摘要:

SPOTLIGHT ON EDUCATION TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION The eagerly awaited plan for TechnicaZ Educat@n published at the end of February (Cmd. 9703 H.M.S.O. 1s. 6d.) shows clearly that the Government now realises the magnitude of the educational task that has been thrust upon us partly at least by the challenge of other countries. The White Paper however tells us little more than we already knew, and part of its value derives from the survey it gives of the present state and trends of the whole educational system as it serves in the production of scientists technologists and technicians. The main lines of development in the universities were indicated by the Financial Secretary to the Treasury in the House of Commons debate last July (J. 1955 456) and the present White Paper does little more than review the decisions then reached.These included provisions for the building up of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, major developments at Glasgow Manchester Birmingham and Leeds, and fairly large expansions of facilities at several other universities. All of these projects many of which include improved provisions for chemistry and chemical engineering will be under way before the end of next year, when the new quinquennium for the expenditure of funds allocated by the University Grants Committee will have begun. The Manchester College of Technology will receive grants from this source in future. It is essentially with developments in the technical colleges that the White Paper is concerned. Some idea of the scope of the Government’s intentions is given by the statement that in the next five years L70 million is to be spent on buildings and A15 million on equipment in England and Wales and 10 million and F2 million for these respective purposes in Scotland-a total of nearly &I00 million on physical assets alone.In reply to a question in the House the Minister of Education indicated that perhaps about a fifth of this total sum might be required for colleges of advanced technology and for the provision of branch colleges to relieve these of lower level work. On the important question of which colleges are to be selected to undertake the most advanced work the White Paper is somewhat evasive. A list is given of’ twenty-four colleges in England and Wales that noiv receive a 75 per cent grant for some of their advanced courses and it is then stated “The Government now wish to see the proportion of advanced work at these colleges vigorously increased so t h a as many of them as possible may develop speedily into colleges of advanced tech-nology.” As some of the colleges listed have received the special rate of grant only for limited fields of work (two of them are described as schools of building) it may be doubted if this is a reasonable basis of selection, especially as it is admitted that “an advanced course in one technology often cannot be efficient unless allied technologies are studied to a similar level in the same college; the college must also be strong in the appropriate fundamental sciences.’’ There are certainly several colleges not among 18 182 ,JOURNAL OP THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OP CHEMISTRY [APRIL the twenty-four that fulfil the last condition much better than some of those listed.Perhaps it is these that are in mind when it is stated “In addition there may be a few other colleges which because of developments now in train or the movement of industry may qualify for 75 per cent grants.” The present vagueness on this issue may not be a bad thing if the outcome should be that only a small number of institutions become colleges of advanced technology’ in the first few years. This may well happen if attainment of this status is made dependent on a college building up advanced courses in a wide range of technologies and the relevant basic sciences. The White Paper refers to the scarcity of teachers capable of taking charge of courses at the appropriate level and the Institute, with other professional bodies and the Parliamentary and Scientific Committee has emphasised the danger of spreading the limited supply of good teachers and of expensive equipment over too great a number of institutions so that none is able to reach the desired standards.I t is doubtful if more than six or at most ten colleges could be effectively upgraded in the early stages of the plan’s implementation. It is possible that one or two of these might then develop into Institutes of Technology of the top rank which some people have advocated as providing the best solution of the problem. The Government appears to insist on keeping the colleges of advanced technology under the control of the local authorities in spite of the desire that most if not all of such colleges should serve regional or even national as well as local needs.It is difficult to see how this can be justified except as a sop to local pride but it is by no means obvious that the inhabitants of a great city would necessarily be less proud of or less generous in supporting a first class college of technology in their midst merely because the college was no longer a charge on the rates. Perhaps, however a few colleges that reach the highest level may be allowed in due course to follow the example of the Manchester College of Technology. In the meantime the encouragement of colleges to establish their own strong and widely representative governing bodies is a valuable step forward.The proposals for the furtherance of higher technological education are incomplete and far from perfect. But it could not be expected that a scheme of this magnitude should spring Athene-like mature and fully armed from the brain of the Minister of Education or of the Secretary of State for Scotland. Rather should we rejoice that the child is reasonably normal and capable of development. If it is allowed to grow up without being unduly restrained or spoiled or being choked by the silver spoon in its mouth there seems a good chance that it will achieve the sturdy independence of its university cousin but with a character of its own. It should then be enabled to play a full part in improving our supplies of ambrosia and nectar-or of such substitutes for them as may be synthesised economically from indigenous materials.Already there is evidence that there is not to be too much direct parental control over the infant’s upbringing; the appointment of Lord Hives as independent head of the nursery inspires confidence 19561 SPOTLIGHT ON EDUCXTION 183 An appreciable part of the White Paper is devoted to pointing out the opportunities for women in science and technology and to encouraging schoolgirls to turn their minds in this direction. To some sections of the Press this idea seemed so revolutionary that they ignored most of the other proposals in their commentaries. To readers of this Journal however it will have appeared as an endorsement of a policy lately given much prominence by the Institute.The proposals for giving ‘vigorous encouragement’ to sandwich courses, for increasing the number of Technical State Scholarships as special courses develop and for making ordinary State Scholarships available for such courses as well as for honours courses in universities are all to be welcomed. Also as its title indicates the White Paper is not concerned solely or even mainly with stepping up the production of technologists and scientists but lays special emphasis on the need for a still larger increase in the output of well trained technicians of all kinds from the main body of the technical colleges. The importance of this cannot be over-stressed if we are to use our potential resources of knowledge skill and experience to the best advantage.The White Paper seems to indicate that the importance of this matter is being realised for it is pointed out that “As many as five or six technicians may be required to every tech-nologist.” The fact that the White Paper opens with definitions of ‘technologists,’ ‘technicians’ and ‘craftsmen’ shows that the efforts made by this Institute and other professional bodies to draw clear distinctions between these terms have not been in vain. At least we each know now what the others are talking about. WHERE IS THE RESERVE OF TALENT? Such plans presuppose a fairly substantial untapped reserve of talent. It is a fallacy to suppose that anyone who can reach Advanced Level G.C.E. is a potential honours graduate. It would be even more erroneous to suppose that any very large proportion of those who secure grammar school places are potential scientists or technologists.The likelihood of a significant proportion being found in other types of secondary schools is yet more slight. Nevertheless there is no doubt a considerable loss of talent through early leaving from these schools and it is now vital that teachers parents and youth employment officers should join together and seal the sources of leakage. Too many boys and far too many girls, leave school for the immediate attractions of independence and good wages which are easily come by in the modern world. Too MANY ARTS STUDENTS? In view of these pressing demands the figures given by the Chancellor of the Exchequer on 10 February in reply to a question in the House of Commons by Mr Smithers are not likely to alleviate the anxiety of those who appreciate the dangers of the present situation particularly the inadequate reinforcement of the science staffs at secondary grammar schools.Of an overall increase of 3,378 full-time university students in the present session the number of arts students increased by 1,498 pur 184 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL science by 925 and technology by 763. Out of the present total of 84,000 full-time students in the universities some 36,000 (44 per cent) may be described broadly as arts students and 29,000 (34Q per cent) as students of science and technology; the other 19,000 (21* per cent) are studying medicine dentistry agriculture and forestry and veterinary science. In 1938-39 the number of students of science and technology was only about 13,000 out of a total university student population of around 40,000.I t appears however that their proportionate increase since then from 26 to 344 per cent has not been accompanied by a corresponding fall in the percentage of arts students for the proportion of students of medicine and dentistry has also dropped. There may still be scope for attracting more students away from the arts faculties without destroying the proper balance of studies in the universities. CAN THE SECONDARY MODERN SCHOOLS HELP ? Though we cannot at present expect many top-flight scientists or technologists to emerge from the secondary technical and modern schools, there are undoubtedly many pupils who should be advised to follow the ‘earn -as-you-learn’ route as far as their ability resources and perseverance will permit.These will help to swell the technical college courses and particularly those leading to National Certificates. Last year the Minister of Education spoke of the possibility of spreading ‘‘technical courses across the top of the secondary moderns” as preparation for entering the route leading to National Awards in Technology parallel to the route leading by way of the secondary grammar schools and the universities to degrees. I t is thus to the secondary modern schools that eyes are being turned for it is realised that there is little difference in attainment and ability between the best of those sent to the modern schools and the less promising of those entering the grammar schools.Thus there is hope that many of the former will be able to pursue further education at the technical colleges. At the recent Annual General Meeting of the Association of Technical Institutions Dr E. Williams Principal of Hendon Technical College, made a gallant attempt to face this problem. He maintained that the route for the secondary modern school pupil should be as clearly defined as that already marked out for the grammar school pupil. It was now high time to introduce ‘advanced’ or ‘vocational’ courses into the modern school curriculum and to encourage the more promising pupils to stay an extra year at school to attend or complete them. Such a scheme would have four main purposes : (1) to provide an objective and stimulus and to satisfy the pupil’s pride of achievement ; (2) to give an indication of the standard of attainment at the end of a pupil’s school career; (3) to assist the pupil seeking employment upon leaving school; and (4) to facilitate entry to courses of further education 1956 J SPOTLIGHT ON EDUCATION 185 “The lack of aim which has marked courses in secondary modern schools,” he thought “has undoubtedly been responsible for the feeling of frustration and failure among pupils who have been borderline cases in the entrance examination for secondary grammar schools.Such pupils more often than not drift into ‘dead-end’ jobs where their talents are wasted.” If such pupils are to be gauged by a yard-stick external to their particular schools some system of examination is inevitable.At present only few pupils are able to take even one subject in the G.C.E. examination with a reasonable chance of success but the number shows signs of a slight increase. According to Dr Williams it would be much more sensible to frame an examination for a special leaving certificate for secondary modern schools based on experience gained with National Certificate schemes in the technical colleges. Such examinations could be worked out on a local basis. The colleges might provide assessors for the exami-nations in the schools within the college’s area of recruitment thus overcoming many of the current problems of selection. The examination it is suggested should cater for a wide range of subjects to ensure that courses are devised on a broad and liberal basis with a ‘flavour’ only of the vocational.Course work as well as exami-nation work should be assessed. Such a scheme is already being tried in one borough and the experience gained there will be watched with interest. THE SCHOOLS AND THE YOUTH EMPLOYMENT SERVICE In the light of recent developments in the educational field special interest attaches to the Triennial Report (1952-55) of the L.C.C. Youth Employment Service which to a considerable extent sets the tone for the rest of the country; for example it receives many requests from other areas for details of its organisation administration and procedure. When the London Y.E.S. took over the work of the former Head Masters and Head Mistresses Employment Comxnittees in 1952 it seemed that the schools would be left with little say in the matter of careers and that careers masters and mistresses would become almost redundant.After an interval of uncertainty however which has been described elsewhere (see J. 1955 447) a Careers Advisory Sub-Committee was set up by the City Youth Employment Committee in July 1955 with representation of the Joint Four secondary teaching associations the professional bodies, the University of London and the West End and City Youth Employment Committees. There seems to have been a noteworthy change of attitude during these years in the London area. Although three years were allowed to pass before the Sub-Committee was at last set up the Report refers to it as “a welcome development.” A similar change of heart is also detectable later in the Report.Careers specialists in the secondary schools are now not regarded as redundant; indeed it is pointed out with some apparent anxiety that not all schools yet have careers masters and mistresses. ‘ ‘The increasing attention now being paid to careers information and advice emphasises the desirability of such appointments.” Further 186 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY “There is no question of competition between careers masters and mistresses and youth employment officers ; they are complementary and experience has shown that in schools where they are at work very cordial relations and smooth working with the Service exist.” It is to be hoped that this clear statement of experience in the London area will be carefully noted in other parts of the country and that action will be taken where necessary “to encourage such appointments in all secondary schools.” The Report emphasises that the function of the Y.E.S.is not merely to advise those leaving school on the kinds of work that appear most suited to them. Frequently the best advice is that the would-be leaver should remain at school to continue full-time education or to proceed to full-time higher education or training. It is encouraging to find that the Y.E.S. is fully alive to this and that an average of 24 per cent of the fifth year pupils interviewed have in fact followed the advice to continue their full-time education. Early leaving appears to be a greater danger for girls than for boys as the former are the more easily persuaded of the immediate advantages of leaving school with the prospect of reasonably well paid work and early marriage.The conditions of modern life and the economic needs of the country however lend force to the argument that all boys and girls should be educated and trained to the highest level of which they are capable. On this the White Paper expresses views markedly different from what one would have expected to find in such a publication not so long ago. The pertinent sentence ingeniously combining the traditional and the modernist attitudes reads “As however the ambition to marry will very rightly continue to be uppermost in the thoughts of girls progress in recruiting more girls and women for courses in technical colleges depends on their recognition that further education will help and not hinder the prospects of a happy married life.” As is said a few lines earlier in the White Paper “Far more often than not the knowledge and experience that come from studying for a better job help her to build her own family on foundations of common interests and understanding.” “The forceps of our minds are clumsy forceps and crush the truth a “Every species waggles about in its definition every tool is a little “The man trained solely in science falls easily into a superstitious He believes in the possi-What is not exact he declares is little in taking hold of it.” loose in its handle every scale has its individual error.” attitude; he is overdone with classification.bility of exact knowledge everywhere.not knowledge He believes in specialists and experts in all fields.” H. G. WELLS First and Last Things HEALTH HAZARDS OF THE ‘NEWER’ METALS By H. E. HUDSON B.SC. PH.D. A.R.I.C. Director Intelligeme Branch Factory Department, Ministry of Labour and National Service The poisonous properties of many of the commoner metals such as mercury lead arsenic and antimony have been familiar from time immemorial and their use by the classical criminal poisoners is well documented history. The dangerous and toxic nature of their compounds has also been adequately recognised in industry and suitable precautions and safeguards in their use have been well developed for a long time. For example in 1900 more than 1,000 cases of industrial lead poisoning were notified under the Factory Acts but the number has steadily de-creased since then to the present one of about 50 a year.Fatal cases of lead poisoning have similarly decreased from as many as 40 annually in the early years of the present century down to a yearly figure of under ten; indeed no fatal case of industrial lead poisoning has been reported since 1949. It is however not so widely known that many of the less common and hewer’ metals and their compounds several of which indeed have only recently found application in industry can also be injurious and toxic to a greater or less degree. Some such as manganese chromium and nickel have it is true been produced and used industrially in large quantities for many years but others such as beryllium cadmium, thallium vanadium selenium tellurium uranium and osmium have only appeared in industry for the first time in the quickly changing scene of the last few years.In the present situation when new metals are continually finding fresh industrial application it is clear that eternal vigilance is the price that must be paid for the detection prevention and elimination of human hazards arising in their use. Indeed one can go much further in the regret that investigation into toxicity tends to lag behind technological development and that only rarely is the health hazard established before production begins. In a perusal of the litera-ture a comment such as ‘no cases of industrial poisoning have yet been reported’ becomes almost a clichC. Although the first account of manganese intoxication, or ‘manganism’ as it is now called was that given in 1837 when two men employed in grinding manganese dioxide in the manufacture of bleaching powder were affected little further attention was given to the condition until about thirty years ago.At that time a number of typical cases were described in this country and manganese poisoning is now recognised as a serious health hazard associated with the crushing sieving and smelting of manganese ore which is imported for the production of ferro-manganese for steel making for the dry battery industry and for the production of potassium permanganate. ‘Manganism’ when once established is a crippling complaint although the general health of the patient may remain unaffected and no shortening of life may occur. 