNH2NO+ -+ ArN,+ k NO2 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 269 work both cinC and still Dr Stanford suggested as an alternative title for his lecture “The Scope of Photography as a Partner in Research and Productivity,” for photographic and especially cinC work was extremely useful in teaching investigation and analysis of processes.Its use in teaching was illustrated by film shots in which the use of an accounting machine keyboard was demonstrated the correct fingering being clearly seen by a large number of people instead of a single trainee. For investigational purposes the enlargement of the parameters of size and time were next illustrated by (1) close-up shots of an electric shaver head and of a hypodermic needle and (2) a slow-motion film of hypodermic penetration and of bolts moving at 120/sec in a slotting machine.Short excerpts were then shown in which a subject was filmed at normal speed before injection of a drug and again at one minute intervals after injection the images being shown together on the screen so that comparison was easier. Compression of time was illustrated by a film shot at 1 frame110 sec and then run through the projector at normal speed; this had been taken in a foundry to observe and measure idle time. Dr Stanford emphasised the importance in such circumstances of keeping conditions as normal as possible or of allowing workers to become used to the new conditions e.g. of lighting or of the presence of cameras, as otherwise the aims of the exercise might not be achieved. These techniques could also be used for recording changes during destructive testing or for recording progress in an operation e.g.building, installation and running of plant. I t was also possible to instal standard equipment so that an unskilled operator could photograph an operation or test. Special techniques were often necessary to capture the effect required, and Dr Stanford dealt briefly with multiple flash stroboscopic phase contrast and interference techniques giving some examples of how these helped to break down a movement into separate actions so that each could be studied. Dr Stanford concluded by mentioning the use of the methods des-cribed for architectural planning and traffic problems. Several interest-ing questions were put by members of the audience on the possible applications to specific problems and a discussion on the inadequacy of films for the teaching of chemistry resulted from a question put by Dr Stonehill.Mr J. R. Barr Chairman of the Kent Sub-section which had arranged the meeting thanked the lecturer for his comprehensive instructive and entertaining talk. On 19 March the Section joined the Institute of Biology and the Institute of Physics in holding a Symposium at the Senate House University of London when about 250 people attended. The Chair was taken by Professor P. M. S. Blackett F.R.s. who in opening the meeting compared the social problems which apparently faced scientists of the 1930s with those of today. To many the foremost scientific problem was danger from nuclear weapons and it was im-possible for scientists to stand aside or attempt to disregard the social implications of their work in this field.Secondly scientists must approach the work of improving the standards of living with a Science and Society 270 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL nonparochial attitude. The gap between the western standards of living and the levels of existence elsewhere must not be allowed to widen as is the present tendency. World prosperity would be made nearer by the export of material resources in the form of long-term loans or gifts to the under-developed countries even at the expense of our oxvn immediate material comfort. The first speaker was Professor Lancelot Hogben F.R.S. (University of Birmingham) who spoke on “Science and its Social Functions” in terms of the usefulness of the scientific worker to the society of which he is a member.Science can immeasurably enrich man’s resources for material well-being. I t can also though to an extent easily exaggerated contribute to mental habits that promote understanding of human needs and a more tolerant attitude to their satisfaction. What the most important social function of science is in a particular historic context depends on the context itself-that of 1958 is different from that of 1938. In 1958 the overriding problem of humanity is how to survive the misuse of illimitable new resources of prosperity. If lye survive the overriding problem of 1978 may he how to adapt our means of communicating human knowledge to the preservation (Jf a scientific attitude to human affairs. Professor A.Haddow Director of the Chester-Beatty Institute then spoke on ‘ ‘Science-its Dangers and Promise.” The rapid expansion of science is bound to carry many dangers as was realised as far back as 1905 when Curie drew attention to the dangers which attended the discovery of radium. While the promise of science is great discovery is not at present accompanied by a corresponding growth in human understanding. The next half century is bound to see an even greater growth in fundamental knowledge and the prospect of an ever-increasing unbalance is a potential source of danger. There is no doubt that the greatest hope for the future lies in an internationalisation of science and the most hopeful note is that struck by that splendid example the International Geophysical Year.At this stage Professor Blackett relinquished the Chair to Dr K. Mellanby (Chairman of the London Branch of the Institute of Biology), who asked Professor Kathleen Lonsdale D.B.E. F.R.S. (University College, London) to speak on the “Social Place of Scientists.” Dame Kathleen said that her address was concerned with men and women their position in the community their prestige attitudes and responsibility and in this respect caricatures are sometimes salutary. The idea that a scientist’s place is in the laboratory and only in the laboratory is dying but it dies hard. The trend towards earlier and earlier specialisation is beginning to be reversed because it is realised that scientists do need to be good citizens and that they need to be able to communicate their knowledge in lucid and intelligible language.Knowledge is power and “Power is never a good,” said Alfred the the Great “except he be good that has it.” Goodness may involve the making of value-judgments; and a belief in democracy of whatever brand or a false humility should not allow the scientist to become the tool of other men against his own better judgment. His special knowledge may sometimes also involve him either as an individual or as a member of a professional institution in the duty of warning governments or peoples when science is being neglected or misapplied. I t does not follow that he is entitled to pontificate on any and every subject 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 27 1 The last speaker was Mr Anthony Smith (DailJI Telegraph) who, speaking on ‘‘The Deployment of Scientific Effort,” treated the subject from the viewpoint of ‘where scientists go’ and the impact that their scientific training has on their work in society as a whole.Quoting from examples within his personal knowledge Mr Smith formed the conclusion that about half of those colleagues who studied science with him have now no connection with it at all. He considered this apparent \vastage to be a good thing and developed the arguments that it would be better if the sharp line between arts and science were blurred over; he deplored the lack of scientific knowledge among the voting public. Now that science is dominant in our economy defence and way of life, more of those with scientific training should cease to be looked on as ‘boffins’ and should become administrators.Only by much greater diffusion of them among the community could its present instinctive distrust of scientists be removed and the full beneficial influence of their knowledge and training be achieved. After a short interval Dr C. C . Hall took the Chair for the discussion. The first speaker deplored the fact that the Symposium had given no attention to the relationship between individuals and society. The scientific study of the method by which an individual arrived at par-ticular convictions though admittedly difficult would help to reconcile opposing views. Dr Cloudesley Thompson disagreed completely with the previous 3peaker and quoted examples from scientific studies of animal behaviour to illustrate his point. The competitive and altruistic instincts inevitably conflict in the final instance; neither is absolutely right or wrong therefore one finds that