187 Manganese 188 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Nevertheless exposure to manganese ore dust for as short a period as three months may result in the typical symptoms of languor weakness in the legs and stiffness in the muscles resulting in a spastic gait and a tendency to fall on attempting to walk forwards or backwards.Damage to the brain may occur resulting in marked emotional disturbances such as outbursts of uncontrollable laughter or weeping. Well-established cases of manganese poisoning fail in general to respond to treatment. It should also be added that in addition to its toxic property the dust of manganese dioxide appears to have the specific effect of causing a high incidence of a form of bronchial pneumonia among exposed operatives, as evidenced by typical cases in recent years among men engaged in potassium permanganate manufacture.In this process apart from inhaling oxide dust in the atmosphere of the grinding mill workers are also exposed to manganate and permanganate contained in the spray in the electrolytic department these products on absorption then being rapidly reduced to manganese dioxide by the body fluids. Chromium. Although chromium in the form of chromate and dichromate has for a long period found application in such arts as dyeing and textile printing and although exposure to chrome solutions has long been recognised as an occupational hazard to workers in tanneries it was not until the comparatively recent widespread introduction of chromium plating that the distressing symptoms of chrome ulceration came to be so well known.In passing it is interesting to note that chromium appears to be dangerous only when in the hexavalent state and cases of general poisoning are rare. In chromium plating establishments however, exposure of the worker to splashes on the hands from the bath liquid and to the mist or spray carried into the air by the evolution of hydrogen a t the cathode brings about characteristic penetrating ulcers of the hands and forearms known as ‘chrome holes’ and ulceration and perforation of the nasal septum. The hazard is such that the conditions of work at chromium plating baths are now controlled by statutory regulations. These primarily aim at the removal of all fumes by mechanical exhaust ventilation and stipulate compulsory medical examination and inspection of all plating workers at fixed short intervals.Although the use of chromium and cadmium in electro-plating has increased nickel is nevertheless still widely used for this purpose and also in steel-making as a constituent of many alloys and in miscellaneous processes such as storage battery manufacture and as a catalyst in e.g. the hydrogenation of oils to fats. Nickel metal has a very selective effect in causing a characteristic ‘nickel itch‘. This is followed by soreness burning and swelling of the affected parts which usually appear first between the webs of the fingers. Fair-skinned employees are particularly liable and other sensitive individuals may be extremely susceptible. Any account of hazards in the use of nickel must inevitably include mention of the extreme toxicity of nickel carbonyl in which form nickel is separated from copper in the Mond process.The vapour of nickel carbonyl is approximately five times as toxic as carbon monoxide and is more dangerous and insidious in its effect in that the Nickel 19561 HEALTH HAZARDS OF THE ‘NEWER’ METALS 189 typical symptoms of laboured breathing blueness of the skin and fever may not appear before the lapse of 12 to 36 hours. Stringent precau-tionary measures against nickel carbonyl poisoning are in force in industry. After this introduction the ‘newer’ metals and the fascinating study of their toxicity may now be considered. The important point might first be made that it is seldom possible to group the metals and their compounds with respect to physiological action in the same way as can be done with certain groups of organic substances.The general behaviour of an individual organic compound can usually be predicted from the pro-perties of the group as a whole but this is rarely possible with the metals. Hence there is no escape from the necessity for careful study observation and consideration of the individual elements and their compounds. Beryllium is a metal whose physiological behaviour could scarcely be predicted from its low atomic weight and position at the head of Group 11 and this was probably largely responsible for the fact that beryllium poisoning was not recognised as a specific hazard for many years. Twenty years ago outbreaks of disease occurred in European beryllium plants where there was concomitant exposure to fluorides.The symptoms were at first attributed to the effects of the fluorides but further cases in Germany were described in 1942 where there had been no exposure to fluorides. Finally in 1943 and 1944 a considerable number of persons were affected in US. plants and there was no longer any reason to doubt that beryllium itself was causing an occupational disease. The symptoms are both acute and chronic the former largely appearing to be prevalent in beryllium extraction plants and the latter in a variety of industries such as fluorescent strip lighting manufacture and the casting of beryllium alloys. In these two clinical categories the symptoms manifest themselves quickly in the acute form but may subside entirely when the worker is removed from the environment whilst chronic cases of disablement which may indeed end fatally are strangely characterised by a long delay of even eight to ten years before the typical symptoms appear.In the processes mentioned workers may be exposed to beryllium sulphate fluoride oxide or zinc beryllium silicate and it seems that the exact role of beryllium in causing acute and chronic pulmonary trouble is still not clear. There is strong evidence however, that beryllium oxide is the responsible agent at work (although free silica may be an additional factor). The hazard in fluorescent lamp manu-facture which is present even in the breaking up of old tubes has been regarded as sufficiently serious to compel the substitution of less toxic ‘phosphor’ substances in this industry.Strangely enough the incidence of beryllium poisoning in Great Britain has been much less than in the U S A . and has been largely confined to chemists engaged in the develop-ment of beryllium powders. We may regard cadmium also as a comparatively ‘new’ metal and its toxic properties are specific characteristic and unexpected. Cases of suspected cadmium poisoning are scarcely mentioned in medical literature before the 1940~~ when widespread illness among workers in the alkaline accumulator industry in France Sweden and Germany drew BeryZZium. Cadmium 190 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL attention to a now well recognised chronic complaint which sometimes eventually results in complete disablement or even death.Early syrnptoms include a watery discharge from the nose called by one observer ‘cadmium snufi-les’ staining of the teeth in the form of a golden-yellow ring and later shortness of breath and general pulmonary trouble. Similar cases have been reported in connection with the smelting of cadmium ores and with the welding of cadmium-plated articles. More recently the realisation that cadmium oxide was probably highly toxic led to a special enquiry at a works manufacturing copper-cadmium alloys, and a number of workmen were found to be affected. These alloys, containing 1 per cent cadmium are now in considerable demand for improving the strength and wear resistance of equipment such as trolley wire. I t should also be mentioned that the use of cadmium-plated vessels for food or drink may lead to the absorption of the metal by ingestion with a consequent acute form of poisoning.The symptoms of nausea and vomiting appear at once but although in severe cases there may be collapse and shock most recover completely within 24 hours. This metal is also exceptional in standing alone in its Group as a toxic element; this may be a function of its univalent form, since thallic salts readily hydrolyse and tend to form the thallous com-pounds. Thallium is extremely poisonous being considered to be nearly as toxic as arsenic and considerably more so than lead which it resembles in its chemical properties when in the univalent form. Its physiological action is also similar and it acts as a cumulative poison.Thallium as the sulphate has long been used as a rodent poison and has diverse applications in pyrotechnics as a catalyst and in the production of optical glass. In recent years the element has found a new application in industry in the form of the radioactive isotope 2MT1 as a ‘static’ eliminator particularly in cellophane paper manipulation. Ironically, thallium was introduced originally as a less harmful substance than the pure radium units formerly used. Whilst there are toxic hazards associated with its normal production and use vanadium may become an unexpected danger in other places e.g. as a by-product or contaminant. Vanadium poisoning from the pentoxide produced during the extraction of the metal from the ore has been well recognised in the comparatively short time since its striking introduction into the manufacture of high-speed steels.Only in the last year or two however have the severe and acute respiratory symptoms developed by men engaged in cleaning oil-fired boilers been diagnosed as being due to vanadium deposits in the soot remaining after the combustion of residual fuel oils particularly those from Vefiezuela, the Mexican Gulf and Persia. Again with the modern development of gas turbines particularly those using heavy residual fuels vanadium poisoning has been detected in men engaged in repair work on the heat exchangers. The vanadium was found as silicate pentoxide or vanadate, forming as much as 11-20 per cent of the deposit on the heat exchanger tubes that were being cut away.Indeed the presence of vanadium in the exhaust gases from heavy Diesel vehicles or in the chimney gases Thallium. Vanadium 19563 HEALTH HAZARDS OF THE NEWER METALS 191 from oil-fired power plants may well be making a noxious contribution to the smog problem. The chemically related selenium and tellurium are both toxic selenium much more so than tellurium and they are worthy of mention although classed strictly among the non-metals, because of their interesting toxic properties. Both have the curious property on absorption of imparting a strong garlic odour to the breath, thought to be due to the formation of dimethyl compounds and to such an extent that unfortunate social complications have often resulted. The odour can be acquired even by brief and minor exposure to selenium and tellurium compounds and can persist for months if the amount of absorp-tion is appreciable.Tellurium is a worse offender in this respect than selenium. De Meio in 1947 found that the administration of ascorbic acid caused a disappearance of these symptoms in workers exposed to tellurium dust but they returned when the treatment ceased. ‘The toxic effect of ingested selenium was thoroughly investigated some twenty years ago after the discovery that extensive poisoning of livestock in the western United States was caused by the consumption of naturally occurring selenium compounds in grain and herbage. A subsequent medical survey of the indigenous population also indicated similar selenium absorption. In industry selenium poisoning has occurred in copper refining pyrites roasting and other primary processes, and the contingent appearance of the highly toxic hydrogen selenide, with its characteristic offensive odour of decayed horse-radish is an ever-present possibility in selenium processing which now embraces the manufacture of certain types of glass and ceramics photoelectric cells as well as rubber vulcanising and curing and many other processes.I t should also be emphasised that the sulphide SeS is highly toxic as also is the easily hydrolysed oxychloride SeOCl, in use as a solvent and a plasticiser. Tellurium is industrially valuable as a hardener for lead and is in widespread use in iron and steel technology and in rubber compounding. Sodium tellurite is particularly toxic and fatal cases are known where this compound had been inadvertently administered for sodium iodide.I t will be readily appreciated that the possible chemical toxicity of uranium and its numerous compounds immediately became a serious factor to be taken into account when the demands of the second world war suddenly created a major new uranium industry in the U.S.A. Reports of earlier animal experiments had specifically described serious kidney damage due to the absorption of even milligram doses of uranium and it was accordingly reasonable to assume that there would be considerable risk to the many industrial and laboratory workers exposed to the new war-time compounds. Moreover the matter was urgent, and it can now be revealed that no more comprehensive experimental investigation into heavy metal poisoning has ever been put in hand and carried to completion in so short a time.It was assumed by the investi-gators working under the University of Rochester Manhattan Project that absorption by inhalation would be the major hazard and priority was Selenium and Tellurium. Uranium 192 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL given to this aspect of the question. In the event the high toxicity of uranium compounds was amply confirmed by experiments on animals, and the order of toxicity of the more important compounds in the prevailing conditions was found to be UF, UO,F, UO,(NO3),.6H,O, UO, UO, UF, UO, U,O,. This is also approximately the order of their solubility and it is interesting to add that absorption appears to take place only as hexavalent uranium after oxidation in the lung of any metal in a lower valency state.Later when it was realised that the new technology associated with the production of nuclear energy had come to stay steps had to be taken to investigate the effects of uranium and its compounds on man the data derived from animal experiments being inadequate. Accordingly and on the hypothesis that the kidney was the main organ likely to be affected an enquiry has recently been carried out under the auspices of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. This has led to the conclusion that the uranium content of urine is probably a direct measure of the degree of exposure and of the conditions existing in any particular environment. By application of this principle the degree of exposure of individual workers can be watched with a view to detecting any particular or abnormal sources of risk.Group urine analysis of this kind may well turn out to be of greater value than the usual air surveys. The current world-wide search for uranium for nuclear energy production e.g. in Australia the Belgian Congo Canada Czechoslovakia, France South Africa U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. and the secrecy enveloping so much of present uranium ore mining have caused a regrettable absence of published literature on the health risks to those engaged in this work. There is however strong evidence that the dusts encountered during mining which may also carry other toxic substances such as chromium, nickel and arsenic as well as alpha-emitting radioactive materials such as radon and its disintegration products have brought about lung cancer and other pulmonary diseases.This aspect of the matter was regarded as sufficiently serious to be given special emphasis in a report by the International Labour Office to the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy recently held in Geneva. The metals of Group 8 are not usually associated in the chemist's mind with health hazards but nevertheless such can arise in the capricious manner that has already been demonstrated with some other elements. Indeed osmium in the form of its tetroxide OsO, is one of the most toxic vapours known. This rather remarkable compound, which occurs as yellowish crystals melting at the low temperature of 42°C and boiling at 1 30°C is even formed at ordinary room temperatures on exposure of the metal to air and pungent poisonous fumes are quickly produced on quite gentle heating.The most characteristic symptoms of exposure are ocular disturbances including lachrymation and seeing haloes around lights but major effects on the mucous membranes of the nose throat and bronchi quickly supervene. Laboratory workers and others engaged in refining osmium from the native alloy osmiridium, have been mainly affected. Osmium gives an exceptionally hard alloy with iridium and this is used for tipping fountain pens for electrical Osmium 19561 HEALTH HAZARDS OF THE ‘NEWER’ METALS 193 contacts and as a catalyst in the synthesis of ammonia. Owing to the blackening of osmium tetroxide when in contact with oil and fat an aqueous solution of osmic acid was at one time used for taking finger-prints but the method had to be abandoned owing to the deleterious effects on the skin.In the form of its soluble complex salts platinum can be extremely noxious a fact not recognised until recent years when a large proportion of the workers in platinum refineries were found to be suffering from nose running sneezing shortness of breath and coughs. This condition now designated ‘platinum asthma’ is caused by the salts only; the salts of the other precious metals including palladium appear to give no trouble. This picture of the health hazards associated with the use of the ‘newer’ metals will be concluded with a brief reference to some other elements that have become important in present-day technology although so far they fortunately appear to have relatively innocuous properties.Molybdenum now widely used in special ferrous alloys as a catalyst and pigment and in the form of its sulphide as a new dry lubricant has given no cause yet for suspecting any toxic danger. Germanium which is receiving wide notice at present as an electronic semi-conductor and whose production either from flue-dust or the mineral germanite is expanding daily appears to be relatively non-toxic which, in view of a certain chemical similarity to arsenic is somewhat surprising. Zirconium invaluable as an extremely resistant anticorrosive metal and as a slow neutron absorber in atomic piles seems to be similarly non- toxic.Finglly titanium in increasing use as the extremely white dioxide for pigment-making and as a fatigue-resistant metal shows an almost complete lack of physiological activity. Platinum, I am indebted to H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories for permission to publish this paper. Much of the material has been taken from standard works particularly The Diseases of Occupation by Donald Hunter. The following special references are also acknowledged and will be found valuable : Cadmium. Vamadium. Bonnell J. A. Brit. J. industr. Med. 1955 12 181. Browne R. C. Brit. J. industr. Med. 1955 12 57. Sjoberg S. A.M.A. Arch. Indust. Health 1955 11 505. Williams N. Brit. J. industr. Med. 1952 9 50. Butterworth A. Trans. Assn Industr. Med. O@ers 1955 5 36. Voegtlin C. and Hodge H.C. Phamology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds New York and London McGraw-Hill 1949. Uranium THE NATIONAL RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION By The Rt Hon. THE EARL OF HALSBURY B.SC. F.INST.P. F.R.I.C. Managing Director From the end of the first world war to the beginning of the second it was the common practice of Government Departments to permit their servants to apply for patents at their own expense and to permit such inventors to exploit their patent rights commercially subject to the reservation of a right of free use for the Crown their agents and con-tractors. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research which had been created in 1916 was during this period an exception to the general rule that Government Departments only very rarely made patent applications in their own name.D.S.I.R. did in fact make applications for patents in its own name upon the grant of which the patents were assigned to an administrative body known as the Imperial Trust. For various reasons principally because it had no funds available for the development of the inventions protected by the patents assigned to it, the commercial exploitation of patents by the Imperial Trust made little progress. During and immediately after the late war Departmental practice in these matters came under review largely through the need to deal effectively with the circumstances created by the development first of radar and secondly of the many other inventions made during the course of defence research throughout the war. Sir Stafford Cripps acting on the advice of Mr G.(now Sir George) Lloyd Jacob took the initiative in securing patent protection for these inventions not only in the United Kingdom but also in the U.S.A. and other foreign territories. The reasons for this action were various but they all arose out of the greatly increased scale of the operations upon which Government research was being conducted. In the first place large numbers of associated inventions could if adequately protected have been a national asset. Secondly the value of such a block was contingent upon a coherent policy of uniform patenting independent of the arbitrary personal views of individual contributors or the limitations of their purses. Thirdly, certain ethical considerations relating to the public its servants and its contractors needed resolution on the assumption that the contemporary scale of Government research was likely to endure after the War.In 1944 an Interdepartmental Patents Committee under the chair-manship of Sir William Palmer was set up to formulate a national policy on these issues and at about the same time the Industrial Sub-committee of the Lord President’s Committee recommended the replacement of the Imperial Trust by an alternative body to be known as the National Research Trust with appropriate powers to undertake initial develop-ment and testing of new inventions. The President of the Board of Trade accordingly set up a second committee-the National Research Trust 19 THE NATIONAL RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION 195 Committee-again under the Chairmanship of Sir William Palmer.This Committee accepted the recommendations made to it with the result that a Bill was sponsored by the Government and introduced into the House of Lords with the short title of “The Development of Inventions Act 1948.” It became law in the same year and under its provisions the National Research Development Corporation was set up by the President of the Board of Trade in June 1949. An amending Act of 1954 extended the term of the Corporation’s borrowing powers up to 1959. Ten years’ activities have therefore been provided for. At the end of six years that is at 30 June 1955 the Corporation owned rights in 1014 British patents and patent applications together with the rights in 162 1 corresponding Foreign patents and patent applications.This portfolio had at that date given rise to some 300 licence agreements with industrial firms exploiting certain of these inventions. To pay for the costs of patent prosecution and general administration, and to finance developments of which it was the sponsor the Corporation had in six years borrowed from the Board of Trade k1,090,000 of which sum L380,OOO is represented by a cumulative excess of expenditure and E710,000 is represented by assets principally the capitalised value of its development expenditure and patents together with certain stocks and work in progress. The Corporation’s revenues grew from k3,029 in its first year of activity to L94,749 in its sixth year representing recovery in the sixth year of 61.3 per cent of its outgoings on its Revenue Account.No interest however has as yet been paid on its borrowings. The Corporation’s patents have been derived as follows : From Government Departments . . .. 719 , Research Councils (M.R.C. and A.R.C.) 42 Universities . . . . . . . . 203 , Other Sources . . . . .. . I 50 Total * . . . 1,014 Their subject matter lies in the following fields : Electronics and Electrical Engineering . * Mechanical and Civil Engineering . . * . Instruments and Apparatus . . .. .. Aero and Auto Engineering . . . . .. Chemistry and Plastics .. . . . . Biochemical Medical and Surgical . . ’ . Domestic and Miscellaneous . . .. . . Approx. per cent 38 21 14 4 15 6 2 PRIVATE INVENTORS During the Parliamentary debates on the Development of Inventions Act much was made of the powers granted to the Corporation of sponsor-ing the development made by individual private inventors not connecte 196 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL with industry.These powers were greeted on the one hand as the small inventors’ charter of financial freedom and assailed on the other hand as a certain waste of public money. Neither reaction has in the event proved very relevant to the facts. The Corporation has sponsored at a modest cost the development of about one such private invention per year; the inventions selected have invariably lain in the fields of light mechanical or electrical engineering and it appears that outside these fields private inventors not in industrial employment have no significant contribution to make to modern technology.All patents applied for by Government Departments are normally assigned to the Corporation unless their field is of application only to defence. * Assignment by the Research Councils has a more discretionary flavour but in practice almost all their patent applications are assigned to the Corporation. UNIVERSITY PATENTS The Scottish universities, the English provincial universities and the constituent colleges of the University of London mostly claim some degree of ownership of inventions made by their teaching and research staffs. Arrangements are accord-ingly made with these bodies and the inventors to assign the rights to the Corporation for a consideration usually in the form of an agreement providing for a division of the revenue earned between the Corporation, the inventors and sometimes the University or College.The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge on the other hand, customarily disclaim any ownership of inventions made by their employees or research personnel who are accordingly free to deal as they please with any patents they may care to apply for. In many cases these research workers assign their right to the Corporation for a consideration usually in the form of an agreement providing for a share of the revenue earned by the patents so assigned. CHEMICAL ENTERPRISES It would be impossible in the space of a short article to cover the whole variety of enterprises upon which the Corporation has embarked during its first six years of activity.The following brief notices relate only to inventions or activities lying in the fields of chemistry biology and chem-ical engineering. Production of ACTH. It became apparent in 1950 that in the absence of arrangements for central collecting and processing of pituitary glands from slaughter-houses the nation would be dependent for its medical supplies of Corticotrophin upon dollar imports. N.R.D.C. accordingly took the initiative in convening a committee of the various interested parties with a view to effecting such a collection. Its activities were successful and supplies of Corticotrophin were made available in due course. * Gas turbines and jet engines are an exception to this rule inasmuch as an inde-pendent body Power Jets (Research and Development) Ltd.caters for their admin-istration. Nationalised bodies (these include the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority) also act independently of N.R.D.C. University patents are in a class apart 19561 THE NATIONAL RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION 197 Production of Hecogenin from Sisul Waste. Following upon the discovery at the National Institute for Medical Research that hecogenin a potential starting-material for the synthesis of Cortisone was present in economic quantities in the waste juices of the sisal plant the Corporation was asked to assume responsibility for further development. Various pilot plants were accordingly established and operated in East Africa in co-operation with sisal estates and the crude hecogenin concentrate was shipped to Scotland for processing to pure hecogenin acetate under the terms of a development contract placed by the Corporation with a firm of chemical manufacturers.Meanwhile a synthesis of Cortisone starting from heco-genin ,acetate had been worked out independently by sundry teams of organic chemists notably at Glaxo Laboratories Ltd. and at the National Institute for Medical Research. Both the raw material production and the synthesis reached their culmination in phase and the commercial marketing of Cortisone of Commonwealth origin has recently been announced. Acetylene Synthesis Project. The so-called Sachsse process for the manu-facture of acetylene by the partial combustion of saturated hydrocarbons is well known. Like alternative processes of acetylene manufacture its economics are highly sensitive to local conditions; any fundamental improvement in the yields or costs of the Sachsse process would make a substantial change in its economic attraction.The process is of that species where yield depends upon freezing the composition of an unstable high-temperature reaction mixture. This is customarily accomplished by quenching with a water spray. The sensible heat of the high-temper-ature mixture is thereby degraded and largely lost. Adiabatic expansion in a gas turbine would seem to be an attractive alternative to water quenching since the temperature reduction would be very rapid and the power generated could be credited against the cost of the process. The Corporation has accepted the sponsorship of a development project on these lines.The work is being carried out at the Imperial College of Science and Technology. Production of Ascorbic Acid from Lucerne. Human beings cannot synthesise ascorbic acid which must be present in their diet as Vitamin C. Rumi-nants however can synthesise their requirements of ascorbic acid. I t should accordingly be possible to extract Vitamin C from their fodder without degrading its nutritional value. Lucerne is a plentiful fodder and contains Vitamin C. From the standpoint of rendering the country potentially independent of imported raw-materials for synthesis it might be an attractive material to work with as it is dried on a large scale; an extraction plant could thus be an adjunct to a drying plant. A project to this effect proposed by the Low Temperature Research Station, Cambridge has been supported by the Corporation and has yielded a satisfactory crude Vitamin C concentrate.Considerable difficulties stand in the way of its purification to crystalline ascorbic acid of a cur-rently acceptable standard but the project is regarded as of some importance notwithstanding 1 98 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY Pesticidal Coating Compositions. Normally paint and varnish manufac-turers regard ‘blooming’ as a defect in their product but there are circumstances in which a self-renewing bloom could be an asset; for example a self-renewing bloom of D.D.T. or Dieldrin which would maintain a permanently super-lethal concentration of insecticide on a painted surface. Such a composition was invented collaboratively by a research team at the Colonial Office and an industrial firm and the rights were assigned to the Corporation.Industrial exploitation thereafter seemed likely to be inhibited by a very usual pattern of inactivity-paint manufacturers knew little of entomology or biological standardisation, while insecticidal composition manufacturers and applicators knew little about paint and resin compounding. The Corporation accordingly took the initiative in subsidising an entomological laboratory to become a consultant to the industry and obtained its acceptance as a ‘standards authority’ and as a link between the manufacturer and user. Problems relating to quality control resolved themselves at an early stage and a range of products made under licence from the Corporation is now being widely marketed.EXERCISE OF INITIATIVE These five examples have one feature in common-the exercise of initiative at some critical point where for one reason or another spon-taneous activity by the community failed to develop. No one official body was clearly indicated as responsible for convening a meeting to consider how to collect pituitary glands. The Corporation therefore acted on behalf of all of them. Nothing coupled the sisal industry of the tropics to the pharmaceutical industry of the temperate latitudes. The Corporation accordingly became the coupling agent. The demand for acetylene and the provision of acetylene each wait upon the other. In the United Kingdom the carbide process becomes economi-cally less and less attractive each year.Gas turbines are as yet uncoupled to the chemical industry and the latter to national sources of methane (e.g. Whitehaven and Point of Air Collieries). The Corporation’s initiative here lay in providing risk capital for research. The fourth example shews the Corporation taking out an insurance policy against a possible dearth of raw material. The fifth example shews it dealing with the divorce of the manufacturer’s expertise from that of the user. The lesson these examples teach is that insofar as inventions may fail to gain acceptance in industry they do not so much fall by the wayside through folly as fall between two stools because of some failure in com-munication. I t would appear therefore that a body such as the Corporation has a useful task to perform and that acceptance of this proposition need not imply any criticism of our industries.In the first example the initiative was purely administrative. In the second example the hitch was geographical. In the third example the lack of coupling was multilateral FORMER PRESIDENTS OF THE INSTITUTE WILLIAM AUGUSTUS TILDEN 1842-1926 President 1 89 1 - 1 894 By PROFESSOR ALEXANDER FINDLAY c.B.E. M.A. D.SC. LL.D. F.R.I.C. William Augustus Tilden was born in London on 15 August 1842 and was about sixty years of age when I first got to know him in the opening years of the present century. On looking back in memory over the rapidly mounting years during which with much travail and tribulation a new world has been born I see a man of distinguished appearance whose silver-grey hair matched the pallor of his skin and whose general mien and manner, together with the small imperial which he then wore recalled the life and fashion of a bygone day.Unhurried both in speech and move-ment Tilden possessed a dignity that was free from any trace of pomposity and a courtesy of manner that gave a sweet graciousness to life but which alas now appears to be out-moded. His honesty and sincerity of purpose combined with a generous and warm-hearted toleration of opposing views kept him free from the prevailing rivalries and jealousies of his time and won for him an abundant measure of respect and affection. Progressive but not aggressive in his views Tilden gained during his long life a position of much influence in the world of chemistry by reason of his courtesy sincerity sound judgment and practical common sense.Like Scheele Dumas and others Tilden entered the domain of chem-istry through the gateway of pharmacy. In Tilden’s case perhaps one ought rather to say the corridor of pharmacy for it was only after a period of some fifteen years passed as apprentice to a pharmacist and as a demonstrator in the laboratory of the Pharmaceutical Society that he severed his connection with pharmacy and became in 1872 Science Master at Clifton College Bristol. Here he had the opportunity of rendering pioneering service in establishing a modern science side in a Public School recently founded as a breakaway from the purely classical tradition. It was work of much importance and Tilden’s liberal outlook in education can be gathered from his first book Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philoso~hy.This book embodied the substance of his lectures to the more advanced classes in Clifton College and was designed “to arouse the habit of continuous thought as well as to arouse new interests and open up new fields to the imagination.” Chemistry Tilden held, “should not be taught merely for its practical applications to medicine, 19 200 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE 0:” CHEMISTRY [APRIL manufactures or the arts.” Tilden was one of the few science masters in schools who engaged in original research. In 1880 Tilden again became a pioneer as first Professor of Chemistry in the newly established Mason College Birmingham.There by the organisation of his department his teaching and research work he laid a sure foundation for the future greatness and success of the Department of Chemistry in what became the University of Birmingham. He was, moreover a powerful instrument for good outside the College for in the complex industrial artistic and musical society that existed in this great midland city Tilden through his wide interests and social gifts could show that the promotion of science in a modern university need not be divorced from wide culture and gracious living. From Birmingham Tilden moved in 1894 to London where he became Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science and on its incorporation in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, he was mainly responsible for planning its new chemical laboratories before he retired in 1909.For nearly forty years Tilden rendered great service in the education and training of chemists in advancing the frontiers of science by wide-ranging research and in arousing an interest in chemistry among members of the general community. He was interested in all aspects of chemistry-historical human and philo-sophical-and his books and other writings were a valuable enrichment of chemical literature. The importance of his work was recognised in 1909 by the conferment of a knighthood. Tilden’s services to the profession were perhaps of no less importance than those rendered to the science. It was in 1891 at a time of storm and stress in the history of the Institute that ‘Tilden was elected President; and during his period of office 1891-4 the affairs of the Institute were placed on a sounder foundation new office and laboratory accommodation was acquired and the standing and prestige of the Institute as a qualifying and professional body were so greatly enhanced that the State public bodies and municipalities looked to it to supply them with chemists well qualified by knowledge and experience to act as analysts advisers and consultants.There existed at that time among certain members of the Institute-Public Analysts and analysts and consultants in private prac tice-feelings of resentment against what they regarded as the undue influence and power of those holding office as professors in academic institutions; and resistance also was offered to proposals that were thought to depreciate the value of the system of apprentice-training in favour of training in academic institutions.While recognising to the full the importance of the work of the ‘professional’ chemists Tilden deprecated any conflict between different sections of the chemical profession whether professorial or professional. The Institute he pointed out had not been created for analytical and consulting chemists only and there would have been little hope of receiving a Royal Charter without the influence and efforts of distinguished men of the professorial class. The apprenticeship system was not adequate for the training of all students for the Associateship; indeed it had been abandoned in som 1956) FORMER PRESIDENTS WILLIAM AUGUSTUS TILDEN 201 other professions.Aspirants to the profession of chemistry Tilden declared must have had a good general education and have received systematic instruction in chemistry and allied branches of physics in properly equipped institutions. With these general views in mind, the Council drew up in 1893 regulations that governed the admission to membership of the Institute for the next twenty years. I t was during Tilden’s presidency that the Institute in January 1893, moved into new premises at 30 Bloomsbury Square and began there a period of steady development. I t was under Tilden’s inspiration that the Council chose as the design of the Institute’s seal the figure of Priestley, copied from the statue that stood outside Mason College Birmingham.On moving to London in 1894 Tilden entered with zest into the activities of the Chemical Society to which thenceforward he gave his most constant loyalty and support becoming its President in 1903. For a number of years the admission of women as Fellows of the Chemical Society had been a subject of controversy and in 1892 Tilden joined with Professor Ramsay in moving in the Council that women be admitted to the Fellowship on the same terms as men; and this motion was defeated by only one vote. The years passed and no steps were taken to amend the by-laws. In 1908 Tilden now a Past President presented to the Council a petition signed by 316 Fellows and moved that the necessary steps be taken to allow women to be admitted to the Fellowship. This however was prevented by “a contumacious and recalcitrant element in the minority,” and it was not until 1920 that the women’s claim was recognised.Though a memory of the many services Tilden rendered to chemistry is kept alive by the delivery each year of the Tilden Lectures of the Chemical Society chemists should not forget that it is to his wisdom and foresight that they owe the initiation of the Annual Reports on the Progress of Chmistry the first volume of which was published in 1905. These annual volumes may be regarded as one of his finest monuments. Even after retiring from active service as a teacher Tilden retained his interest in chemistry and devoted himself to the writing of books; and as late as 1924 at the age of 82 he attended and spoke at the Annual General Meeting of the Chemical Society.I t was his last appearance at Burlington House. For some years he had been in failing health and on 11 December 1926 the silver cord was loosed and the golden bowl was broken and peacefully he went to his long home QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF INSECTICIDAL ACTION By F. R. BRADBURY B.SC. PH.D. B.PHARM. PH.C. F.R.I.C. (Liverpool and North-Western Section at Widnes 1 December 1955) Great advances in pest control have been made in the last fifteen years. The improvements in crop protection methods during this period were recently reviewed by Sir Thomas Dugda1e.l Starting with DDT and BHC,* the fifteen-year period has seen the discovery of very many chemicals for the control of insects fungi and other pests. An essential background to the effective formulation and application of these chemicals is the study of their mode of action.This becomes especially important when resistance to chemical poisons is encountered as with the housefly, which in many parts of the world has developed strains resistant to the action of DDT BHC and other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. Work on the mode of action of BHC and to a smaller extent of DDT, has been carried on in Widnes in recent years. yBHC is a convenient insecticide for use in mode of action studies. I t has three closely related stereoisomers a- ,8- and 8-BHC which are not insecticides and there-fore together with the y-isomer provide a useful group for the study of the effect of structure on biological activity. The BHC isomers also have a relatively high vapour pressure making it possible for insects to absorb them readily from the vapour phase which very much simplifies the experimental technique for controlling dosage.Two colorimetric methods and a radiochemical method have been used for BHC determinations. By dehydrohalogenation and nitration followed by hydrolysis yellow chlorodinitroresorcinol is produced,2 and this can be measured quantitatively. The Schechter and Hornstein method of reduction to benzene and conversion to m-dinitrobenzene3 for estimation by the Janovsky reaction in alkaline methyl ethyl ketone is a more sensitive method. Much more sensitive than either of the colori-metric methods however is the radiochemical method using 1%-labelled BHC.