all logic leads to a paradox and a subjective decision must be taken.Dr R. L. Worrall pointed out that an objective scientific study of people was impossible. They were not subject to fixed laws and were liable to make decisions on irrational and rational illogical and logical grounds. Unlike successful politicians scientists on the whole while understanding such instincts did not sympathise with them and as a result they could be mistrusted and even hated. Dr M. A. Phillips maintained that no new ideas on this hoary theme had been produced by any speaker; none showed any appreciation of the real problem and therefore none presented any solutions.He considered the problem today was merely a gap between production and capacity to consume. He said it was only a monetary one and could be solved by social credit. Another speaker commented on the difficulty of communication tt-ith the public commenting that those who attempted to popularise the subject tended to be ‘looked down on’ by some of their colleagues in scientific fields. Mr H. W. Appleton said that while about 30 per cent of the popula-tion reached ‘0’ level in science to the remainder it was a closed book; he supported all efforts at more explanations to a wider public. Miss E. I. Beeching said she had recently been horrified to meet a school headmistress whose conception of scientists in industry was that they were generally regarded as useful window dressing.Such a conception is far from the truth and all possible measures should be taken to correct it 2 72 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Mrs A. M. Young maintained that in their contacts with the public, scientists must capture the imagination in order to put over their ideas successfully. I t was unfortunately the more spectacular aspects that filled the imagination and as a result the very mention of A.I.D. was likely to conjure up the most appalling picture of geneticity in the human race rather than its beneficent effect on food production. Dr K. Mellanby said that the gap between the developed and under-developed countries was well recognised as was the importance of closing it. However the introduction of highly trained personnel to these countries was with the present upsurgence of national feeling often regarded with extreme suspicion by the local inhabitants.He could assure Dr Phillips categorically that present supplies of food would not provide a comfortable standard of living for the whole of the world’s population and the problem was more than the simple one of distribution. Dr H. 0. J. Collier had been interested in the connection between science and religion and in some suggestions made of conflict between the two. Surely the very basis of science was doubt and its object the resolution of that doubt. Religion was based on faith requiring no concrete proof and on this basis no common ground existed and therefore there could be no conflict.Another speaker did not consider that the discussion had ranged nearly as widely as the opening addresses. No mention had been made of the sense of vocation which undoubtedly existed among many scientists, for those who had such a feeling were endeavouring to face up to their responsibilities to the world in general. Reply.ing to the discussion Dame Kathleen Lonsdale said that most of the points raised had left little for her to say in reply. She was sur-prised that the problem of personal action by individuals had not arisen, but suggested that whilst as individuals scientists could achieve little, such corporate bodies as their Institutes could by constant prodding of the Government induce action along the lines suggested at this meeting. Mr Anthony Smith said in reply that although many public-spirited opinions had been expressed all men and women had their weaknesses, and it was often difficult for any individual to conceive that extension of his or her own particular field of work was not automatically in the public interest.More scientists should become administrators so that available finance could be used to greater advantage. Dr Collier of the Institute of Biology proposing the vote of thanks to the four principal speakers referred to the original discussion between the three Institutes which had led to the organisation of this Symposium. As one who had been closely concerned in fostering it he was particularly gratified with its success and expressed his personal thanks to all concerned for the high quality of the contributions.Dr Hall then closed the meeting. MANCHESTER AND DISTRICT Modern Trends in Inorganic Chemistry. On 13 February a meeting was held at the College for Further Education Stockport. The speaker, Professor R. S. Nyholm was introduced by the Chairman Dr S. J. Fletcher and discussed “Modern Trends in Inorganic Chemistry.” He dealt with two aspects first general chemical education and the trend of courses in inorganic chemistry and secondly the main lines of researc 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 273 at the present time. Discussing the first of these Professor Nyholm summarised briefly the development of the subject during the past 150 years and showed the importance of quantum mechanics and physical methods of investigation in bringing system into inorganic chemistry.He also emphasised the great contribution from X-ray crystallography and the need for a constant re-examination of the subject matter taught. He suggested that whilst accepting that facts must remain the substance of the subject particular care was necessary to ensure that these facts were woven together into a system. Furthermore a careful selection of just what facts a student should be required to remember for examination purposes was necessary. Professor Nyholm proposed that in the discus-sion of Groups in the Periodic Table special stress should be laid upon the reasons why elements display certain valencies co-ordination numbers, stereochemistries and so on at least as far as these were known. He referred to the importance of ionisation potentials and promotion energies for the first of these and the subject was illustrated by discussing the uni- bi- and ter-valent states of the ionic halides of the first transition series.The structures of ionic lattices and covalent compounds could be summarised in the statement that “the structures of ionic lattices are decided primarily by the repulsion of ions whereas the shapes of covalent molecules and complex ions are decided by the repulsion of electrons.” With regard to practical chemistry the speaker suggested that in addition to the usual preparative and analytical chemistry there should be more work done with compounds actually made by students e.g. their conductivity molecular weights magnetic moments and so on. It was agreed that the shortage of time for practical inorganic chemistry meant that some curtailing of traditional courses would be necessary ; in many institutions there was room for a considerable decrease in the time devoted to traditional qualitative analysis.On the research side Professor Nyholm surveyed briefly the main directions along which progress is being made drawing attention particu-larly to work on the transition metals to metal-carbon compounds and to the chemistry of the lighter ‘first-row’ elements such as boron and nitrogen. Using the ligand-field theory as a background he discussed the stereochemistry of complexes containing four non-bonding d electrons and applied the results to certain new complexes of Mo(11) and W(II). This involves the study of the carbonyl derivatives of Mo and W and their ditertiary arsine substitution products.The diamagnetism of [Mo (CO) ,DiarsineI,] O and of similar compounds can be explained by seven-covalency ; other properties were fully in agreement with this assumption. After the lecture there was a lively discussion and the vote of thanks was proposed by Dr A. L. Hock. MID-SOUTHERN COUNTIES Modem Methods of Gem Testing. On 10 January a meeting was held at the Cathedral Hotel Salisbury. The speaker was Mr B. W. Anderson of the London Chamber of Commerce Laboratory. Gem testing differs from ordinary mineral-testing operations in that the material under test must not be destroyed or damaged. Among the older tests hard-ness and specific gravity must be considered but with the former there is a risk of damage to the specimen.Determination of specific gravity is difficult especially with mounted stones 2 74 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL The jeweller’s refractometer introduced in 1907 measures refractive index by total refraction. The advantages and disadvantages of this method of physical examination were