* By combustion of the BHC to carbon dioxide and precipitation as barium carbonate for counting in a ffow-type counter one twenty-fifth of a microgram can be accurately determined.The method is non-specific however and physico-chemical separations are used to distinguish between BHC and its breakdown products in the insect. Some experiments have also been made with 36C1-labelled BHC to measure the chloride produced by breakdown in the insect. Penetration studies on grain weevils were carried out using the first of the two colorimetric methods referred to above and the BHC absorbed by the insects after varying periods of exposure was determined. The portion removed by rinsing the insects with carbon tetrachloride was described as ‘outside’ and that recovered by subsequent grinding and extraction as ‘inside.’ The results with the a ,8- y- and 8-isomers were * Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and benzene hexachloride respectively.20 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF INSECTICIDAL ACTION 203 compared; for each the amount ‘outside’ rose quickly to a steady value different for the four isomers and related to their solubilities in hydro-carbons esters and ether. This indicated saturation of the waxy layer of the epicuticle as the first step in penetration of the insect cuticle. When the waxy layer was removed and its weight determined it was found that the solubilities of the four isomers in the wax agreed well with their solu-bilities in a paraffin. The ‘inside’ figures showed that y-BHC penetrated into the inner tissues much more rapidly than the other three.Whilst the waxy layer of the epicuticle serves an important function in the retention of water it is the Achilles’ heel of the insect for insecticides. It is fortunate that the human skin is a much more effective barrier to the penetration of these compound^.^ Mullins6 and others have recently advanced a theory that the mole-cular size and shape is critical for the action of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. According to Mullins y-BHC the molecule of which is smaller than those of the other isomers can penetrate more readily the intercellular spaces at the site of its action and rotate in the intercellular space to take up the optimum orientation for interaction with the cell-walls to produce its toxic effects. This is an attractive theory but as yet it has little or no basis in experimental fact.The greater ability of the y-isomer compared with the other BHC isomers to penetrate the cuticle of the grain weevil might be ascribed to its smaller molecular dimensions. Similar experiments were done on the absorption of DDT and some related compounds by grain weevils. The process of absorption of DDT was similar to that for y-BHC but the time taken to reach comparable concentrations was very much greater for DDT. This result was ascribed to the low vapour pressure of DDT (approximately one sixtieth of the y-BHC figure at 20” C) which would very much handicap DDT in the experimental conditions used (exposure to saturated vapour). It was also observed that under these conditions the compound resulting from dehydrohalogenation of DDT (DDE) was able to move through the insect cuticle much more rapidly than the parent compound.The mode of action of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides on house-flies is a problem of particular importance because of the widespread occurrence of resistant strains of housefly towards which the toxicity of these insecticides is so reduced as to make it impracticable to control them by these means. Much work has been done in America on the problem of DDT resistance in houseflies and it has been shown that there are at least three factors operating reduced absorption altered distribution within the insect and detoxication to the harmless dehydro-halogenation compound DDE.7 The work at Widnes has shown that two of these factors reduced absorption and detoxication certainly contribute to y-BHC resistance.Experiments in which susceptible flies and resistant ones were exposed to a saturated atmosphere of y-BHC for varying periods showed a lower recovery of BHC both ‘outside’ and ‘inside,’ from the resistant strain. When an attempt was made in ‘mass balance’ experiments to account for all the BHC removed from the exposure flask by the flies it was found that there was a loss amounting to approximately half in the case of th 204 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY resistant strain and to a quarter in the susceptible one. l*C-labelled BHC was used in these experiments and when the fly bodies remaining after the extractions with carbon tetrachloride were burned the missing portion of the radioactivity could be recovered.This indicated conver-sion of the BHC in the fly body to a compound or compounds insoluble in carbon tetrachloride. Subsequent experiments showed that these metabolic products could be extracted with water. I t was concluded that houseflies both resistant and susceptible possess the power to convert yBHC into water-soluble products that can be excreted. The resistant strain metabolised more y-BHC than the susceptible but this may have been a secondary effect due to the toxic action of yBHC on the susceptible strain. Further experiments with cc-BHC which is also metabolised by flies and is virtually non-toxic showed that this isomer also is metabolised more readily by the resistant strain although the difference here was not so great.The combined effects of reduced absorption and detoxication result in resistant flies containing only one sixth as much unchanged y-BHC as susceptible ones three hours after exposure for fifteen minutes to the vapour of the insecticide. An effect of this magnitude does not seem adequate to account for the difference in susceptibility of the two strains to y-BHC and it is thought that distribution in the insect body favouring harmless sites or phases in the resistant strain may be found to be the critical factor. Even so the existence of a detoxication mechanism must be regarded as an essential contributory process since this effectively limits the time of exposure of the insect to the action of the poison. REFERENCES I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. National Crop Protection Conference Eastbourne November 1955.Bradbury F. R. & Standen H. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. 1954 5 252-256. Schechter M. A. & Hornstein I. Anal. Chem. 1952,24 544. Bradbury F. R. & Standen H. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. 1955 6 90-99. Dresden D. & Krijgsman B. Bull. Ent. Res. 1948 38 575. Mullins L. J. Science 1955 122 118-1 19. Chadwick L. E. 1st International Symposium on the Control of Insect Vectors of Disease (Rome Fondazione Emanuele Paterno) 1954 2 19. VERB. SAP. Chemistry is long to learn. So thought S. F. Gray writing in 1828. An example is given below. MAGNESIA ALBA This is obtained from Epsom salt by adding to its solution in water a ley of purified pearl ash. Its composition varies much according to the quantity of water and the heat that is employed.Berzelius analysed a specimen and found 100 parts of it to contain 44.75 of magnesia 35-77 of carbonic acid and 19.48 of water; hence he considers it as 3Mg:C:2 + Mg:Aq8 and calls it hydro carbonas magnesicus its weight being 4,618,343. Dr Thomson is inclined to think it is 3Mg.C + 4Mg.H. equal to 22,750; but Mr Phillips states it in his Pharm. Lond. to be the anhydrous carbonate or MgC and its atomic weight 42 of his scale equal to 5,250 of Dr Thomson’s scale. [The dots in the formulas represent oxygen. BOOK REVIEWS Schmidt’s Organic Chemistry. Seventh Edition revised and edited by Neil Campbell. Pp. xi + 936. (Edinburgh Oliver and Boyd Ltd. 1955.) 35s. net. The seventh edition of this well-known work is a revised and enlarged treatment of the subject carried out by Dr Neil Campbell.Following modern trends new sections are included on spectroscopy the fine structure of benzene and naphtha-lene the preparation and properties of certain non-benzenoid aromatic hydro-carbons the nucleophilic and homolytic substitution of aromatic compounds and the chemistry of proteins polysaccharides nucleotides and nucleic acids. The book might also have included some reference to triterpenes and the synthesis of steroids which are omitted at present. It is always difficult to bring achapter up to date by adding material without breaking the continuity of the text, and the reader is very conscious of the inclusion of this extra material. Many of the older references to the original literature could have been replaced by later and more comprehensive references.The sections on reaction mechanisms are still very segregated and the usefulness of the book would be increased by a more generous application of theoretical principles. These are relatively small criticisms however and the new edition should prove to be as acceptable as its predecessors. The text is presented in a par-ticularly clear manner and the binding and general format are good. Very few misprints were noted and the indexes are adequate. It can be recommended safely as a textbook for students. A. W. JOHNSON Progress in Organic Chemistry. Volume 3. Edited by J. W. Cook. Pp. 45s. net. This volume follows the same general pattern as its predecessors and contains five substantial review articles on organic chemical topics.The subjects have been carefully chosen to include topics of theoretical and experimental interest, and the authors are eminent workers in the various fields reviewed. The result is a volume that will be warmly welcomed by all organic chemists. The power of modern synthetic methods is well illustrated in the investigations carried out during the past twenty years in the steroid field but there has been for some time a need for a review that would present the main features in a compact form. This need has largely been met by Dr Cornforth’s article on total synthesis in the steroid field. As a kind of counterpart the volume also contains a first-class article on indole alkaloids which covers the yohimbine corynanthine cinchona-mine and Erythrina groups.Here both modern methods of structural deter-mination and the value of biogenetic schemes in correlating structures are well exemplified. The chapter on organic compounds of lithium gives a very useful survey of the uses of this very important group. Organo-lithium compounds are now finding a multiplicity af uses in synthetic organic chemistry and the need for a comprehensive review of this type has been evident for some time. The two remaining chapters deal with topics of theoretical interest-non-benzenoid aroma tic compounds and the fulvenes. The non-benzenoid aromatic systems have been a focal point of interest for some time past and the present article reviews the present situation in this field. The chemistry of the fulvenes might be fairly described as rather neglected by many chemists despite its intrinsic theoretical interest.Professor Bergmann’s article which is stimulating and covers the subject thoroughly may serve to draw more attention to it. In a world where the volume of research increases daily there is a need for clearly written review articles that enable chemists to keep themselves informed of progress in fields outside the narrow range in which they are actively working. Earlier volumes in the series have sought with success to fill this need and the present one maintains the standard they have set. The editor and publisher are to be congratulated on an excellent production. viii + 273. (London Butterworths Scientific Publications 1955.) A. R. TODD 20 206 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL The Roger Adams Symposium.Papers presented by former students. Edited by C. S. Marvel. Pp. ix + 140. (New York John Wiley and Sons Inc.; London Chapman and Hall Ltd. 1955.) This book is the record of a symposium held at the University of Illinois on 3 and 4 September 1954 in honour of Roger Adams on the occasion of his retirement. It consists of five papers presented by former students with a brief introductory appreciation by E. H. Volwiler in which Adams’s very full and fruitful life is sketched in clear and bold outline. The initial and longest contribution by W. R. Brode records work begun by Adams more than thirty years ago and still in progress on the light absorption of diphenyl derivatives and of azo and other dyes. This dealt in part with the effect of ortho substituents in obstructing the assumption of a planar molecular corfigur-ation.Further transient alterations in absorption resulting from photochemical cis-trans isomerisation have disclosed labile stereoisomerism in stilbene colours and indigoid pigments. J. R. Johnson gives a rather detailed account of some fifteen years’ work at Cornell University on the bacteriostatic and fungicidal product gliotoxin which is related to indole-2-carboxylic acid and appears to contain a remarkable pentacyclic system in which the benzene nucleus of the indole unit is partially reduced. The third contribution by S. McElvain deals with nepetalic acid. This product of the common catnip is a monoterpenoid substance the lactole of a cyclopentane aldehydo-acid; much of the interest attaches to the solution of a series of stereochemical problems associated with a compound having four unlike asymmetric centres.R. L. Shriner contributes a competent little rbumd of benzopyrylium chem-istry followed by an account of studies of the reaction of benzopyrylium salts with amines. This gives products related to the various conceivable pseudo-bases an imino-hydrogen atom-or in dimethylaniline and some others a nuclear hydrogen atom-is replaced by a benzopyranyl residue. With these bulky molecules steric influences were clearly recognised. The last contribution “Some Chemical Studies on Viruses,” by the Nobel prize-winner W. M. Stanley is a freely written essay without documentation or close description of experimental work appropriately so for the presentation of a more biological topic to a chemical audience.This account of an exciting subject is well illustrated by striking electron micrographs. The book is well produced and lavishly illustrated with charts and diagrams. The massive energy and versatility of Roger Adams are well reflected in the wide diversity of topics presented at the symposium. Few of the great teachers in the records of our science can excel Adams’s output of five such Ph.D. students in seven years 1922- 1929. 30s. net. T. S. STEVENS Rational Approach to Chemical Principles. J. A. Fanston. Second Pp. xii + 231 (London and Glasgow Blackie and Son Ltd., The choice of title is likely to attract chemists since it is distinctive yet claims to do no more than would be expected.A rational treatment is regarded by the author as a ruthless cutting out of the historical approach. The treatment of fundamental chemical laws concepts of valency the reactivities of the various elements and the ionic hypothesis are studied on the basis of the structure of the atom. Such a practice must now have been widely adopted in teaching and supports the author in his procedure. Most of the book deals with the subject matter of physical chemistry as required for the G.C.E. Advanced level. There are five parts concisely presented in the order structure of matter states of matter chemical combination electrically charged atoms and chemical equilibrium. This book will probably be most valuable to students who have had the subject matter explained and require to consolidate the work by further reading.A practical course is envisaged since the reader is referred to laboratory manuals for molecular weight determinations Edition. 1955.) 12s. 6d. net 19561 BOOK REVIEWS 207 by the methods of Regnault Dumas and V. Meyer. The procedure based upon osmotic pressure is however detailed. This new edition contains additional problems well chosen to illustrate the various sections There is also a miscellaneous selection making 123 problems in all with answers. Most difficulty will be found with the first part for here there is an elaborate treatment of the structure of the atom and the arrangement of the electrons. I am convinced that any student who has understood this section will be well beyond the standard of the work in the rest of the book.A rational u.jrouch to chemical principles requires a very simple treatment of atomic structure and this part as given might later form an introduction to a systematic study of the periodic table. Although this section appears to be out of place the rest of the book will be most useful for the teaching of physical chemistry in secondary grammar schools and in National Certificate courses at the technical colleges. Laboratory Manual of Quantitative Inorganic Andysis. R. Belcher and A. J. Nutten. Pp. viii + 337. (London Butterworths Scientific Pub-lications Ltd. 1955.) 25s. net; postage 1s. 9d. Ten textbooks of general quantitative analysis either new or in a new edition have appeared in the lists of a well-known bookseller during the last 18 months.It seems obvious that to be worthy of publication a book of this type must fulfil a very definite need and it is from this point of view that the present text must be assessed. The author’s intentions may be indicated by quoting several phrases from their preface. They state that ‘The book is primarily intended as a practical teaching course suitable for Universities and Technical Colleges,’ that ‘Practical tuition should . . . be well supplemented by theory,’ that ‘In general we cover only a small range of determinations but we have attempted to cover them thoroughly,’ and that ‘the selection of elements and radicles . . . is intended to acquaint the students with the several types of precipitate encountered in analytical chemistry as well as to introduce him to some of the newer reagents and methods.’ I must state at once that I am wholeheartedly in agreement with the authors as to the desirable aims and content of a college textbook of quantitative analysis ; I must also say that in my opinion they have succeeded admirably in their attempt to write such a book.Every gravimetric exercise included is treated as a miniature monograph. Adequate experimental detail is given together with sufficient theory; both are treated critically-a most welcome state of affairs. Although explanatory theoretical material must be given the student tends to ignore it if it is too long or too comprehensive. The amount given here seem very reasonable and it isconcise-as indeed is all the book.Titrimetric analysis is treated in the same way as gravimetric so far as is possible although the format is never rigidly followed if this would lead to loss of clarity. Other portions of the book deal with techniques with some examples of industrial analyses and with colorimetric analysis the last-named section being short but adequate. References both to general methods and specific determinations are given. Unfortunately many of the most important review papers cannot be studied by students in small chemistry departments since they are in ‘semi-industrial’ journals. This however is not the fault of the authors either of this book or of the original papers. I do not pretend to agree with all the details of technique advocated; I do not teach my students for example to weigh out the quantity of substance required for an exactly decinormal solution.Nor-perhaps not unexpectedly -are all my favourite student exercises to be found in the book. I think too, that some paragraphs about relative accuracy and the accuracy of an analysis should be included for these are often not properly appreciated by students; indeed it is a constant grumble of industrialists that many university graduates have no real appreciation of relative accuracy. G. R. RAMAG 208 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL These criticisms however are purely personal. They do not prevent my stating that this is a workmanlike and pleasing textbook which has a balance and freshness normally lacking in books of the type. It should prove very satisfactory in use and those in control of students’ practical work will do well to consider its adoption.I;. HOLMES Biochemical Preparations Volume 4. W. W. Westerfield Editor-in-(New York John Wiley and Sons Inc.; London : The object and scope of this series of laboratory handbooks has been indicated in the reviews of earlier volumes (J. 1949 520; 1953 29; 1954 262). In this volume are described the preparations of 22 compounds among which are four carbohydrate derivatives (including glycolaldehyde) seven amino-acids two enzymes two proteins and two derivatives of higher fatty acids. The biological significance of most of these compounds is obvious but here and there it might have been well to indicate briefly the particular interest attaching to the preparation e.g.of N-acetylimidazole and the sulphoxide and sulphone of methionine. It is satisfactory to see that in accordance with comments made in an earlier review information is now given as to where the special trade products which are so frequently mentioned may be obtained. Nevertheless it would be interesting to know what is meant by the ‘rubber dam’ mentioned on p. 72 as an aid to drying. Is it some form of absorbent rubber? Particular interest will always be exhibited in the preparation of pure organic compounds by enzymic methods and the preparation of cc-D-glucose- 1 -phosphate by the phosphorylation of starch in the presence of orthophosphate and the enzyme phosphorylase obtained from potatoes is a good example. This process is preferred to the purely chemical method described in Volume I as being cheaper less laborious and affording a higher yield.Here and throughout the book the numerous footnotes contain information essential to the success of the preparation. One of the most interesting chapters is that dealing with tetra-acetyl-D-ribofuranose and the isomeric pyranose derivative. It is recommended that the mixture obtained on acetylation of ribose should be air-dried on aluminium foil and that after solution in methanol special precautions should be taken to avoid the introduction of dust or particles of paper which may induce premature crystallisation. The solution should be left to cool overnight and the slightest movement or vibration must be avoided. The furanose isomer may then separate in large crystals of 1-5 g which may often be separated mechanically from a matrix of the furanose and pyranose forms; sometimes both of these isomers can be separated by ‘hand-picking.’ The experimenter is thereby enabled to “recapture that first fine careless rapture” experienced by Pasteur, although the isomers in question are structural and not stereochemical as were those of the great French master.The tetra-acetyl-D-riboses are certainly remarkable compounds. Their considerable heat of crystallisation sets up convection currents over the crystals that are detectable by the resulting diffraction patterns and assist in the deposition of one form only the solution remaining supersaturated with respect to the other form. Although the pyranose is the less soluble form the pure furanose can be crystallised in presence of equal or greater amounts of the pyranose if initiation of crystallisation of this form can be avoided.This preparation would have appealed to Perkin jun and to Kipping but for different reasons. Perkin would have admired the “beautiful crystals” (The L$e and Work of William Henry Perkin 1932 p. 24) and would have cheer-fully followed the advice given on p. 73 to discard the last 50 cc of methanol mother-liquors as they yield a viscous mass from which only a few grams of crystalline tetra-acetates can be obtained. Kipping would have said of the crystals “I have been careful not to over-rate their beauty” (J. Chem. Soc. 1907 91 226) and of the mother liquor “there must be something there. What is it ? Chief.Pp. vii + 108. Chapman and Hall Ltd. 1955.) 30s. net. Why can’t you find out ? Get on with it!” F. CHALLENGE 1956) BOOK REVIEWS 209 Electric Dipole Moments. J. W. Smith. Pp. vii + 370. (London Butter-The future readers of this book will probably be found among the research workers in physical chemistry. While much of the subject matter is available elsewhere nevertheless it is desirable to have collected in one volume most of the well-established results that can legitimately bear the label ‘electric dipole moments’. The discussion of the several methods of measuring dipole moments, especially those dependent on the Stark effect and on molecular beam techniques, is an attractive feature of the book as is the lucid treatment of some of the many problems of chemical structure that have been solved with the aid of dipole moment studies.The chief criticism I have to make is that some of the theoretical aspects of the subject are inadequately discussed. In the preface it is stated that frequent use is made of the terminology of wave mechanics but (in spite of the inclusion of an out-of-place Appendix on the principles of this topic) it is felt that barely enough attention has been paid to this all-important matter. The non-expert reader will not be made aware of the significance of Kirkwood’s theory of the static dieectricl constant. This theory (while only approximate in its treatment of the effects of molecular polarisability) is precise when applied to assemblies of permanent dipoles and at the time of its birth represented an outstanding advance from the original Debye theory.Also the deficiencies in the existing theories of the frequency-dependent dielectric constant are not stressed. Some errors have been detected a large number of these being in the chapter on solvent effects. Thus equations (6.23) and (6.24) for the dielectric constant of a dilute solution of a polar solute in a non-polar solvent are wrong but these mistakes are probably due to a confusing use of symbols for molecular dipole moments; thus in this chapter p po and pv are all used for the ‘vapour’ dipole moment of a molecule. Equations (6.24) and (6.28) are not identical (as they ought to be) when 5 = +. Also Kirkwood’s equation for the dielectric constant is written incorrectly. One minor point is worth mentioning; like most writers in this field the author spells “Mossotti” with only one s.It is difficult to under-stand why this abbreviation has become so popular. The standard of the production is commendably high and only a few mis-prints were found. This book will I think after the elimination of some of the above-mentioned faults be a useful addition to the already established works in this field and I predict that it will be found on the shelves of many chemical libraries. worths Scientific Publications Ltd. 1955.) 42s. postage Is. 9d. A. D. BUCKINGHAM Synthetic Ion-Exchangers. G. H. Osborn. Pp. ix + 419. (London: Advances in the field of ion exchange have been so rapid in recent years that a textbook published in 1950 must already be out of date in many respects.A new book on the subject is therefore a welcome addition to the chemical literature. Mr Osborn’s book which is obviously intended chiefly for the beginner has an unusual manner of presentation that is very suitable to his purpose. The first half consists of a series of brief introductory accounts of various aspects of the subject grouped under seven chapter headings whereas the second and larger part of the book consists of a classified bibliography which has been made completely independent of the chapters preceding it. This section forms a most useful compilation particularly as many of the references listed are taken from journals not normally studied by the chemist. The bibliography covers most subjects very comprehensively although it is a little surprising to find no reference to the work of Vickery in the rare earth field.Although the author has managed to condense some subjects such as analysis ion exclusion and resin membranes into useful and readable accounts the attempt to reduce the whole field of ion exchange equilibria and kinetics to only two pages has resulted in a description that can have little meaning to a beginner while having insufficient Chapman and Hall Ltd, 1955.) 30s. net. Unfortunately the first half is less successful 210 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL detail to satisfy a more advanced student. It is difficult to see why Goldstein’s mathematical analysis of column equilibria has been given in considerable detail, while the better-known studies of Glueckauf and Martin on the same subject have been virtually ignored.Detailed physical descriptions including full screen analysis are frequently given yet the chemical nature of the materials is not always stated although this information is available from the manufacturers. Amberlite IR-120 and IR-112 are described in almost identical terms with no indication of the difference in cross-linking that distinguishes them. The ionic form of resins is treated in a confusing manner. On page 4 the regeneration of a cation resin is defined as conversion to the hydrogen form whereas on page 15 reference is made to “the fully regenerated sodium form”. It is stated in several places that the suffix (H) after a resin code number refers to an analytical grade as opposed to an industrial grade whereas this term is normally used to denote a hydrogen form resin.Although such errors together with an unusually large number of misprints, are unfortunate they do not detract seriously from the undoubted value of this book. It satisfies a real need and should find a place on the bookshelves of most workers in the field of ion exchange. The chapter describing individual resins is somewhat obscure. T. V. ARDEN Boiler House and Power Station Chemistry. Third Edition. Wilfrid (London Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. 1955.) The first edition of this book which was published about fifteen years ago, filled a gap in the literature of applied chemistry and it became very well known to chemists in power stations and to those concerned with the control of boilers in industrial plants.This third edition will maintain its former worth for those who are concerned with fuel technology or with boilers operating at steam pressures that are low by modern standards. The scope of this book covers several technologies most of which are expanding with great speed. It is most regrettable to have to record that some important sections are no longer up-to-date. Many advances that have been made since the last edition was published advances that chemists in modern power stations cannot afford to ignore are not mentioned. This is the more unfortunate because of the lack of other convenient sources of knowledge. It is very much to be hoped that the weak sections will be fully revised for the next edition; if that is impossible, it would be well to change the aim and title of the work.Chapters I1 to VI dealing with fuels and combusion and occupying 126 pages, are the best part of the book. This section contains a good deal of new material, including a new chapter on “Combustion of Alternative Fuels” and an account of the Boiler Availability Committee’s work. Newcomers to the industry will find it well worth reading. The section dealing with water treatment consists of only one chapter of 35 pages. The only new material here deals with caustic cracking in boilers with riveted drums. De-ionisation is described only in terms of the early two-bed unit with the degasifier following the anion exchanger ; nothing is said about the removal of silica or about mixed-bed (monobed) de-ionisation or about other modern exchange techniques.The so-called scab-pitting and embrittlement of boiler tubes on load which are difficult problems in Great Britain and U.S.A. are not mentioned. One searches unsuccessfully for any discussion of the treatment of feed-water with hydrazine ammonia or volatile amines. There is a chapter of 21 pages on flue-gas washing which is chiefly of interest to the specialist as representing Dr Francis’s own views. The first part of the book is completed by a chapter of 35 pages giving a useful and welcome intro-duction to the behaviour and care of turbine switch and transformer oils. A section of 1 1 1 pages describes the sampling analysis and testing of coal and alternative fuels ash grit boiler deposits flue gas water and oils.This section still contains a short chapter on analyses for the control of flue-gas washing which can interest only a very few specialists but the chapter on the “Rational Analysis Francis. Pp xii + 348. 50s. net 19561 BOOK REVIEWS 21 1 of Coal,” which was present in the second edition has now been dropped. The section contains a good deal of new material including analytical methods for coke and fuel oils and the methods of analysing external boiler deposits that were worked out for the Boiler Availability Committee. There are however sur-prising and regrettable omissions notably the application of the ‘dead-stop’ end-point to the determination of oxygen dissolved in water and the application of ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid in water analysis both of which are in verywide use in power stations all over the world.I was also sorry to see so much material that is easily available elsewhere e.g. in the publications of the British Standards Institution re-appearing in an expensive volume such as this; but this is only a matter of personal preference and the reader should decide the point for himself. There is a great need for textbooks that will give the newcomer to power station chemistry a sound foundation in his subject and a well-balanced view of his responsibilities. It is sincerely hoped that the next edition of “Francis” will go a long way towards meeting this need. R. LLEWELLYN REES Principles of Industrial Waste Treatment. C. Fred Gurnham. Pp. (New York John Wiley & Sons Inc.; London Chapman & This the most recent American book on the treatment of liquid industrial wastes is stated (not quite accurately) to be the first to examine the problem from the ‘unit operations’ viewpoint.This it does by considering first the effect of different types of polluting substances on streams and then dealing with the various processes-sedimentation filtration oxidation and reduction ion exchange aerobic and anaerobic biological decomposition and the like-by which industrial wastes are commonly treated. There is a single chapter describ-ing very briefly the methods used in particular industries. For the treatment of the waste liquids discarded from a factory this plan of concentrating attention on unit basic processes is a good one. Of all the work being done on the improvement of some common process of treatment that by a single industry is often for the time being of particular interest and importance; at present for example this might be said of work by the canning industry on storage in lagoons by the oil industry on sedimentation and flotation and by the gas industry on biochemical oxidation.Twenty years ago ideas on effluent treatment spread very slowly from one industry to another; for example a much less efficient type of sedimentation tank might be used in one trade than in another. Today improvements in the treatment of sewage or of some particular effluent are much more rapidly adopted in other fields-the result no doubt of the many conferences on effluent disposal now held by the industrial and chemical-engineering professional associations and of the publication of books of the kind now under review.In concentrating attention on unit processes of effluent treatment however, there is a risk that the waste waters discharged from a manufacturing process may be assumed to be unalterable in volume and composition-that they should therefore be accepted as they are and some method of treating them applied. On the contrary it is now becoming widely recognised that questions of effluent disposal should be first considered within the factory the aim being to make the re-use of liquors an integral part of the process of manufacture so that only an irreducible minimum is left to be discharged to a sewer or a river after treatment. The author though he recognises the importance of this gives it lessemphasis than would many British industries faced with major problems of effluent disposal.The preface to the book implies that it was written primarily for postgraduate students with a knowledge of physics and chemistry. Though expensive it can be recommended as giving a broad though in some respects rather elementary, account of practice in effluent disposal. It is well illustrated has a useful index and includes references to published papers though almost entirely to those of American authors. ix + 399. Hall Ltd. 1955.) 58 figs. 76s. net. B. A. SOUTHGAT 212 General School Chemistry. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY S. Clynes and D. S. W. Williams. Pp. vi + 632. This book is one of a series designed to cover the science requirements of a grammar school up to 0 level of the General Certificate of Education of the main examining bodies.In conjunction with another series a comprehensive library will be available for the whole of science teaching in the school. The authors of this the 0 level chemistry book intend it also to provide “a bridge between the work of the Middle School and the more advanced studies of the sixth form.’’ To this latter end they have included sections of what is normally considered sixth form work viz. kinetic theory of matter classification of the elements reaction velocity mass law Le Chatelier’s principle catalysis and electrode potentials. These topics have been treated simply and should stimulate interest in the more difficult work that lies ahead.Furthermore the normal work on the metals and non-metals for 0 level has been somewhat extended to include most of the elements likely to be met with in the sixth form syllabus. It seems doubtful whether grammar school chemistry masters will have time available in the fifth form year to include preparatory sixth form work in these days of overcrowded syllabuses unless they are fortunate enough to be in those schools where ample time is devoted to the study of science and the production of scientists. However it is a laudable ideal particularly if schools bypass examination at 0 level. As an 0 level textbook it follows conventional lines and lacks the wealth of pictorial appeal and emphasis upon the applications of school-studied chemistry to industrial processes that is such a prominent feature of many modern textbooks.However it is most sound in its approach and thorough in its presentation. The recent additions to 0 level syllabuses are dealt with in a clear concise manner. I find it interesting to note that the authors in their treatment of the preferential discharge of ions have not followed the majority of modern writers who mostly quote three factors affecting the selection of a particular ion for discharge during electrolysis lay down tables of the relative ease of discharge of ions and then find that many of the electrolyses scheduled for study at 0 leveI contain exceptions to their so-called ‘rules.’ Rather have they pointed out that such factors do exist and have then considered the electrolyses on their merits.The work on atomic structure and valency is more than adequate as is the section on thermo-chemistry. The book is profusely provided with questions summaries and appendices which will be a valuable aid to the student and to the teacher. The line diagrams are clear and well annotated. (London English Universities Press Ltd. 1956.) 12s. 6d. net. This is a book for the better pupil; its theme-thoroughness. W. 0. MONTAGUE WILLIAMS British Standards Received 2646 1955. 2647 1956. 2656 1956. 2657 1956. 2690 1956. 2710 1956. 2711 1956. 2712 1956. (Obtainable Copper Laboratory Autoclaves. Pp. 15. 3s. net. Welded Steam-Heated Jacketed Pans for Processing Industries (Excluding Catering Equipment). Pp. 11. 2s. 6d. net. Zinc Anodes Zinc Cyanide and Zinc Oxide for Electroplating.Pp. 26. 4s. net. Fluoroboric Acid and Metallic Fluoroborates for Electro-plating. Pp. 23. 4s. net. Methods of Testing Water Used in Industry. Pp. 150. 17s. 6d. net. Bromomethane (Methyl Bromide). Pp. 10. 2s. 6d. net. Cyclohexanone. Pp. 7. 2s. 6d. net. Dipentene. Pp. 9. 2s. 6d. net. from B.S.I. 2 Park Street London W.1. INSTITUTE AFFAIRS Anniversary Meetings 1957.-It has been decided not to proceed with an earlier proposal to hold the Anniversary Meetings in Stoke-on-Trent next year. As there is a firm engagement to meet in Edinburgh in 1958 and invita-tions have been provisionally accepted for later years in Manchester Belfast, Leicester or Nottingham and Southampton it was agreed to hold the 1957 meetings in London.Further particulars will be announced in due course. Conference on (‘The Education and Training of the Chemist”,-Preliminary arrangements have been made to hold the conference in the Sir William Beveridge Hall Senate House University of London W.C. 1 on Friday, 26 October 1956. It is proposed that there shall be afternoon and evening sessions the former opening at 3 p.m. Details will be announced shortly. Operation of the New Regulations.-At their meeting on 16 March the Council considered a protest by the Committee of the Liverpool and North-Western Section on the new Regulations being brought into operation as early as 1 July 1956. The Council concluded however that the transitional arrange-ments already announced (circulated with the Regulations in January) were such as to avoid imposing any serious hardship on students now in training and that postponement of the date on which the new Regulations come formally into effect would be likely to cause more difficulties than it would remove.It was also pointed out that after the results of the April examinations are known, a survey will be made of the Register of Students and consideration given to the need for any special concessions to particular categories of students whose interests may not be adequately taken care of by the transitional arrange-ments ($ J. 81). It has already been agreed that every Student on the Register on 1 July 1956 will be notified before then of the conditions he will be required to accept in order to be admitted as a Student Member on that date.Benevolent Fund.-The Committee has expressed its deep appreciation of the generosity of a senior Fellow who had arranged for a donation of 50 guineas to be sent to the Fund in lieu of a fee for professional advice that would otherwise have been payable to him. The Committee has also had pleasure in acknow-ledging a contribution of &2 from an Associate sent as an indication of his appreciation of the advice given by the administrative officers on a service agreement. Society of Maccabaeans.-The Meldola Medal is the gift of the Society of Maccabaeans and since the establishment of the Award in 1921 Dr P. E. Spielmann Fellow has served continuously as the link between the Society and the Institute in all matters connected with the administration of the Award.On his retirement this year the Council of the Institute have expressed to him their cordial appreciation of his valuable co-operation and help throughout these many years. In this period the Meldola Medal has become increasingly recog-nised as the highest award that can be conferred on a chemist under the age of thirty and the attainment of this reputation owes much to the advice and guidance that Dr Spielmann has provided. Dr S. I. Levy Fellow has been appointed by the Society as his successor. South African Chemical Institute Ninth Chemical Convention.