discussed as well as modifications of this method. The colour of gems is an important characteristic and visual methods of examination were outlined from direct viewing through coloured filters to fluorescence analysis. Methods of distinguishing between natural and synthetic gems were elaborated including microscopic examination ultra-violet transparencies and X-ray examination. Mr Anderson gave a particularly interesting account of the production of synthetic gems especially rubies which are used extensively in industry.Bruins Trust. On 21 January a Brains Trust was held at the Institute of Education the University of Southampton. The subject was “Chemistry as a Career,” and the following members were on the panel Dr R. E. Parker Chairman Dr G. T. Ball and Messrs D. H. Bell, C. M. Bere H. L. Boot W. B. Chapman and L. C. Thomas. The panel was chosen so as to cover the different aspects of chemistry as widely as possible. The Chairman opened the meeting with an account of the functions of the Institute and then gave statistics illustrating the importance of chemists in the country’s economy. Each member of the panel then spoke on his particular field pointing out the many opportunities for chemists.The qualifications necessary for employment at various levels of remuneration were outlined but the panel made it clear that the eventual status attained by the individual was not entirely dependent on qualifications ; personal ability and charac-ter played an important part. Facilities for further study publication of results and other matters were discussed. When the panel had finished speaking the meeting was thrown open to discussion which was lively sustained and searching. Questions regarding entrance qualifications to the various qualifying examinations, the position of women in the chemical world the teaching of science in schools and numerous other topics were asked. On 3 1 January a meeting was held jointly with the University Chemical Society at the University of Southampton.Dr H. W. Thompson F.R.s. of the University of Oxford spoke on “The Chemical Significance of Absorption Band Intensities.” After reviewing the main uses of infra-red spectroscopy to date he discussed the significance of absorption band intensities. Band width varies with slit width and a study of these variables shows that high-precision instruments need to be used if good inter-laboratory reproducibility is to be achieved. A study of band intensities of a series of compounds containing the imino grouping =NH shows that they fall into various categories corresponding to the location of the group for example R,NH, RNHBr etc. A comparison of band intensities of fundamentals with those of the overtones leads to information regarding changes in dipole moment and band stretching.This can be used to distinguish between band types for example phenolic and alcoholic hydroxyl groups. Studies of band intensities frequencies and band widths in a series of disubstituted benzenes of type X.C,H,*Y where Y is a vibrating Absorption Band Intensities 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 275 chromophore for example -CN -NH and -OH have led to relationships between inductive and resonance effects of X and the three characteristics mentioned above. Problems in Aromatic Chemistry. On 14 February a meeting was held jointly with the University Chemical Society and the Chemical Society at the University of Southampton. The speaker was Professor H. C. Longuet-Higgins of the University of Cambridge.He chose to speak of one problem the reactivity of aromatic systems towards free radicals. After details of the results obtained in such reactions a possible reaction mechanism was presented. The treatment was essentially non-mathematical and Professor Longuet-Higgins’s presentation was most lucid and convincing. After discussion the meeting closed with the vote of thanks proposed by Mr E. Cartmell. SHEFFIELD SOUTH YORKSHIRE AND NORTH MIDLANDS Chemical Biography. On 23 January a meeting was held in the Chemistry Department University of Sheffield. Mr G. Mackay gave a lecture on “Chemical Biography”-a suitable topic for a Ladies’ Evening with no mention of equations and formulae. The account of the personal lives and characteristics of the more famous chemists of the past two centuries illustrated by a large number of slides proved most entertaining and was enjoyed by all present.Mr Mackay spoke mainly of the chemists of the nineteenth century, describing the most interesting features of their lives as they progressed from the cradle to the grave. He showed that in the main the great chemists had been most fortunate in their choice of parents. In the nineteenth century when universal free education was nothing more than a dream the ability to provide funds for an adequate chemical education was restricted to professional and business men; therefore we find with some few exceptions that the great chemists were born of parents with comfortable incomes. There are many examples of the young chemist causing his teachers grave concern over his future prospects and indeed many were lazy and shiftless.Others of course were model pupils, diligent careful and versatile but very many were bored and frustrated by the formal educational approach and deplored the lack of scientific teaching in the curriculum. The excitement lacking at school many illicitly sought in the form of unauthorised and dangerous experiments, usually carried out at home generally with damaging results. Many enjoyed university life but others found their professors and lecturers deadly dull. Freed from the restriction of formalised instruction the great chemist usually managed to attain some kind of eminence before the age of 30. Most married fairly late in life with no precipitate infatuations and very few unsatisfactory marriages.Indeed they showed considerable perspicacity in the difficult matter of choosing a suitable wife. Many of the great chemists showed a remarkable versatility and a most gratifying inclination to enjoy life to the full. There were eccentrics mainly amongst the bachelors but their eccentricities were interesting and endearing. It is not surprising that most of the great chemists lived to a ripe old age and did so gracefully. The average age at which more than 200 nineteenth century chemists died works out at 70 years. In conclusion Mr Mackay said that it is a fine thing to be a chemist and if you happen to be a chemist’s wife then indeed you are one of the blessed 2 76 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CI-IEMISTRY [APRIL STIRLINGSHIRE AND DISTRICT The fourth meeting of the session was held jointly with the Society of Chemical Industry at Lea Park Rooms, Falkirk on 19 February when papers by local members were presented.Mr W. J. Oldham of British Hydrocarbon Chemicals Ltd Grange-mouth read a paper on “The Production of Butadiene.” He stated that the main use of butadiene was in the manufacture of synthetic rubber. The world demand for rubber was now about 3,000,000 tons per annum, of which about 40 per cent consisted of synthetic material and of the latter some 75 per cent consisted of the butadiene/styrene copolymer containing 25 per cent butadiene. The lecturer explained that in order to meet the requirements of the synthetic rubber industry there had been a rapid expansion since 1940 in world manufacture of butadiene which today exceeds 1,000,000 tons per annum.Commercial methods of producing butadiene from acety-lene alcohol and petroleum were described with special emphasis on the petroleum route and subsequent purification procedure. The second paper was by Mr J. P. Young of Scottish Oils Ltd Uphall, who spoke on “Synthetic detergents from Scottish Shale Oil.” Mr Young gave a brief history of so-called synthetic detergents followed by a simpli-fied chemical classification of the most important types pointing out that the principal sources were natural fats petroleum fractions coal tar hydrocarbons and products from cracking of mineral oils. He described the use of shale oil as raw material and gave the reasons for selecting the natural olefinic constituents in the C, to C, range.The synthetic detergent now in production from Scottish shale oil was said to comprise a mixed active agent which consisted principally of the sodium salts of secondary alkyl sulphates produced by direct sulphation of shale oil olefins. Mr Young described its manufacture and gave instances of its application in domestic cleansing and industrial processes. Both papers aroused considerable interest and a lively discussion followed. The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr G. C. Bailey. Synthetic Rubber and Detergents. TEES-SIDE On 28 January Professor G. Porter (University of Sheffield) visited Middlesbrough to lecture on “Transient Chemical Intermediates.” Professor Porter first described the sur-prisingly simple apparatus and techniques necessary for the initiation and analysis of very fast reactions which take place in a fraction of a milli-second.He discussed in some detail the flash photolysis of chlorine-oxygen mixtures and explained the derivation of reaction rates and mechanism. Next the lecturer described the subtle energy changes that precede the formation of the ‘triplet state’ and the spectrographic methods by which this phenomena can be observed; he used quinones to illustrate the process. Finally Professor Porter dealt with the techniques for trapping free radicals and other highly reactive species at low tempera-tures (e.g. the ‘isolation’ of iodine atoms in isopentane solution at -180°C). In this way species can be examined spectrographically at leisure and with advantage over more slow and limited techniques.After a discussion the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr E. Kilner of Constantine Technical College. Chemotherapy. Dr F. L. Rose o.B.E. F.R.s. of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd (Pharmaceuticals Division) visited Tees-side on 18 February Transient Chemical Intermediates 19581 SECTION ACTIVITIES 2 77 to lecture on “Chemotherapy.” Dr Rose described the various approaches to the discovery of compounds of therapeutic interest and said that even now most new drugs are discovered by essentially empirical methods. The problems associated with the biological evaluation of therapeutic agents were complicated by the conflicting results often obtained between in vitro and in uiua tests. Clearly advances in chemotherapy must come from a better understanding of the mode of action of drugs in the human body and it was surprising to find how little was known on this subject.Once a compound has been shown to be of therapeutic value the next step is the formulation of the material in such a way that it can be administered to a patient and arrives at the appropriate part of the body; this stage of development can be extremely formidable. It is at this point that the physical chemical properties (e.g. solubility) of a compound are of particular importance. Finally the ease with which a drug is removed from the body often limits its value as a therapeutic agent. Dr Rose illustrated these various aspects of a general approach to chemotherapy by reference to the simple sulphur compounds employed in tuberculosis therapy and to the sulphonamides.He drew particular attention to the great differences in activity exhibited by various organic compounds differing only in minor structural features. The vote of thanks was proposed by Dr A. F. Lindsay of the Dyestuffs Division . MALAYA Annual General Meeting. The Section’s A.G.M. took place on 18 January in the Department of Chemistry Petaling Jaya. The following Officers and Members of Committee were elected: Chairman Dr Kiang Ai Kim; Hon. Secretary-Treasurer Dr Francis Morsingh; Members of Committee Professors R. A. Robinson and T. F. Dixon and Messrs Chia Hong Hoe A. I. Biggs and Chia Chwee Leong. It was announced that Mr E. Pereira had kindly agreed once again to be Hon.Auditor for the year. Dr Kiang thanked Dr D. A. Frye the retiring Chairman for his services to the Section and wished him all success in the future. In his report Mr Chia Chwee Leong retiring Hon. Secretary said that in order to stimulate the interest of students an Hon. Recorder should be chosen from the Student Members and he thanked Miss P. Williams who had consented to be the Section’s first Hon. Recorder in 1957. Forthcoming events include a lecture by Professor Sir Alexander Todd F.R.S. in May a symposium on “Chemistry in the Service of Malaya” in August a lecture by Mr T. H. Elliot in September and a symposium to be led by Professor Robinson and Dr B. Doublas in October NEWS AND NOTES FELLOWSHIPS AND AWARDS University Scholarship Scheme.-Pfizer Ltd the Folkestone fine-chemical and pharmaceutical company have announced an exten-sion of their science scholarship scheme.Under the new scheme 20 selected students will proceed each year to a full-time course at Canterbury Technical College and will take G.C.E. ‘A’ level subjects. Each will receive a grant ofL3 per week plus course and examination fees. At least half of these students will be selected annually to attend university or sandwich courses. The candidates selected for university training will receive a grant of up to &420 per annum; the sandwich course students will receive a salary of E275 per annum increasing to E375 plus the cost of textbooks. Scholarship students will not be asked to seek a career in Pfizer Ltd as a condition of entry.The scheme is not restricted to applicants from South-East Kent. Further particulars are available from The Training and Education Officer Pfizer Ltd Folkestone Kent. Wilmot Breeden Fellowships.-The Wilmot Breeden Group of Companies are sponsoring two Fellowships each worth& 1,000 per annum, to be held in alternate years at the University and at the College of Technology Birmingham. A feature of the Fellowship is that the successful candidate will divide his time between the University or College and the company. Each Fellowship will normally be held for two years. Candidates should have two or three years’ research or industrial experience and should hold an Honours degree of a university in the British Commonwealth a Diploma in Technology or an equivalent qualification.The first award will be held at the College of Technology and applications should reach the Secretary Wilmot Breeden (Holdings) Limited Amington Road Birmingham 25 before 1 May. Further particulars may also be obtained from the above address. Corday-Morgan Medal and Prize.-The Corday-Morgan Medal and Prize for 1956 has been awarded to Dr K. W. Bagnall (Atomic Energy Research Establishment Harwell) in consideration of his contri-butions to the knowledge of the chemistry of polonium. This Award consisting of a Silver Medal and a monetary Prize of 200 Guineas is made annually to the chemist of either sex and of British Nationality who in the judgment of the Council of The Chemical Society, has published during the year in question the most meritorious contri-bution to experimental chemistry and who has not at the date of publica-tion attained the age of thirty-six years.Copies of the rules governing the Award may be obtained from the General Secretary of the Society Burlington House W. 1. Applications or recommendations in respect of the Award for the year 1957 must be received not later than 31 December 1958 and applications for the Award for 1958 are due before the end of 1959. Society of Chemical Industry.-The presentation of the Society’s Castner gold medal to Dr R. Holroyd will take place at 6 p.m. in the Lecture Theatre Department of Chemistry King’s College Newcastle upon Tyne on Wednesday 30 April. 2 7 NEWS AND NOTES 279 Dr Holroyd will deliver the fifth Castner Memorial Lecture entitled : Admission is open to all those interested.‘‘The Development of the Petroleum Chemical Industry in Britain.” Waverley Gold Medal.-The Essay Competition for the Waverley Gold Medal organised by the journal Research will be held again this year, and entries which should be received by 31 July are invited by the Editor 4-5 Bell Yard W.C.2 from whom further particulars may be obtained. MEETINGS AND SYMPOSIA Polarographic Society.-By permission of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd (Nobel Division) the Society is holding a one-day meeting at Ardeer Ayrshire on 26 September. Papers will be read on the follow-ing subjects polarography of sodium hydrosulphite ; polarometric measurements of respiration in biological systems ; recent advances in A.C. polarography ; conductivity measurement; cathode protection; problems in the polarographic analyses of semiconductors; use of the polarograph in studying metal complexes; and polarographic determin-ation of dibutyl phthalate in propellant compositions containing nitro-glycerine.The arrangements for the meeting are being made by Mr A. F. Williams Research Department I.C.I. Ltd (Nobel Division) Stevenston, Ayrshire. Reduced Cyclic Compounds.-A Symposium on Reduced Cyclic Compounds will be held on 21 April from 10.30 a.m. at Queen Mary College University of London. Admission will be free without ticket. The speakers include Professor R. A. Raphael Dr V. A. Petrow Dr W. Klyne Dr T. G. Halsall Dr Herchel Smith Dr P. de Mayo and Dr M. F. Ansell. Lunch and Tea will be provided at an inclusive cost of 7s.6d. for which tickets should be obtained in advance from the Secretary to the Chemistry Department Queen Mary College Mile End Road London E. 1. Textile Institute.