-A cordial letter has been received from the President Mr F. W. Hayes expressing appreciation of the Council’s greetings and good wishes forwarded through the Chairman of the Cape Section. Mr Hayes expresses his particular gratification at the reference in the Council’s message to his being a Fellow of the R.I.C.and to the fact that three other principal Officers of the S.A.C.I. are also corporate members of the R.I.C. 21 214 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY RECOGNITION OF COLLEGES For the Training of Candidates for Graduate Membership [APRIL Hitherto recognition for the training of candidates for the Associateship examination has been accorded to any college in the United Kingdom that has been able to satisfy the Council as to the adequacy of its staff equipment buildings and other facilities. There can be no doubt that in the past the Institute has had an important influence in raising the standard of chemistry courses in technical colleges throughout the country.By indicating to colleges that have applied for recognition the additional requirements to be met such colleges have been encouraged and helped to secure the necessary authority to extend and improve their teaching facilities in the desired directions. Now that about 70 technical colleges in the U.K. have been recognised by the Institute however the question has been raised as to how far extension of the list is in the best interests of students and of the profession. Some think that too many colleges have been recognised already. Although it may be possible to provide more buildings and equipment, the supply of good teachers is not unlimited and it is likely that the further development of colleges will proceed largely by attracting staff away from others already recognised.Moreover it is noteworthy that in the period January 1952 to January 1955, when 561 out of 1,854 candidates from 65 technical colleges were successful in the A.R.I.C. examination half of these successes were scored by 10 of those colleges; 19 colleges had only 21 successes between them out of 139 candidates presented. Even if allowance is made for some of these latter colleges being in a state of early development it seems doubtful if their students are getting the facilities they need. With small classes at post-HNC level the students may also be at a disadvantage in not mixing with many others having similar interests. When the Graduate Membership examination is established in two Parts, the number of candidates who pass or are exempted from Part I and are thus eligible to proceed with their studies for Part 11 is likely to be less (perhaps substantially less) than the number going forward without any intermediate hurdle to the Associateship examination under the present Regulations.In fact one of the purposes of the introduction of the Part I examination is to hold back candidates who are unlikely to succeed in Part 11. At the same time the division of the Institute’s examination into two parts will make it possible to recognise some colleges for training only to the level of Part I. Taking into account such considerations as grading of the department, number and grading of staff volume of advanced work and number and per-formance of candidates in recent Associateship examinations the Council has concluded that several colleges should be limited to Part I recognition and that, at least temporarily recognition should be withdrawn altogether from a few others.In some areas this may involve inconvenience to a few students but this is regarded as a lesser evil than that which arises from students being misled into thinking that they are taking courses at a college with adequate facilities. It is realised that the Institute has some responsibility for taking into account the present and potential needs of students in particular areas not only in deciding the extent to which individual colleges in such an area are worthy of recognition but also in considering which of them if any should be actively encouraged to improve their facilities so as to qualify for recognition to the level of Part 11.This may entail the simultaneous inspection of groups of colleges in certain areas having due regard to current industrial developments and decision on the degree of recognition to be accorded to such colleges is being deferred until this has been done. In any event it is being increasingly appreciated that even with day release, part-time study to Graduate Membership level places a heavy strain on the average student and the Council has advised students to take opportunities of transfer to full-time study at least for the final stages of their course (see intro-duction to the new Regulations). The alternative of a four-year sandwich cours 19561 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 215 bas also been commended and it is expected that such courses will become in-creasingly available.On this understanding less concern need be felt at some restriction of part-time training facilities to Part I1 level in certain areas especially where the number of students is small and is likely to remain so. It is better that the few promising students in such an area should transfer for periods of at least several months to colleges elsewhere at which advanced instruction has been concentrated. EXAMINATIONS JANUARY 1956 Associateship.-An Examination for the Associateship was held at the University of London South Kensington theoretical papers being taken also at various local centres in the periods 16 to 21 ,January and 24 to 27 January. Of the 116 candidates taking the whole examination 25 passed (21.5 per cent) 69 failed and 22 were referred.The average age of the candidates who entered for the examination was 27.1 years and 38 candidates were over 30 years of age. Fellowship.-Examinations for the Fellowship were held at the University of London South Kensington ; the Post-Graduate Medical School of London (Branch D.l) ; the Central Electricity Authority (Branch G) ; and the Public Analyst’s Laboratory Sunderland (Branch I) in the week beginning 9 January. There were 170 entries of whom 49 passed (28.8 per cent). A summary of the Fellowship Examination results is given below. Branch D.l Clinical Chemistry Examiners Professor E. J. King and Dr W. Klyne . . Branch E The Chemistry including Microscopy of Food and Drugs and of Water Examiners Dr D.C. Garratt and Dr H. E. Archer General Examiner Dr W. Preston with special reference to Oils Fats and Waxes with special reference to the Plastics Industry with special reference to Power Station Operation and Branch G Industrial Chemistry Special Examiner Dr K. A. Williams .. .. Special Examiner Mr C. E. Hollis . . .. f . Special Examiner Mr E. A. Howes . . .. .. Examiner Mr W. Gordon Carey . .. * . Practice Branch I Water Supply and the Treatment of Sewage and Trade EBuents Entered Passed 2 2 12 4 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 18 8 - -- -PASS LIST EXAMINATION FOR THE ASSOCIATESHIP ATHERTON Cyril Ignatius College of Technology Liverpool. ATKIN James Henry Technical College Chesterfield and Nottingham and BALL Clarence Patrick Norwood Technical College London and The Poly-BENNETT Royston Henry College of Technology Bristol.BOREHAM Dennis South-East Essex Technical College Dagenham. COBB Peter George William Nottingham and District Technical College and CORRY Brian Reginald Plymouth and Devonport Technical College Plymouth. Cox Richard Clare College of Technology Loughborough. District Technical College Nottingham. technic Regent Street London. College of Technology Birmingham 216 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL DERRY Eric Technical College Bradford. DICKER Eric Sydney South-East Essex Technical College Dagenham. DRIVER Norman F.P.s. College of Technology Liverpool. FISHER Arnold College of Technology Leeds and West Ham College. of FLETCHER Kenneth Leonard Royal Technical College Salford.GOUGH Gerald Gordon James College of Technology Bristol. HANSON Thomas Municipal Technical College Blackburn. HENDERSON George Henry Rutherford College of Technology Newcastle upon HILL Derrick Albert Technical College Coventry. KAPNOUDHIS Andreas Efthymiou Borough Polytechnic London. KENYON John Russell College of Technology Liverpool. KIRBY Peter Edward B.SC. (LOND.) University College Leicester. LADELL Roy Leslie Chelsea Polytechnic London. MARSDEN Frank Charles Harris Institute Preston Northern Polytechnic, London and Luton and South Bedfordshire College of Further Education, Luton. Technology London. Tyne. MARSHALL Derek Lawrence West Ham College of Technology London. MASON Tony Harris Institute Preston. MCCAMBLEY William Henry Norwood Technical College London.MCCAUSLAND Robert James Technical College Paisley. MILLS Gordon Ronald Plymouth and Devonport Technical College Plymouth. MOORE Peter John Denbighshire Technical College Wrexham. MULLIN Douglas B.SC. (LOND.) Technical College Doncaster. OVERTON Terence Kim Webley B.SC. (LOND.) Technical College Newport, PERRY Sidney George B.SC. (LOND.) Technical College Derby. PHILLIPS Denys Arthur Norwood Technical College London. PROBERT Norman Glamorgan Technical College Treforest . PROFFITT James Adrian College of Further Education Widnes. PRYKE Hugh Roger Northampton Polytechnic London. QUARTERMAIN Philip Geoffrey College of Technology Birmingham. RADFORD Peter John Mayhew Acton Technical College London and Norwood Technical College London.RATCLIFFE David Bernard School of Technology Ipswich and South-West Essex Technical College Walthamstow. ROBERTS Alyn Newton Denbighshire Technical College Wrexham. Ross James Royal Technical College Salford. SCHMEISING Howard Neil Acton Technical College London. SCOTT James Sykes McIvor Technical College Paisley. SHIEL Leslie Edward Rutherford College of Technology Newcastle upon Tyne. TAYLOR Peter Anthony College of Technology Liverpool. TINKLER William Samuel Nightingale University College London and West TUCKER Alan Cyril A.M.c.T. College of Technology Manchester. WHITFIELD Leslie College of Technology Birmingham. WILSON Alan de Sillery College of Further Education Stockport. YOUNG Derek Malcolm Verney College of Technology Birmingham.and Woolwich Polytechnic London. Ham College of Technology London. EXAMINATION FOR THE FELLOWSHIP Branch D.l Clinical Chemistry BOWERS Allan B.SC. (LOND.). STREET Harold Vincent B.SC. (BIRM.). BEIDAS Abdullah Said B.SC. (LOND.) . MEADOWS George Swithin. PERKIN Leonard Arthur B.SC. (LEEDS). TURNER Alan. Branch E The Chemistry (including Microscopy) of Food and Drugs and of Wate 19561 INSTITUTE AFFAIRS 217 Branch G Industrial Chemistry with special reference 20 Oils Fats und Waxes BICKERTON James Roy. Branch I Water Supply and the Treatment of Sewage and Trade Efluents MCKAY Alan. PERSONAL NOTES News of Hon. Fellows Sir John Cockcroft has accepted the invitation of the lmperial College to be the Special Visitor on Commemoration Day which will be celebrated on 25 October in the Royal Albert Hall.Sir Henry Tizard who is Prime Warden of the Goldsmiths’ Company and was Rector of the Imperial College from 1929 to 1942 is to be present at Hall Dinner on 1 May to present to the College two Silver Dishes which have been specially designed and made to the order of the Goldsmiths’ Company as a token of the long and close association of the Company with the College. Honours and Awards Dr C. H. Giles Fellow Senior Lecturer the Royal Technical College, Glasgow has been awarded the Research Medal of the Worshipful Company of Dyers for the year 1954-55. Mr T. McLachlan Fellow has been awarded the Hinchley Medal for 1955 of the British Association of Chemists. He is a Vice-president of the Association and also President of the Association of Public Analysts.The Royal Society.-The following members of the Institute have been elected Fellows of the Royal Society :-Professor R. M. Barrer Fellow Professor of Chemistry Imperial College of Science and Technology; Professor J. A. V. Butler Fellow Professor of Physical Chemistry University of London ; Mrs Helen K. Porter Associate Principal Scientific Officer Research Institute of Plant Physiology Imperial College of Science and Technology; Professor C. W. Shoppee Fellow Professor of Chemistry University College Swansea ; and Professor A. Wormall Fellow Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry St Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical College London. The Royal Society of Edinburgh.-The following Fellows of the Institute have been elected Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh :-Professor D.H. R. Barton Regius Professor of Chemistry University of Glasgow; Dr J. Bell senior lecturer in chemistry and assistant director of the chemical laboratories University of Glasgow ; Professor K. G. Denbigh Professor of Chemical Technology, University of Edinburgh; Dr D. C. Martin Assistant Secretary The Royal Society of London; and Dr Magnus Pyke Head of the Laboratory Section, Yeast Research Organisation of the Distillers’ Company Ltd. Menstrie. Educational Dr M. J. Birchenough Fellow has been appointed Head of the Department of Chemistry and Biology at Norwood Technical College. Mr J. D. Cole-Baker Associate has recently taken up the appointment of Senior Science Master in the International School of Geneva.Professor F. Morton Fellow pFofessor of chemical engineering in the University of Birmingham has been appointed to the newly created Chair of Chemical Engineering in the University of Manchester and in the Manchester College of Technology. Dr E. Tidd Associate Head of the Department of Pure Science Bournemouth Municipal College of Technology and Art has been appointed Inspector of Further Education for the City of Birmingham as from 1 May 218 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Public and Industrial Dr W. M. Ames F.R.s.E. Fellow has resigned from the Board of J. & G. Cox Ltd. Edinburgh. Dr F. H. Banfield Fellow Director of Research British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Association has been appointed a member of the Committee of Management of the Low Temperature Research Station Cambridge.The appointment on the nomination of the Cornmittee of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Research is until 3 1 December 1959. Emeritus Professor H. V. A. Briscoe Fellow has been appointed by the Central Electricity Authority as Pollution Prevention Consultant for the Rheidol Hydro-Electric Scheme under the North Wales Hydro-Electric Power Act. Mr E. H. W. J. Burden Associate has been appointed Sudan Government Analyst and is located at the Wellcome Chemical Laboratories Khartoum. Mr R. D. Burn Fellow technical consultant to the British Metal Corporation, has been appointed a member of the Technical Committee of the International Tin Research Council. Mr C. Chilvers Fellow manager co-ordination and economics department, the Esso Petroleum Company has been appointed to the Board.Dr G. W. Cooke Fellow has been appointed head of the Chemistry Depart-ment Rothamsted Experimental Station in succession to Dr R. K. Schofield. Mr D. K. Coutts Associate has been appointed Manager of the Technical Office the Mond Nickel Co. Ltd. Bombay in succession to the late Mr J. McNeill. Dr T. B. Crow Fellow has taken up an appointment with E. A. Lewis & Co. Ltd. Birmingham metallurgical consultants and analysts. Mr H. J. Foxcroft Associate has joined the Process Engineering Department of Humphreys and Glasgow Ltd. Mr E. D. Gilbert Associate has been appointed Chief Development Chemist in charge of the new Chemicals Division Development Laboratory Newton Chambers & Co.Ltd. Thorncliffe. Mr R. E. Grove Associate has been appointed a director of Bollington Printing Co. Macclesfield. Mr R. E. Jones Fellow has been appointed Area Chemist Research Depart-ment British Railways Crewe in succession to the late Mr V. Binns Fellow. Mr J. Kay Fellow formerly Chief Analyst Associated Ethyl Go. Ltd. has been appointed Chief Chemist British Sidac Ltd. St Helens Lancs. Mr W F. Kirkpatrick Fellow has been appointed Head of the Chemistry Department The Linen Industry Research Association in succession to Mr D. A. Derrett-Smith Fellow. Mr R. S. Medlock Associate Head of the Research and Development Depart-ment George Kent Ltd. Luton has been appointed to the Board of the company. Dr Grant Miles Fellow who has been working with the Chemistry Division at the A.E.R.E.Harwell is returning to Australia this month and will be stationed at the Atomic Energy Commission Research Laboratories near Sydney. Professor D. M. Newitt Fellow has been appointed a member of the Executive Committee of the National Physical Laboratory. Mr P. D. Oakley Fellow has ceased to be a director of Siemens Electric Lamps and Supplies Ltd. as a result of its transfer to British-Thomson-Houston Co. Ltd. He is now manager Preston Factories British Thomson-Houston Co. Ltd. Mr J. C . C . Ransom Associate has been appointed Deputy Training and Education Officer North Western Gas Board as from 1 May. Mr Percy Rayner-Smith Fellow has been presented with an antique silver salver (Thos. Gilpin 1743 London) by his partners “in appreciation of his fifty years with Marks and Clerk,” Chartered Patent Agents 19561 SECTION ACTIVITIES 219 Mr H.Silman Fellow is relinquishing his position as research manager of the Ford Motor Company’s engineering research establishment Birmingham, on being appointed to the Board of Electro-Chemical Engineering Co. Ltd., Weybridge . Mr W. G. Stewart Associate has been appointed Process Manager British Titan Products Co. Ltd. Billingham. Mr H. S. Tasker Associate has been appointed President of Ilford Inc. New York a subsidiary of Ilford Ltd. Professor A. R. Ubbelohde F.R.s. Fellow has been elected Chairman of the Fire Research Committee of the D.S.I.R. and appointed a member of the Warren Research Fund Committee of the Royal Society.SECTION ACTIVITIES BELFAST AND DISTRICT At a meeting held on 24 January with the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry, a large and appreciative audience including a number of members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary heard Dr J. B. Firth Director of the North Western Forensic Science Laboratory Preston give a lecture arranged by the Society of Chemical Industry entitled “Some Applications of Science in the Detection of Crime.” Dr Firth kept his audience enthralled for nearly two hours during which he described many aspects of the work of forensic science laboratories. The part played by photography in this work was particularly noticeable. In thanking the lecturer on behalf of the members and guests present Mr A. J. Howard said that Dr Firth had been associated with the forensic science laboratories in Great Britain since their inception and he had shown during his lecture how the organisation now existing assisted the courts in ascertaining the true facts of a crime.It was largely due ti> Dr Firth and a small number of his contemporaries that the forensic science laboratories had reached their present degree of efficiency and were able to assist the courts. Members of the Local Section were present at a joint meeting with the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry held on 7 February at which a lecture arranged by the Chemical Society entitled “Reactions in Liquid Dinitrogen Tetroxide” was given by Dr C. C. Addison of the University of Nottingham. In the course of his lecture Dr Addison reported work recently carried out in which reactions in dinitrogen tetroxide were used as a method of investigating the structure and configuration of various compounds.Dr R. G. R. Bacon who presided proposed a vote of thanks to the lecturer at the conclusion of the discussion that followed the lecture. The Local Section arranged a meeting on 21 February jointly with the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry at which Professor C. F. Kernball of Queen’s University gave a lecture entitled “The Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis-A Challenge to the Physical Chemist.” After touching on the work leading up to the development of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis Professor Kemball went on to describe the various applications of the process and the physico-chemical concepts upon which the reaction is based.In referring to the mechanism of the reaction mention was made of the use of radioactive compounds for marking selected carbon atoms. In connection with the commercial application of the process it was pointed out that where such raw materials as oil were available these were in most cases commercially more attractive than the use of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. A lively discussion followed the lecture in which several members of the audience took part the proceedings being concluded by a vote of thanks to the lecturer by the Chairman of the Section Dr T Caughey who presided. Some Applications of Science in the Detection of Crime. Reactions in Liquid Dinitrogen Tetroxide. The FGcher-Tropsch Synthesis 220 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLANDS The fifth meeting of the Section was held jointly with the Wolverhampton Society of Applied Science at Wolverhampton on 3 February, when Dr J.Newton Friend lectured on “The History of Our Minerals.” Irradiated High Polymers.-On 7 March Dr A. Charlesby (T.I. Plastics Ltd.), lectured on “Irradiated High Polymers.” Professor M. Stacey F.R.s. was in the Chair. The lecturer detailed the common sources of radiation and indicated the main uses of such radiation in the high polymer field. The two major aspects to be considered are the uses of radiation in (1) polymerisation and (2) the modification of polymers produced by other methods of initiation. Gamma irradiation in the energy range of interest in chemical reactions does not induce radioactivity but acts principally by way of bond cleavage resulting in the formation of free radicals.Such free radicals can obviously initiate polymerisa-tion or alternatively if bonds are broken in an existing high polymer cross-linking may ensue. Polymerisation initiated by gamma radiation may be carried out under temperature conditions vastly different from those applying to normal free radical polymerisation. For example polythene is normally produced under high pressure conditions (thousands of pounds per ins2) at temperatures of the order of 200°C. Using gamma radiation ethylene may be polymerised at room temperature and at pressures of a thousand pounds. Such gamma-initiated reactions usually produce polymers differing in mechanical and physical properties from those obtained by normal methods.Polythene when produced by gamma irradiation of ethylene will be cross-linked to a certain extent and will have great structural differences from polythene prepared in the usual way. The rate of polymerisation by gamma radiation will depend upon the structure and stability of the free radicals produced and rates will vary therefore with each monomer. Styrene is reasonably resistant to polymerisation by gamma rays. Some interesting parallels exist between the rates of polymerisation and the physiological effects of gamma rays upon biological structures. The cross-linking effects of radiation upon high polymers enhance heat resistance and mechanical properties. Some materials e.g.polymethyl metha-crylate can be readily foamed by heating after irradiation. The properties of polythene can be varied considerably by making use of cross-linking produced by irradiation. Large doses are required to obtain significant changes in properties. About 2 x 106 roentgen transform normal polythene into a non-melting solid and 2 x lo7 roentgen will completely cross-link a sample into one large molecule insoluble in all the usual solvents. As the radiation dose is increased polythene will show a deepening colour. Weight changes during the irradiation of polythene are complex and correspond to surface oxidation and evolution of methane and ethene in addition to evolution of the primary hydrogen released by the breaking of the C-H bond. The ease of cross-linking under the influence of high-energy radiation creates difficulties in providing suitable oil coolants and lubricants where such conditions are met with.For example silicone oils readily cross-link to give solid polymers. The utilisation of ‘waste’ energy from the processes of nuclear fission by taking advantage of chemical effects can be an important outlet in a field where the improvement of rates of polymerisation the close control of molecular weights and the modification of polymer properties are of continuing scientific and commercial interest. History ofour Minerals. BRISTOL AND DISTRICT This was the title of a lecture given to N. Gloucestershire members of the Section in the Technical College Gloucester on 16 February, by Dr I. G. C.Dryden from the British Coal Utilisation Research Association, Basic Research Laboratories. Dr Dryden began by pointing out that the bright glossy constituent of British coals was an organic chemical not carbon and of greater degree of homogeneity than one would expect from its history. Coal hTature of Coal 19561 SECTION ACTIVITIES 22 1 was amorphous and disordered in structure and incorporatedoan extensive ultra-fine structure with holes ranging from molecular size to 50A as well as larger cracks and capillary systems. The relation between different types of coal their petrological and chemical classification and theories of their formation were briefly reviewed. The need for using many different methods of examination in order to avoid errors in interpretation of experimental results was emphasised and the X-ray diffraction patterns infra-red absorption spectra results of chemical group determinations and other reactions of coals were discussed.The molecular nucleus was now believed to consist of an aromatic nucleus containing only a few fused rings together with short aliphatic side-chains or alicyclic rings Phenolic hydroxyl accounted for a considerable proportion of the oxygen except in the more mature coals. There were also chelated quinone-hydroxyl structures and probably some ether and heterocyclic oxygen atoms. Unconjugated double bonds and unconjugated carbonyl groups were normally absent. Studies of the products of coal oxidation were also described and brief mention was made of the mechanism of its carbonisation or pyrolysis which appears to proceed in two distinct stages.Unsolved problems included the cause of the intense colour of coal and the difficulty in obtaining fractions differing one from another or lacking the characteristic colloidal properties of coal itself. Dr R. R. Gordon of the National Coal Board Stoke Orchard in proposing a vote of thanks paid tribute to the work being done at B.C.U.R.A. Current Research atB.C.UJ2.A. The Director of the Basic Research Laboratories, Mr R. L. Brown was the lecturer at the University of Bristol on 8 March when the President of the Society of Chemical Industry Mr Julian M. Leonard was present and took the Chair at the invitation of Dr G. V. James. Mr Brown then proceeded to outline the themes of work in progress at Leatherhead.These could be divided into five topics uiz. the basic physics and chemistry of coal its domestic use its use in steam raising air-pollution from coal-burning plants and pulverisation of coal. After a brief discussion of the constitution and some of the experimental techniques now being employed in attempts to elucidate this further Mr Brown turned to the applied aspects. The work of the domestic appliances laboratory was illustrated by reference to work on the freestanding open hearth with restricted throat and this was followed by an account of work in the boiler department. In connection with studies on the locomotive boiler, model experiments have suggested improvements to the ash pan and boiler chamber and a Royal Scot class boiler has been installed at Leatherhead.Grit and dust emission from coal-burning plants were also discussed. The lecture was held jointly by the three chartered chemical bodies together with the Institute of Fuel whose Vice-president Dr A. C. Monkhouse proposed the vote of thanks. CUMBERLAND AND DISTRICT On 6 January Dr R. L. M. Synge F.R.s. of the Rowett Research Institute Aberdeen gave a lecture entitled “Principles of Chromatography”. Mr F. J. Woodman was in the Chair. Dr Synge emphasised the importance of developing the underlying principles related to the wide and expanding field of chromatography. He outlined first the theory of elution development and followed with a brief exposition of the techniques of frontal analysis and displacement development. The height equivalent of the theoretical plate approach to chromatographic column behaviour was described and also the factors influencing the equilibria involved.The related phenomenon of electrophoresis was then considered and Dr Synge con-cluded his lecture by referring to some of the problems encountered in the chromatography of large organic molecules. An interesting discussion followed and the vote of thanks was proposed by Mr B. F. Warner. Solid Lubricants. A meeting of the Section was held in the Windscale Club, Seascale on 13 February Dr H. Gregson presiding. Princ$Ze.s of Chromatografihy 222 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL The lecturer Mr E. R. Braithwaite chose as his subject “Solid Lubricants”, in commemorating the birth of Acheson the first man to make solid graphite.Mr Braithwaite said that the well-known laws of friction are known to break down for truly flat surfaces and the fundamental principles involved are some-what uncertain. Graphite, in uacuo becomes abrasive but recovers its lubricating powers when exposed to a polar gas owing to the loosening of the graphite layers. It has been shown that in friction between metal surfaces local temperatures as high as 1000°C can occur and with radioactive tracer techniques that transfer of material occurs. Chloride sulphide and oxide films can act as solid lubricants depending on the relative hardness of the films and the metals involved. Some interesting prop-erties of molybdenum sulphide polythene polystyrene perspex and molten glass were described.After the discussion which followed Mr J. Lucas proposed the vote of thanks to the lecturer. Tantalum and Niobium. On 9 March the Section was pleased to welcome Dr F. Fairbrother of the University of Manchester who lectured on “The Chemistry of Tantalum and Niobium.” Dr Fairbrother outlined the history of the discovery of these two elements, which have both assumed importance in recent years. When discussing niobium, formerly named columbium the lecturer was amusing yet forthright in describing the almost political intrigue that resulted in the acceptance of the present name for the metal. Despite the fact that tantalum has a molecular weight almost twice that of niobium the elements are difficult to separate chemically. Until recently this was achieved by recrystallising a mixture of potassium fluorotantalate and potas-sium oxyfluoroniobate.Newer methods include fractional distillation of the trichlorides. All the niobium halides are found to be less volatile than the corresponding tantalum halides. The lecturer described the complexity of the aqueous chemistry of these two elements particularly when they are present in solution together. The formation of organic complexes was given in some detail. A lively discussion followed the lecture and Dr F. €3. Day concluded the meeting with a vote of thanks. Films of adsorbed gases can lubricate solid surfaces. Mr F. Woodman took the Chair. DUNDEE AND DISTRICT A Symposium on Modern Techniques was held in the Chemistry Department at the Technical College Dundee on 16 March.The meeting was presided over by Dr T. J. Morrison. Comprehensive surveys of recent advances in organic chemistry in inorganic chromatography and in spectrophotometry were presented by Dr Robert Roger Mr Norman B. B. Johnstone and Mr Robert G. Reid respectively. Following a tea interval mem-bers and friends proceeded to the laboratory demonstrations. The symposium was attended by a large audience who showed great interest in the excellent demonstrations These sparked off a number of very keen dis-cussions. Mr Alexander Hood voiced the thanks of those present to the speakers and their assistants. Modern Chemical Techniques. EAST ANGLIA Organo-Tin Compounds. Dr E. S. Hedges Director of the Tin Research Institute spoke in Ipswich on 24 February on “Organo-Tin Compounds and their Industrial Application.” Dr Hedges gave a most interesting survey of the increasing number of uses to which organo-tin compounds are being put.They can be divided roughly into two classes dialkyl and trialkyl tin compounds. Dialkyl tin compounds have found their main application in the stabilisation of P.V.C. polymers the most commonly used being dibutyl tin maleate and dibutyl tin laurate. Interest is now being shown in the higher alkyl tin com-pounds such as dioctyl tin maleate which appears to be relatively non-toxic. Dibutyl tin dilaurate has found wide application in the United States in the worm-ing of chickens 19561 SECTION ACTIVITIES 223 The trialkyl tin salts are very much more toxic than the dialkyl and are potent fungicides and bactericides.No large-scale application has yet been found for this class of compounds but much development work is being carried out. There are possibilities in agriculture wood preservation anti-fouling paints and as slimicides in paper manufacture. Dr Hedges stressed that organo-tin chemistry is still in its infancy and it will be necessary for compounds to be ‘tailor-made’ for specific applications. In spite of bitterly cold weather a fairly good audience heard this talk which was greatly enjoyed by all present. Dr F. C. Lloyd was in the Chair and Dr R. R. Smith proposed the vote of thanks. EAST MIDLANDS The second Derby meeting at which the Chairman of the Section Mr R. Betteridge presided was held on 16 February at the Technical College when Dr E.B. Maxted of the University of Bristol gave a lecture on “Recent Advances in the Treatment of Catalyst Poisoning.” Dr Maxted pointed out that the suppression of catalyst poisoning mainly involved the metals Fe Co Ni; Ru Rh Pd (and also Cu) ; Os Ir Pt and that the poisons consisted of three groups uiz. (1) non-metallic elements N P As, Sb; (0) S Se Te; (2) toxic metallic ions; and ( 3 ) compounds containing un-saturated bonds such as -C =N and C=O. The toxicity of sulphur compounds for example was considered to depend on the fact that sulphur atoms possess unshared electrons. Dr Maxted indicated that older methods of suppressing catalyst poisoning consisted in blocking these by converting the sulphide to sulphone sulphonate ion or sulphate ion. He pointed out that in hydrogenations detoxication of catalyst poisoning by cystein was effected by the use of perphosphate and persulphate.Dr Maxted then discussed the nature and strength of typical poison-to-catalyst bonds. The strength of the bond must be considerable otherwise a small amount of poison would not have such a marked surface effect; catalyst poisoning was in fact an extreme case of competitive chemisorption. Experimental work had proved however that the bond is not strong enough to prevent reversibility. For instance if the poisoned catalyst (e.g. platinum poisoned with thiophen or dimethylphenylarsine) is washed with solvent or washed with solvent containing a dissolved ‘competitor’ such as cyclohexene crotonic acid or sodium crotonate, the activity of the catalyst is completely restored.Revival of platinum and platinum black residues could be effected in a very simple way by shaking with acetic acid and cyclohexene allowing to stand overnight and then centrifuging. It was also possible to de-sorb a catalyst poison into the gaseous phase by circulating gas (e.g. hydrogen) or gas containing ethylene over the catalyst. Dr Maxted described the apparatus in which this operation could be effected; by incorporating a cold trap in the system the catalyst poison could be isolated and removed very conveniently. These catalyst regenerations were carried out at room temperatures and it seemed that poisoning and regeneration could be repeated indefinitely If, however the temperature were elevated this would decompose the poison and make the reaction irreversible.For example if nickel is poisoned by thiophen at elevated temperatures nickel sulphide is formed and chemical treatment is needed to remove the poison. Anodic oxidation followed by washing had been found to be effective in these circumstances. Liquid formic acid had also been found to be effective for the removal of nickel sulphide. This is achieved by saturating with formic acid allowing to stand overnight then passing a rapid stream of hydrogen through so as to drive out the hydrogen sulphide and then raising the temperature to decompose the nickel formate to nickel. In answer to a question Dr Maxted agreed that formic acid treatment would be suitable for nickel catalyst only if made from the formate; he asserted however that if properly prepared nickel from formate can be as efficient a catalyst as that made from basic nickel carbonate.Mr W. Keane expressed the appreciation of all present for this most interesting lecture. Treatment of Catalyst Poisoning 224 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL A joint meeting of the Section with the East Midlands Section of the Institute of Fuel was held at the Electricity Showrooms Derby, on 23 February when Dr J. H. Burgoyne Reader in Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London gave a lecture on “Gaseous Combustion.” Chemical theories of combustion were first considered and the hydroxylation theory which proposed successive additions of OH groups to the hydrocarbon, was illustrated by reference to methane : Gaseous Curnbmtiun.CH -+ CHSOH + CH,(OH) -+ H.CHO -+ H.COOH 3. 4 H20 + CO H,O + CO, Formaldehyde has been detected in this reaction but no methanol except in pressurised combustions. The hydroperoxide theory was then briefly referred to. After his kinetic researches Professor Hinshelwood proposed a chain-reaction mechanism in which the initial steps were branching chains and the chain-carriers free radicals. The aforementioned reactions all occur at low temperatures. The lecturer then discussed combustion at higher temperatures now being actively studied by using high velocity gas flows. Methane combustion proceeds in a few milliseconds. Analysis of the products by infra-red methods shows that the methane content decreases while the carbon monoxide content increases until all the methane has been destroyed when carbon monoxide is converted to carbon dioxide.It thus appears that the formaldehyde present inhibits the reaction CO + CO,. Detailed temperature distribution is studied by means of a flat disc of flame through which is passed a beam of light at an angle of 45” to its area. The image is a loop and from the shape of this the refractive index changes at various levels in the flame are deter-mined and the temperatures ultimately obtained. The flat flame burner contains a battery of parallel tubes at the top of which the gas has a flat velocity distribution and the gas velocity equals the burning velocity. Further progress will be made when suitable methods of analysis have been developed for following the rapid reactions occurring in these flat flames both qualitatively and quantitatively.The rate of progress of flames through tubes has aIso been studied to give the fundamental burning velocities of various gases. These decrease as the homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons is ascended and increase as the degree of unsaturation is increased. The physics of the flame front were then described. EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND At a joint meeting of the three chemical societies in Edinburgh on 23 February a large audience heard Professor D. H. Everett’s Tilden Lecture entitled “Some Developments in the Study of Physical Adsorp-tion”-a most stimulating experience. The lecture was followed by a lengthy and interesting discussion. At the Annual General Meeting of the Local Section preceding this lecture the new Local Section Rules were adopted.Members of the Section were very pleased to learn that Professor K. G. Denbigh (a member of the Committee) and Dr Magnus Pyke (District Member of Council) have been elected Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and would like to offer their heartiest congratulations. A.G.M. and TiMen Lecture. HUDDERSFIELD On 17 January members joined with the local section of the Society of Dyers and Colourists to hear a lecture by one of the great authorities on wool, Professor J. B. Speakman. They learned how the differences in texture or ‘handle’ of wool depend on the nature of the follicles primary and secondary, in the sheep and how judicious breeding is used to develop particular grades of fibres.Dr W. R. H. Hurtley Chairman of the Section thanked the lecturer on behalf of those present. Wool 1956l SECTION ACTIVITIES 225 On 24 January Professor H. N. Rydon, of the University of Manchester gave a lecture entitled “Some Aspects of the Organic Chemistry of Phosphorus” to a large audience composed of members of the Section and students of the Huddersfield Technical College Chemical Society. The final lecture of the 1955-56 programme was delivered on 14 February by Dr T. P. Hoar on the “Inhibition of Metallic Corrosion.” The lecturer described the mechanism of anodic and cathodic corrosion and mentioned a number of inhibitors particularly useful in protecting metals from acid attack. The informal discussion that followed was undoubtedly invaluable to the audience which included a large proportion of chemists in whose daily work problems of corrosion figure prominently.In thanking the lecturer Dr G. R. Ramage said how much the Section appreciated Dr Hoar’s enthusiasm for his subject and his willingness to come such a long way in wintry conditions to deliver it. Organic Chemistry of Phos$horus. The lecturer was thanked by Mr J. Pugh. Inhibition of Metallic Corrosion. HULL AND DISTRICT Fourth Annual Dinner The Fourth Annual Dinner was as successful as its delightful predecessors. The Lord Mayor and the Sheriff of Kingston upon Hull with their ladies gave civic recognition to the function and were supported by an attendance of 180. Dr D. W. Kent-Jones President of the Institute was the principal guest.During dinner excerpts were played from musical comedy and light opera selected by Mr C. E. Rhodes; these well chosen items gave considerable pleasure to the company. The Chairman proposed the loyal toast of “Her Majesty the Queen Patron of the Royal Institute of Chemistry”. Dr Kent-Jones in a characteristic speech reminded his hearers how the powerful British chemical industry of today had established itself since the first world war when the membership of the Institute was much smaller. In the inter-vening years as membership increased Local Sections were formed. These active Local Sections exercised an influence upon matters of Institute and national importance particularly through the Local Secretaries’ Conferences and the work of District Members of the Council.The standing of the Hull Section in its own area was reflected by the presence of the Lord Mayor and Sheriff who despite their heavy engagements had each set aside a whole evening to honour the pro-fession of chemistry. He commented with assumed incredulity on the existence of the Hull Chemical and Engineering Society a blending of elements which he had misguidedly assumed to be immiscible. He proposed the toast of the “Hull and District Section and its Chairman Mr M. D. Rogan” and having known Mr Rogan for many years in the offices of honorary treasurer and honorary secretary, he claimed the privilege of old friendship to address him as “Pooh Bah”. In reply Mr Rogan said that the steady progress of the Hull and District Section was a result of those disciplines of thought and conduct to which scientists submitted themselves and which impelled the great contributions that chemistry made to human well-being.Hull had made Institute history in nominating the first official representative of the Institute to a University Court and was proud to number among its members the Vice-Chancellor elect of the University. He expressed gratitude that the Lord Mayor and