-The 43rd Annual Conference of the Textile Institute will take place in Edinburgh from 12 to 16 May on the theme “Fibre Blends-Developments since 1952.” A timetable and booking form together with the titles of papers to be presented are obtainable from the General Secretary The Textile Institute 10 Blackfriars Street, Manchester 3. cCWeed Control” and (‘Feeding Farm Livestock”-Two Conferences are to be held in Brighton in November. The first organised jointly by the S.C.I. and the British Weed Control Council is the “British Weed Control Conference” and will take place from 3 to 6 November.Intending contributors should submit titles of proposed papers not later than 31 May. Further particulars may be obtained from the S.C.I. 14 Belgrave Square S.W.1. The second Conference on ‘ ‘Scientific Principles of Feeding Farm Livestock,” will take place from 11 to 13 November. A Conference fee of 4 guineas will entitle members to a copy of the Proceedings. Further details may be obtained from the Administrative Secretary Mr D. E. Fraser Dorset House Stamford Street London S.E. 1 280 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Proposed Classification Study Group.-A meeting will be held at 7 p.m. on 13 May in the Lecture Room of the Manchester Central Library for the purpose of bringing together librarians and information officers interested in the study of classification and of finding out whether there is sufficient support in the north of England for the formation of a classification study group.The speaker will be Mr B. C. Vickery Hon. Secretary of the Classification Research Group in London and Librarian, Imperial Chemical Industries Akers Research Laboratories. He will give a general review of the work of the group and discuss some of its problems and plans. For further details apply to the Hon. Secretary Aslib Northern Branch Miss E. Boddy The Retreat Tideswell Lane Eyam near Sheffield. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES ,4ND EXHIBITIONS Seaweed Symposium.-The Third International Seaweed Sym-posium will be held in Galway Ireland from 13 to 19 August and an International Trade Exhibition is being arranged in connection with it.A registration fee ofE3 will entitle those taking part to a set of abstracts of the papers to be read. The Symposium will be opened on 13 August by the Minister for Industry and Commerce. Further particulars may be obtained from Dr C. 0 hEocha University College Galway. Congress of Industrial Chemistry.-The 3 1 st International Congress of Industrial Chemistry organised by the SociCtC de Chimie Industrielle and the Federation des Industries Chimiques de Belgique will take place in Likge from 7 to 20 September. Further details may be obtained from the Secrktariat GCnkral du XXXIme Congrks International de Chimie Industrielle 32 rue Joseph 11 Brussels. Dairy Congress.-The 15th International Dairy Congress will be held in London during the period 29 June to 3 July 1959 under the auspices of the International Dairy Federation.Intending authors are reminded that the titles of contributions must reach the Organising Secretary not later than 1 June this year and the full paper by 1 Sep-tember. A booklet for their guidance has now been issued and this, together with further details of the Congress may be obtained from the Organising Secretary 85 Brook Street W. 1. Forthcoming International Conferences. A new list (No. 22) of forthcoming international scientific and technical conferences has been prepared by the Overseas Liaison Division D.S.I.R. Africa House, Kingsway W.C.2. It is hoped that users of these lists will continue to communicate any further information they may have to the Assistant Secretary of the Department at that address.The present list contains details of all conferences known to have been arranged up to October, 1960 and an Index. An Addendum giving amendments alterations and additions to the list is also available. The Plastics Institute.-The Institute is organising a visit to the International and Universal Exhibition to be held in Brussels from 20 to 24 June and is arranging a week-end course for teachers and examiners of the Institute’s Examination at Pendley Manor Tring 19581 NEWS AND NOTES 28 1 Herts on 5 and 6 July. Further details of these arrangements may be obtained from the Secretary 6 Mandeville Place London W. 1. The Annual Luncheon of the Plastics Institute will be held at the Dorchester Hotel on 3 July.HYDRAZINE AND WATER TREATMENT In May 1957 Messrs Whiffen & Sons Ltd manufacturers of hydra-zine arranged a conference for the purpose of exchanging information about all aspects of the use of hydrazine in treating water for boilers. The conference was attended by delegates from several European coun-tries and U.S.A. The proceedings which have recently been published in an attractive form under the above title contain the papers verbatim reports of discussions notes on the properties and on the estimation of hydrazine and accounts of instruments which were exhibited at the conference and are obtainable price Zls. from Whiffen & Sons Ltd, 95 Wigmore Street W. 1. In order to prevent corrosion in boiler and feed systems the concen-tration of oxygen dissolved in the feed water should be low particularly in high pressure plant.This can usually be achieved by means of physical de-aeration; but as physical de-aeration may not be adequate at all levels of plant loading a chemical deoxidant is often used to supple-ment it. Sodium sulphite which has usually been employed as the deoxidant has two properties that detract from its value for this purpose : it yields a solid product (sodium sulphate); and its decomposition to sulphur dioxide in the higher pressure plants acidifies the condensate. Hydrazine which produces neither solids nor acids is being used more and more as an alternative although its property of decomposing to ammonia is not always welcome. When hydrazine has been properly employed it has decreased the amount of corrosion occurring in the plant.The mechanism of its action and the best ways of using it are still not understood fully so that Messrs Whiffen & Sons Ltd performed useful services in bringing experts together to discuss these problems and in publishing a full report of the conference. R. LLEWELLYN REES Diploma in Technology.-Details of courses which had been recognised up to July 1957 as leading to the new Diploma in Technology were published in the first Report of the National Council for Techno-logical Awards (see J. 59). The latest information given by the Minister of Education in a written parliamentary answer on 20 February, 1958 shows that there are now 1,360 students in courses leading to the Diploma in Technology 124 of whom are attending chemical courses.Altogether there are 43 courses recognised by the National Council, four of which are in Applied Chemistry two in Chemical Technology and one in Industrial Chemistry. The approved chemistry sandwich courses are given below: Applied Chmistry Battersea College of Technology London, S.W.11-5 years Birmingham College of Technology-4 years Brunel College of Technology London W.3 -4 year 282 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Chemical Technology The Borough Polytechnic London S.E. 1-4 years Birmingham College of Technology4 years Industrial Chemistry Northampton College of Advanced Techno-In addition to these Battersea College of Technology conducts a three-year full-time course in Applied Chemistry.Government Research in Pakistan.-The first issue of the Pakistan Journal o f Scientijc and Industrial Research was published in January 1958; initially the journal will be published quarterly. This number contains some of the material that has accumulated during the last four years as a result of research work carried out under the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research in the Central Laboratories at Karachi, the three Regional Laboratories at Dacca Lahore and Peshawar and in the Universities. There are nineteen papers covering a wide range of problems relating to the development of the country’s natural resources and including such topics as “Studies on Shark Liver Oil,” “Insulin Content of Pancreas from Lahore Slaughter-Houses” and “Standardisation of Myrobalan Extracts for the Manufacture of Fountain Pen Inks.” Mention is made of the late Dr Bashir Ahmad’s great services to science in Pakistan and of the establishment of the Bashir Ahmad Memorial Fund to advance the cause of science.The President of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan has agreed to be patron of the Fund. New Sulphuric Acid Plants.-A contact sulphuric acid plant to produce 250 tons per day is to be erected at Billingham by Chemical Construction (Great Britain) Limited for the British Titan Products Company Limited; this will be the fifth sulphuric acid plant they have supplied to the Company. The first was a flash roaster installation with contact sulphuric acid section and the second a contact sulphuric acid plant to work on roaster gases.The third plant was started in January this year and the fourth is now under construction at Grimsby. Oil Refinery for Pakistan.-The Government of Pakistan last year invited a Consortium of oil companies to prepare a survey report and to construct and operate jointly an oil refinery in Pakistan. I t is now considering the survey report drawn up by the representatives of these companies and a decision regarding the site is likely to be taken soon. The establishment of an oil refinery in Pakistan will it is hoped help conserve a considerable amount of foreign exchange and will certainly provide employment and training in oil refinery processes for Pakistani nationals. logy London E.C.1-4 years Society for Analytical Chemistry.-At the Annual General Meeting of the Society on 26 February the following Officers and Members of Council were elected for the forthcoming year Dr J.H. Hamence, President; Dr D. W. Kent-Jones Dr J. R. Nicholls Mr G. Taylor, and Mr K. A. Williams Past Presidents serving on the Council; Mr N. L. Allport Mr R. C. Chirnside and Mr A. A. Smales Vice-presidents; Dr A. J. Amos Hon. Treasurer; Dr R. E. Stuckey Hon. Secretary; Members of Council Dr W. Cule Davies Mr N. T. Elwell Dr D. C. Garratt Dr J. Haslam Dr H. M. N. H. Irving Mr E. I. Johnson 19581 NEWS AND NOTES 283 Mr E. Q. Laws Mr G. W. C. Milner Mr J. G. Sherratt and Dr T. S. West. Mr A. N. Leather Dr M. A. Pyke Mr S. Dixon Dr R. Belcher, Mr D. F. Phillips and Dr S. K. Kon are ex o@ck members. After the Annual General Meeting the fifth Bernard Dyer Memorial Lecture was given by Sir Hugh Linstead o.B.E.M.P. on “Science and Politics.’’ Sir Hugh said that the duty of the scientist was to interpret his beliefs to those who had the practical duty of applying scientific discoveries to daily affairs and not to dismiss the politician as one who was more concerned with what was popular than what was right. He must be prepared to reveal the meaning of new discoveries to the public parti-cularly in their more unpopular implications. Sir Hugh quoted a letter written by Sir Henry Dale to The Times in 1945 “The true spirit of science working in freedom seeking the truth only and fearing only falsehood and concealment offers its lofty and austere contribution to man’s moral equipment which the world cannot afford to lose or to diminish.” He concluded by agreeing with the view of Julien Benda that the intellectual if he was to perform his duty to the community must keep himself clear of political intrigue so that the truth might remain un-tarnished.Underground Corrosion and Cathodic Protection.-The fifth Summer School of the Battersea College of Technology will take place in the Depaitment of Metallurgy from 14 to 18 July. The inclusive fee for the course will be L12 except for applicants normally resident in London, or for those whose Local Education Authority will agree to pay the charges under the recoupment regulations. In these cases the fee will be E5 10s. Applications should be made to the Secretary (Summer School), Battersea College of Technology London S.W.1 1 by 1 July. Visitors to the U.K.-Visitors from C.S.I.R.O. Australia now in this country include Mr S. A. Clarke Division of Forest Products who is to advise on pulping of timbers at the invitation of D.S.I.R.; Mr D. A. Davies Division of Industrial Chemistry who is interested in instrument technique; and Mr J. W. Roulston Veterinary Parasitology Laboratory, who will spend some time at the D.S.I.R. Pest Infestation Laboratory. Others who will be in this country during May to attend the Ciba Foundation Symposium on “Biosynthesis of terpenes and sterols” which will take place from 20 to 22 May under the Chairmanship of Sir Robert Robinson o.M. F.R.s. include Professor M. J. Coon University of Michigan; K. Folkers Merck Sharp & Dohme Research Laboratories, N.J. ; D. Arigoni A. Eschenmoser Professor 0. Jeger and Professor L. Ruzicka Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich; Professor S. Bergstrom University of Lund ; Professor K. Bloch Harvard University; Professor F. Lynen Max-Planck-Institut fur Zellchemie Munich; H. Rudney Western Reserve University Cleveland and University of Amsterdam; A. Wettstein Ciba Ltd Basle; and 0. Isler F. Hoffman La Roche & Co. Ltd Basle. Other visitors will be J. R. Ritchie Dunedin Hospital (1-15 May); Professor H. Mashima Jutendo University Tokyo (2- 10 May) ; Professor R. L. Burwell North-western University Evanston (5-1 1 May) ; C. C. Bigelow Hamilton Ontario and Carlsberg Laboratory Copenhagen (1 1-18 May) ; Professor J. Engelbreth-Holm University of Copenhage 284 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL ( 1 1 - 18 May) ; Professor E.Frieden Florida State University (2- 10 June) ; Professor M. Frankel Hebrew University Jerusalem; Professor Y. Zotterman Royal Veterinary College of Sweden (8-1 3 June) ; and Professor Sir Macfarlane Burnet Royal Melbourne Hospital (2 I June- 1 3 July), CORRESPONDENCE PLANNING OF SCHOOL SCIENCE BLOCKS SIR,-The architects who are designing school laboratories which are to be built with the assistance of the Industrial Fund for the Advancement of Scientific Education in Schools must be getting rather confused about the requirements for natural lighting. In a pamphlet published by the Committee of the Fund* there is an unequivocal recommendation : “1 1. Windows should be arranged to give a minimum daylight factor of 2 per cent at working level in any part of the laboratory.” Sir Graham Savage (J.72) “believes that even a 1 per cent daylight factor need not be insisted upon for natural ligliting”; while a recent articlet reports that the most recent investigation of daylighting in laboratories (not in schools) suggests that a daylight factor of 3 per cent is desirable. These differences may be due to personal judgments which can play a part in deciding how much of the light necessary in a room can be provided sensibly by daylight when all the factors in design are considered together. But it would be unfortunate if anyone was to infer that it is necessary to have “almost as much glass as a greenhouse . . .” to obtain a minimum daylight factor of 2 per cent; it is often achieved with an area of glass equal to about one-fifth of the floor area and can be achieved with less.When Sir Graham Savage writes of a 2 per cent daylight factor: “lighting of this intensity whatever may be its justification for ordinary classrooms has serious disadvantages for laboratories,” one can only guess at what he means and I think that some of his readers may be misled-to the detriment of their laboratories. I t is current practice to determine the level of illumination on the characteristics of the visual tasks which are to be undertaken with due weight on other considerations. The visibility of a bunsen flame which Sir Graham Savage mentions is one such consideration; but few would suggest that the lighting of a laboratory should be based on this alone.Fortunately there is available authoritative guidance on the values of illumination which are needed for the quick and accurate performance of the visual tasks which are encountered in laboratories ; the Code for Lighting in Buildings published by the Illuminating Engineering Society is probably the most valuable source. This code also gives guidance on some of the subjective factors which cannot be specified quantitatively but which investigation has shown to play an important part in good lighting. * “The Planning of Science Laboratories in Schools.” The Industrial Fund for t “A Study of laboratory daylighting.” J. Musgrove and P. Petherbridge. the Advancement of Scientific Education in Schools.Archit. J. 1957 368-374. February 1956 19581 CORRESPONDENCE 285 I t would be ironical in view of the Fund’s name and its objects if decisions were made on lighting without regard to the methods of science, the accumulated knowledge on lighting and the experience of industry in its application. Architects and Building Branch, Ministry of Education. ANTHONY POTT SIR,-Controversy always makes me unhappy but I should like to (i) Surely it is not illogical in me if the Industrial Fund accepted advice on the subject of natural lighting in laboratories in 1955, that after two years spent in visiting schools seeing plans, talking with architects and science masters I find myself com-pelled to disagree with it as a universal guide. (ii) I cordially agree that architects are confused-to judge by the way natural lighting is actually provided in many places.(iii) I t by no means follows that a determination however expert, of the amount of light needed for various operations is sufficient by itself to settle practice. Other considerations arise particu-larly the effect of any given daylight factor on the layout and operation of the laboratory as a whole. (iv) I cannot bring myself to believe that there was any effective consultation with the users of school laboratories i.e. the science masters or with specialist inspectors before this rough and ready figure of 2 per cent was adopted. (v) I repeat therefore that it is high time for all concerned to be brought together to reconsider the question of natural lighting and the concomitant question of providing enough wall space.I feel fairly confident that this is a matter on which the Science Masters’ Association could make a most useful contribution. reply very briefly to the points raised by Mr Pott’s letter. Barbary, Maresfield Park, Sussex. GRAHAM SAVAGE PROFESSIONAL ANNOUNCEMENTS BY CONSULTANTS SIR,-I should like to comment on the Report of the Ethical Practices Committee (J. 1957 821) and further letters on this subject (J. 134-5). The publication of small announcements of the size of business cards and carrying only the name and address telephone number and brief description of the type of work done by consultants in relevant technical journals is a practice that is common to certain countries notably the United States in the case of chemical consultants chemical engineers, and engineers and other technical firms and is not unknown in this country in certain professions.I do not think such announcements offend against good taste and this opinion is shared by many newcomers to the profession. Opposition comes mainly from the older and well-established consultants. I make this statement after sounding more than twenty chemical and chemical engineering consultants. A number of these think with me that if small press announcements were permitted most consultants would concur in it and would find it to their advantage. There need be no breach of good taste or professional ethics 286 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Generally speaking the chemical industry in this country is not consultant-minded and there is much work waiting to be done if only the chemical industry and particularly the many thousands of smallish chemical firms in the country knew of the existence of independent consultants in their respective fields.Much has been made by the Ethical Practices Committee of the possibility that such announcements might get out of hand. I believe the danger is exaggerated and that most consultants would behave in a professional manner voluntarily agreeing to restrict their announce-ments to whatever maximum size the Institute might consider permissible. Other ‘chemists,’ who are not members of the Institute might indulge in unrestrained advertising but this cannot be controlled and it in fact now occurs among certain larger firms and some limited companies.Consulting services are also provided by a number of larger firms as part of their sales service. These are large advertisers and clearly it is unfair for private consultants to have to meet such competition. Nor can the circulation of a relatively small number of the Directory of Independent Consultants be considered to give adequate publicity though the existence of the Directory and the knowledge that it is freely distributed to enquirers is appreciated. I think it fair to conclude that much opposition to the course of individual action in public announcement arises not from ethical con-siderations at all but from the established practices that do not in fact need to make them. This question is not an abstract matter of principle to the smaller consultant but particularly in this era of rising costs and a serious recession in general business has become one of harsh econQmic reality and of securing one’s bread and butter.22 Melton Gardens, Romford. M. A. PHILLIPS SCIENCE AND THE SCHOOLS SIR,-It perturbs me that some writers on this subject seem to take it for granted that we ‘ought’ to have more scientists at the top that if more of our directors administrators and politicians had taken a degree in science instead of in arts we should be more wisely and more efficiently directed administered and governed. As a has-been chemist I must hesitate to say that this is incorrect, but it is certainly not self-evident and I rather fear that a chemist who implies that everybody knew it long ago is not only sticking his own neck out but what is less amusing is exposing ours also.If we live in an age of science it is of course essential that sufficient science should have been included in the curriculum of everyone whether at the top or at the bottom or in between women as well as men. This much seems to be receiving general acceptance and need not now detain us. But that is a very different thing from supposing that science provides any training at all for administration or politics. I remember a Meeting of Council that approved the remark of a member who referring to some engineering problem said we must not think a chemist can do everything. But governing is at least as distinctive a discipline as engineering. Administration and politics are concerned with men and women, and they deal with the imponderables hope and fear love and hate 19581 CORRESPONDE.NCE 287 deceit and ambition.Now these are the subject-matter par excellence of the classics and also (under favourable teaching) of history philosophy and economics. Experimental science and mathematics on the contrary, train us to eliminate and repudiate all value-judgments and in their pursuit emotion is worse than a crime it is a taint; we try to think there is no such thing. Nor is it only at the tup that one has to deal with the feelings of men and women. Promotion is rarely conferred on the young chemist who is the most brilliant scientist as such but rather on one with tact dis-cretion and understanding who can best lead his fellows and secure their co-operation.This will become increasingly so as science becomes increasingly a matter of team-work. We all know examples of the best scientist not being the best head of a department. Indeed I should have no hestitation in advising any ambitious young chemist to counteract the effect of his long gruelling in a material atmosphere of weighing and measuring where likes and dislikes are regarded as non-existent by devoting himself wholeheartedly to a serious study of a major arts subject preferably the classics. Cicero and Livy Sophocles and Aristophanes are no bad companions and a year in their company (even in translation!) would teach him that the world consists of people as well as things that people are more important than things and far harder to understand.Too much science may be as bad as too little both for the individual and for the nation. How much of the science learnt at school and university is really useful to the great majority of practising scientists? Have all these years of specialisation been really necessary? Perhaps it is too late to pursue this thesis but have not chemists been known to turn physicists and vice uersa ? Moreover we have heard frequent complaints that the present generation of young chemists flounders in industry because they have been so long conditioned to a world apart that they cannot even write an intelligible departmental report and that their inability to transmit their ideas or to appreciate those of others renders their good experimental work nugatory.These complaints would be less general and I doubt if their experimental work would be any less excellent if everybody read classics up to the fifth form. I t is at least arguable that this would also be better for the country and less expensive than early specialisation. In our eagerness to train our youth to be citizens of the scientific age we are in some danger of not training them to be citizens. Is it not just as important for the most promising science students to have studied classics as for the most promising arts students to have studied science? Let us try to be reformers without being extremists. Anyhow if the majority of our administrators and politicians were drawn from the ranks of those with a narrow scientific training we should soon be reduced to the condition of a technological state nearly as bad as a police state and I for one don’t like the idea.If anyone does, there are already several to choose from. I suspect that the argument could be carried further. H. KRALL 16 Chesterton Hall Crescent, Cam bridge 288 ~JOIJRNAL. OF THE ROYAL INSTITIJTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRII, SCHOOL RUSSIAN SIR,-h view of the large and increasing amount of chemical litera-ture published in Russian (see Current Chemical Pafiers) it would seem very desirable that more chemists should possess sufficient facility with the Russian language to be able to read scientific papers. This is fundamentally a problem for the schools and an ideal solution would be for potential scientists to be offered a choice of French German or Russian as part of their basic education.If only 10 per cent opted for Russian the present situation where many chemists ignore Russian papers because of the language difficulty would soon be radically altered. Such a solution will be difficult to achieve at the present time with the schools struggling to cope with the ‘bulge’ and the consequent shortage of staff. Nevertheless the Institute could do a lot by publicising the present position and pressing for its improvement. The University Southampton. R. E. PARKER OBITUARY David Spence. B. 1882. Ed. Glasgow and West of Scotland Uni-versity College 1900-03 and Jena. Ph.D. (Jena). Engaged in research at the Universities of Liverpool and Bristol 1906-09. He went to America in 1909 to take up a post in the research laboratories of the Diamond Rubber Co.of Akron. Later he joined successively the B. F. Goodrich Company the Norwalk Tyre and Rubber Company of which he became vice-president and general manager the Continental Rubber Co. of New York of which he was vice-president and the Intercontinental Rubber Co. Salinas Cal. of which also he was vice-president. Ulti-mately he set up a practice as chemical engineer and rubber consultant. He will be remembered particularly for his generosity in donating a sum to establish under the auspices of the Institute the Henderson Memorial Lecture Fund as a lasting tribute to the memory of his old Professor and past President of the Institute G. G. Henderson. ( A . 1906 F. 1909.) D. 27.9.57. Percy Cyril Lesley Thorne.B. 7.6.1890. Ed. Berkhamsted School; Corpus Christi College Cambridge 1909- 1 2 ; Sir John Cass Technical Institute London 1914-16. M.A. (Cantab.) M.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.). He was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Borough Road Training College Isleworth in 1913. He left in 1916 to become chief chemist to Coley & Wilbraham and in 1919 took a post as assistant lecturer and demonstrator in chemistry at Sir John Cass Technical Institute. Appointed Acting-Head of the Chemistry Department of Woolwich Polytechnic in 1928. A few years later he went to Derby on his appoint-ment as H.M. Inspector of Schools Technological Branch Board of Education. In 1940 he was transferred to the Admiralty but returned to the Board of Education in 1942. For many years he served on the ,Joint Committee for National Certificates.( A . 1921, F. 1928.) D. 11.10.57. He retired in 1952 19581 THE REGISTER [Bracketed letters indicate Local Sections. Eor kcy .<re page 1.1.51 ASSOCIATES ELECTED TO THE FELLOWSHIP BEVAN John Colin M.A. (OXON.), BROOKS Leon James CAMPBELL William Alec DOCHERTY Archibald Canicron, EDWARDS George Alfred FOWLER Kenneth Edward GURDAS Singh MSC. (PANJ.) HAWES Bernard William Varney, B.SC. PH.D. (LOND.) HAWKINS Edwin George Edward, B.SC. PH.D. (HKIS.) HAWTHOKN Edward JOSEPH James Dillwyn A.M.C.T. B.SC. (WALES) B.SC. PH.D. (EDIN.) KLNNEDY John B.SC. (GALWAY), LIM Chin Kuan B.SC. (LOND.), lobs T-incenl R S C . 1’II.I). (LOND.) PEAT George Thomas I:.SC. Scom Raymond Peter William, ‘I’UNST.\LL Geoffrey CVHALLEY George Rayrnoncl ~YILKINSON Herbert Cecil BSC.WOOD James M . S C . (LOND.) \$loo~ Robert BSC. (DUNELhI.), M.SC. (N.U.I.) M.SC. (MALAYA) ( DUNELM.) BSC. (LOND.) (SHkEP.) M.SC. (LEEUS) A.M.IN5T.F. A.M.1.CHEM.E. NEW ASSOCIATES AUDKIC Brian Normarl BATH Ian Hubert H.SC. R.AGIIIC. CREASER Henry B.SC. ( L ~ E D S ) DAWSON Joseph M.SC. (EDIN.) ELLIS Bryan BSC. (BRIS.) M.SC. GODFREY William Reginald HAINES Peter John B.SC. (LONL).) HEANEY Harry B.A. (N. STAFFS.), (Q.u.B.) (LONU.) PH.D. (MANC.) (SS) JOHNSTON Kcitli 31itclicl1 1 1 . 5 ~ . ( C ) SMITH Ruby Kathlccn (P) SPOORS James Wheater is.sc. I’JI.I). (Oil) :CAN Jake Meng BSC. (MALAYA) (P) I ILLETT John Graham BSC. (LOW.) (P) WILLIAMS David Richard Alun, (P) WYCHERLEY Vernon u.sc. (WALES) (LOND. ) (MANC.) R.SC. (WALES) GRADUATE MEMBERS ELECTED TO THE ASSOCIATESHIP DEAR Robert Ernest Arthur (D) PARKER Frederick B.SC. PH.U. (LIV.) LANE George (P) SANDERS Peter Garfield MA. (CAN-LAWS Alan TAB. ) MACDONALD Angus A.R.T.C. (P) SYMONDS Donald Charles (GLAS.) (Q) TWIGG George Daniel B.SC. (LOND.) MINSON Dennis John B.SC. (K’DG.) DEATHS Fellows COWIE George Alston MA PH.D. (P) HEWSON George William. Died D.SC. (ABERD.). Died 28 February 6 March 1958 aged 82. F. 1925. 1958 aged 74. A . 1918 F. 1922. (1’) SEABER William Macro B.SC. GRAINGER Arthur. Died 18 Feb- (LOND.). Died 13 March 1958, ruary 1958 aged 51. A . 1935 aged 75. A . 1907 F. 1910. F. 1955, Associate (K) M~LVIN John Stanislaus. Died 21 February 1958 aged 49. A . 1937 HONORARY REPRESENTATNES IN UNIVEKSI?'IES Ihc letttr 011 the left ol edcli riitry sigiiifies the Local bection i i i whosc arca the university or colleqc is utudted (for key .we page 145) l o r particulars of Liaison Officers in ledinird-1 College see I 142 3 AB~RDEEY 'I he University ABERYS~WY~H Liiivtraity College of M ales BANGOR Univeisity College of North Wales BELFAST The Queen's University BIRMIWHAM 1 he Lniversity BRISIOL Ikie Universitv CAMBRIDGL The University CARDIFF University College of 5outh Wales and Monmouthshire DUNDEE Queen's College University of St Andrews I~URHAM The Durhdm Colleges of thc Uni-versity IJ.XNHURGH I he University LXLILK Ilie Lxiiveisity GLASGUW I he bniversity GLASGOW The Royal College 01 S ~ i e n ~ e dtid HULL I he University LEEDS The University Technology LEICESTER The University LIV~RPOOL The University LOGDON University College LONDON Kmg's College LONDON Imperial College LONDON Birkbeck College LONDOX Queen Mary College LONDON Ekdford College for Women LONDON Royal Holloway College MANCHhSTER The University MANLHESTER The College of Science arid Technology NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE King's College U ~ I -versity of Durham NOTTINOHAM The University OXFORD The University KEADING The University ST ANDREWS 1 lie University SHEFFIELD 'I he University SOUTHMAPTON The University SWANSEA University College Dr R. B. Strathdee O.B.E. Readcr in Chemistry Mr J. B. Bowen Lecturer in Chemistiy Dr W. R. Angus Senior Lecturer in C,hernistiy Dr C. L. Wilson Reader in Analytical Chemistry Dr S. R. Carter formeily Senior Lecturer in PhysiLdl Dr L. Hough Lecturer in Organic Chemistry Dr F. G. Mann F.R.S. Reader in Organic Cherni5tr-y Dr S. T. Bowden Senior Lecturer in Chemistry Chemistry Dr R. Roger benior Lecturer in Chemistry Dr C. W. Gibby Lecturer in C . l i e i ~ ~ s t ~ y Professor E. L. Hirst C.B.E. F.R.S. Professoi o f Dr K. Schofield Reader i i i Orgdiiii Llitniistry Dr J. Bell F.R.S.E. Assistant DiieLtor of Oliemicdl Mr H. G. A. Anderson Lecturei 111 C hemistiy Organic Chemstry Laboratories Dr G. C. Bond Lecturer in Chemistry Professor E. G. Cox T.D. F.R.S. Professor 01 InoIgdlliC Professor L. Hunter Professor of Chemistry Dr A. Hickling Reader 111 Physical Chemistry Dr P. B. D. de la Mare Reader in Chemistry Professor D. H. Hey F.R.S. Professor and Hedd of Mr A. A. Eldridge Assistant Director Department of Dr D. J. G. Ives Reader in Chemistry Dr C. M. French Lecturer in Chemistry Dr J. W. Smith Reader in Chemistry Dr T. G. Bonner Lecturer in Chemistry Dr G. M. Burkhardt Senior Tutor to tlie kdLuILy Dr G. Holt Lecturer in Oiganic Chemlstry Chemistry Department of Chemistry Chemistry of Science Mr R. E. Dodd Lecturer in Chemistry Dr C. C. Addison Reader m Inorganic Chemistry Dr H. Irving Demonstrator iii Inorganic Chemi\try, Vice-principal of St Edmund Hall Dr P. F. Holt Lecturer in Chemistry Mr D. M. G. Lloyd Lecturer m Organic Chemistry Professor R. D. Haworth F.R.S. Firth Professor and Dr R E. Parker Lecturer in Orgaruc Chemlstry Mr E. E. Ayling Lecturer in Chemistry Head of Department of Chemistry 29

ISSN:0368-3958    

DOI:10.1039/JI9588200215

出版商:RSC    

年代:1958

数据来源: RSC