Sheriff had found time to attend; he hoped that they would find pleasure in listening to the band though he feared that its efforts might not attain the musical standards to which the Worshipful Sheriff was accustomed. The President was welcome in his official capacity and as a distinguished cereal chemist though the company would have relished more serial in his all-too-short speech.Mr Rogan gently admonished the President, pointing out that in the persons of Mr and Mrs G. R. Cade of the Hull Chemical and Engineering Society the Section was entertaining the representatives of the oldest scientific society in the city (Dr Kent-Jones here protested “They don’t look it!”). In the regretted absence of Dr G. W. Gray Professor Brynmor Jones Mr Peter Bullock sang the Latin grace Benedic Domine Nos. Proposing the toast of “The Guests” Mr Rogan spoke in lighter vein 226 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRII represented the Chemical Society and was doubly welcome. Mr S. S. Done, Vice-chairman of the Hull Section of the Oil and Colour Chemists’ Association, and Mrs Done were old personal friends and representative of a society with which the Section had the pleasantest associations.The Chairman went on to express his delight in the presence of so many charming ladies so delightfully dressed. He recalled that he was inspired to take up a career in chemistry by the picture in “Holmyard” that showed the lovely Madame Lavoisier sitting quill in hand in the laboratory taking notes of the experiments performed by her distinguished husband. In imagination he saw himself like Lavoisier extending the frontiers of science with the help of a beautiful secretary! The Lord Mayor began his reply in cheerful anecdotal mood and continued with appreciative references to the importance of chemists in local industry in quality control and in ensuring the safety and welfare of workers.The city employed more than 10,000 in the chemical and allied industries and it was the constant endeavour of the Corporation to encourage the newer industries and to provide the fullest facilities for further expansion. The Lord Mayor and the President mingled with the guests after dinner. Their respective emblems of office made striking contrast. The Kingston upon Hull mayoral chain is massive 15th-century gold rich with memories of the past. The Institute’s 20th-century wheel with its rare metal spokes and synthetic fibre ribbon symbolises and exemplifies the development of chemistry and its con-tribution to the enrichment of modern life. Dancing continued under the suave direction of Dr S. N. H. Stothart until 1 a.m. with a timely interval for refreshments just before midnight.LEEDS AREA The Open Meeting organised jointly by the Leeds Area Section of the Royal Institute of Chemistry and the Yorkshire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry has become an important annual event in Leeds. This year it was held in the Queen’s Hotel on 2 February and in view of the Centenary which all chemists are about to celebrate it was appropriate that the theme of the proceedings should be “Colour”. The Sections were delighted that the President of the Institute Dr I). W. Kent-Jones was able to be present to occupy the Chair and that Mrs Kent-Jones accompanied him. In spite of severe weather some 300 members and their ladies and guests attended and thoroughly enjoyed a most entertaining evening. The usual stately appearance of the large ballroom was transformed into the semblance of a fairground by exhibits and demonstrations alternating with mysterious booths into which one was invited to disappear to behold some mystery of light and darkness all of which greatly intrigued the assembling guests.Dr Kent-Jones welcomed the company and introduced Dr T. Vickerstaff, Assistant Chief Colourist of I.C.I. Ltd. Dyestuffs Division whose lecture on “Colour” was the highlight of the evening. The nature of light was explained and the dependence of colour on the type of illumination was demonstrated; the ladies were startled to find that articles of attire which matched perfectly in the artificial lighting of the shop might well appear quite otherwise in the daylight outside. The role of the eye led up to the subject of optical illusions and coloured after-images and at one stage the audience were considerably shaken to perceive a pink elephant that wasn’t there before.Finally there were demonstrations of the production of colour by mixing coloured lights or dyestuffs. The exhibits for which the organisers were greatly indebted to various industrial firms and University departments were designed to illustrate the topics of the lecture. They included the production of a green pigment by a working model the effect of ultra-violet light on fluorescent poster colours the detection of colour-blindness by the anomaloscope and the dyeing of mixed fibres in different colours in the same dyebath. A large working model of screen printing attracted a great deal of attention and samples of its work commemora-ting the Open Meeting in suitable terms were distributed to members of the Light and Colour 19561 SECTION ACTIVITIES 227 audience.The ladies were invited to test their colour sense by placing nine coloured designs in order of preference. The winner whose choice was nearest to the order of popular selection was Mrs Warburton who received a prize at the hands of Mrs Vickerstaff. Mr Trefor Davies Chairman of the Yorkshire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry expressed the thanks of the audience to Dr Kent-Jones to Dr Vickerstaff to the exhibitors and to all those who had worked so hard to prepare the display. At a meeting held at the University of Leeds on 13 February Mr A. C. Francis Chairman of the Section presiding, Dr J.C. Gage of the Industrial Hygiene Research Department of I.C.I. Ltd., spoke on occupational toxicology and traced the history of industrial diseases from Paracelsus to the present time. The incidence of industrial toxicosis today is greatest in the dyestuffs industry but asbestosis cotton dust disease and par-ticularly bronchitis are also prominent. Toxic chemicals can be introduced orally or via the skin or lungs. The subject is studied from the clinical statistical and pharmacological angles. The minimum lethal dose of a poison can be determined by experiments on rats and the concentration of toxic gases inair can be measured by the colour change in a test paper through which a known volume of air is aspirated. There are also public health hazards arising from the use of anti-oxidants and other chemicals in foodstuffs.An interesting discussion followed and the meeting concluded with a vote of thanks proposed by Mr C. H. Manley. New Developments in Inorganic Chemistry. Mr A. C. Francis again presided at a meeting held at the University of Leeds on 5 March. Professor R. S. Nyholm defined the scope of modern inorganic chemistry and explained in simple terms the various types of bonding that enter into the formation of inorganic compounds. The study of metallic complexes and of compounds of the ferrocenetype has revealed possibilities unsuspected in the classical valency theory such as for example the exercise by chromium and nickel of all possible valencies from zero to their maximum. The Chairman paid tribute to the ease with which a complicated subject had been presented in simple terms and Professor E.G. Cox in moving a vote of thanks, described the lecturer as an honest man who was prepared to maintain even in these days that inorganic chemistry consisted of the study of all the elements except one. A buffet supper concluded a most successful evening. Development of Industrial Toxicology. Many members of the large audience took part in a lively discussion. LIVERPOOL AND NORTH-WESTERN Since the publication of the New Regulations for Admission to Membership quite a number of difficulties and queries have been raised either with the Hon. Secretary or with other members of the Section Committee. In view of this it was decided that a sub-committee be formed to discuss the various points raised.The membership of this sub-committee, including those Heads of Technical College Chemistry Departments already on the Section Committee is constituted as follows Dr J. B. Matthews (Chairman), Mr H. Weatherall (District Member of Council) Mr G. H. Bottomley (Widnes), Mr D. G. Cooper (Birkenhead) Dr H. K. Dean (Wigan) Mr H. R. Jones (Carlett Park Wirral) Dr F. J. Smith (formerly Liverpool) and Mr J. Ashley Jones (Hon. Sec.). A joint meeting with the Institute of Petroleum, Stanlow Branch convened by the Section was held at the Grosvenor Hotel, Chester on 29 February. Dr Matthews welcomed and introduced the lecturer Professor IF. Morton a Vice-president of the Institute of Petroleum and Professor of Chemical Engineering at the University of Birmingham.He will shortly be taking over the newly created Chair of Chemical Engineering at the University of Manchester. In his lecture en titled “Oxidation of Hydrocarbons,” Professor Morton outlined Formation of Sub-Committee. Oxidation of Hydrocarbons 228 JOURNAL OF ROYAL LNSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL reactions of both low temperature/liquid phase and high temperature/vapour phase in the oxidation of hydrocarbons. He showed that peroxide production was a valuable pointer to the progress of low temperature/liquid phase oxidation, but with increase in temperature decomposition of peroxides took place. He then described some experimental work carried out in his laboratories with particular reference to pre-flame reactions in Diesel engines.The results were illustrated by a series of slides showing the varied rate of oxidation under various operating conditions. The lecturer maintained remarkable clarity in spite of competition by the intermittent skirl of bagpipes from a neighbouring Caledonian Ball. Mr C. N. Thompson opened a discussion in which Mr B. S. Wilson and others took part. A vote of thanks to the speaker was proposed by Mr V. Biske, Chairman of the local branch of the Institute of Petroleum. Dr Matthews presided at a meeting on 1 March at the College for Further Education Widnes when Mr K. D. Wadsworth, a physical chemist from I.C.I. Ltd. (General Chemicals Division) gave a talk with the above-mentioned title. Mr Wadsworth formerly worked under Sir Cyril Hinshelwood and subsequently with the Chemical Defence Establishment at Porton near Salisbury and later with the Coal Utilisation Research Association.He scarcely needed introduction as he is well-known on Merseyside as the hon. secretary of the Society of Chemical Industry. The lecturer gave a very lucid exposition of the mechanics of chemical change and used many lantern slides to good effect. Commencing with an historical review he then listed the various orders of reactions. He dealt with a number of reactions giving the equations one of which 3Cu + 8HN0,=3(CuNOJ2 + 4H,O + 2N0 he referred to as “one of the horrors of school chemistry.’’ He said that whereas this equation expressed stoichiometry it gave no explanation of the reaction. In a series of simple successive steps he showed the actual reactions and then outlined the ‘Principle of Maximum Simplicity.’ The main part of this lecture was similar to the article published under Mr Wadsworth’s name in Science Reuiew No.26. A discussion followed in which Messrs H. R. Jones C. Birtwistle J. Matchett and T. W. Teece participated. Mr G. H. Bottomley was in a witty mood when he proposed the vote of thanks to the speaker and Mr Jones seconded. Another Section meeting was held on 7 March at the Mining and Technical College Wigan under the chairmanship of Dr Matthews. The speaker was Professor H. N. Rydon who holds the Chair of Chemistry at the College of Technology Manchester. His lecture was entitled “Some Aspects of the Chemistry of Peptides.” Dr Matthews introduced the Professor as a Meldola medallist who had previously been with the Chemical Research Establish-ment at Porton.The lecturer referred to the work of Sanger on insulin and showed the poly-peptide chains with amino-acid residue linkages. Passing to the work of Pauling and Corey on the structure of fibrous proteins he said that the biological activity was due to the characteristic folding and coiling of the peptide chains within the molecule. Amongst other structures mentioned was the ‘anti-parallel pleated sheet arrangement’ of nearly-extended polypeptide chains which exist in such proteins as wool and hair. The Professor outlined some research at Manchester carried out by himself and his colleagues on the synthesis of five somewhat similar peptides using carbobenzoxycysteine as starting material.These peptides were all cysteinylglycylcysteines but differed in the number of glycine residues inter-posed between the cysteines. He showed that 42-membered rings could be synthesised mainly monomers and anti-parallel dimers without formation of high polymers. Professor Rydon dealt clearly with a very complex subject and drew gigantic molecules on the blackboard with the aid of the abbreviations for usual amino-acid residues e.g. Gly for glycine. In the ensuing discussion, questions were answered from Drs Matthews E. T. Butler and H. K. Dean and Messrs A. Cooksey and A. Ledwith. A vote of thanks to the speaker was proposed by Dr Butler and seconded by Mr Cooksey. Mechnics ofChemicaZ Change. Chemistry ofPeptides 19561 SECTION ACTMTIES 229 LONDON AREA Education Sub-Committee.An Education Sub-committee of the London Section has been re-formed to advise on educational matters with particular reference to methods of interesting school children in careers in chemistry. One suggestion made by the Sub-Committee is that the practice of inviting members of sixth forms in schools in the locality to attend suitable lecture-meetings of the Section should be more widely adopted. Another suggestion is that it should be made more generally known that the Section is willing to provide speakers to address fifth and sixth forms in schools in its area on careers in chemistry. It is hoped that these matters will be among those discussed at a meeting of Honorary Representatives on 27 April. The co-operation of Section Members in the teaching profession is also sought and suggestions in this connection will be welcomed by Dr J.E. Salmon Battersea Polytechnic London S.W.11. For several years the joint meeting with the Alembic Club at Oxford has been a well-established event in the Section Pro-gramme and on 6 February in the comfortable surroundings of the University Physical Chemical Laboratory an appreciative audience heard Dr A. J. James, Dr Martin’s collaborator give an account of their work on “Gas-Liquid Chroma-tography”. A brief summary of Dr Martin’s earlier lecture on this subject was given in February (p. 95). The Chair at this meeting was taken by the President of the Alembic Club Dr Ben Brown who readers may recall played a large part in the early success of the Pegasus Football Club.Dr James discussed in detail the methods of detection particularly applicable to gas-liquid chromatography. Continuous titration either manually or auto-matically carried out is only applicable to those substances forming ions in solution i.e. acids or bases but this method has been of great value in the separa-tion of fatty acids. In other instances some workers have used thermal con-ductivity measurements but James and Martin preferred the gas density meter, since this has a higher sensitivity and stability than most thermal conductivity cells yet described. An example of recent work made possible by the new technique is the separa-tion of saturated and unsaturated long-chain fatty acids present in biological materials in addition to the accepted even-numbered straight-chain acids.The biosynthesis of the long-chained odd-numbered acids was demonstrated to be from propionic acid by using the gas chromatogram to isolate the small quan-tities of such acids in the fats obtained from cow udder that had been perfused with radioactive labelled propionic acid. (This work was carried out in con-junction with Professor Peeters of Ghent.) After the discussion Dr Brown expressed thanks both to the speaker and to the London Section. In a brief acknowledgement on behalf of the latter Mr L. M. Miall said that this meeting would probably be the last they would be able to hold with the Alembic Club; he would not wish to let the occasion pass without declaring the enjoyment these meetings had given to members of the Section.Some Properties and Reactions of the Enzyme Peroxidase. Dr B. C . Saunders gave an absorbing lecture on this rather unusual topic at the Institute of Metals under the Chairmanship of Mr L. M. Miall on 15 February. The enzyme peroxidase which occurs widely in plant tissues catalyses the oxidation of various compounds by hydrogen peroxide. The mode of action of the enzyme on natural substrates is of great physiological importance and its use enables the organic chemist to prepare and isolate a quantitative yield of coloured compounds from simple substrates in concentrations as low as one part in several thousands. The synthesis of such compounds by classical methods is both tedious and lengthy. When for example a simple substrate such as aniline is dissolved in acetic acid and the pH is adjusted no reaction takes place on addition of hydrogen peroxide alone or peroxidase alone, but when both hydrogen peroxide and peroxidase are added a mauve colour is produced changing to violet and a brown precipitate is formed.The reaction stops at this point but it can proceed on further intermittent additions of hydrogen Gas-Liquid Chromatograflhy. Catalysis by peroxidase occurs at pH 4.5 230 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL peroxide and peroxidase and from the reaction pseudomauveine and indulins can be isolated in good yield. Similarly the catalysed reaction of p-toluidine and hydrogen peroxide yields a red precipitate which can be resolved into four compounds. It has been said that catalysis by peroxide is no different from that brought about by certain inorganic substances notably ferrous salts but the reaction of Fenton’s reagent (ferrous sulphate and hydrogen peroxide) on p-toluidine yields an entirely different product-a substituted phenazine-from that obtained with peroxidase.The nuclear positions in aniline can be blocked by methyl or methoxy groups, but peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide still yield complex coloured substances, the structure of which can be demonstrated in classical methods. Peroxidase-catalysed oxidation by hydrogen peroxide is by no means confined to derivatives of aniline but occurs for example with phenols substituted phenols and indole. A theory that free hydroxyl ions are initially produced is very helpful in predicting the nature of reaction products but the presence of hydroxyl ions in the reaction has not been satis-factorily demonstrated.It is possible that a free radical mechanism is involved, and another view is that peroxidase peroxides are formed with different iron valency states. This could account for the change in colour from green through pink to red the colours corresponding respectively to iron of valencies five four and three. The iron in the red compound is in the same valency state as in the original enzyme and the reaction therefore stops until it is reactivated by further additions of hydrogen peroxide. In carrying out experiments with peroxidase catalysis it is essential that the enzyme preparation is free from all other enzymes such as oxidase and catalase.It is also important that the substrate is free from impurities such as metallic salts which are inhibitors in any enzyme system. Dr J. E. Page was the speaker at a meeting in the North-West Kent College of Technology Dartford on 20 February when Mr J. R. Barr (Chairman Kent Sub-Section) presided. In opening his lecture Dr Page explained that while infra-red absorption tech-niques were most useful they should be considered in their proper perspective and used along with other physico-chemical methods such as ultra-violet absorp-tion and the polarograph. As a general rule these last methods were preferable for water-soluble compounds whereas infra-red methods were more applicable to substances soluble in oil. Dr Page showed by means of a simple diagram the relative position in the infra-red spectrum of the characteristic bands of typical groups such as hydroxyl, nitrile and carbonyl.The vibration of the molecule as a whole gives rise to a spectrum that can be described as the finger-print of that molecule; various substituent groups have characteristic absorption frequencies and may thus be detected. The mechanism of the reaction is still in doubt. The hfra-Red Absorption of Organic Comfiounds. In the choice of material for cells glass is precluded because of its high absorption of infra-red ; sodium chloride or potassium bromide are generally used although lithium fluoride and calcium fluoride which give better resolution over a limited spectral range are sometimes used. Carbon disulphide is the preferred solvent since it has a low absorption.Infra-red absorption may also be carried out in the solid phase either by grinding the material with Nujol and examining a ‘smear’ or by mixing the material with potassium bromide and preparing a disc. The solution method is generally preferred for not only is it easier to obtain quantitative data from solutions but it is also found that in the solid state inter-molecular hydrogen bonding complicates the spectrum. Again some com-pounds are polymorphic in the solid state each form giving rise to a different spectrum. Infra-red spectrum analysis can be applied to (1) the identification of unknown substances by comparing their spectra with the spectra of known compounds 19561 SECTION ACTIVITIES 23 1 the quantitative analysis of mixtures e.g.the estimation of o m and j-cresol in the presence of each other; the elucidation of the structure of new compounds. (2) (3) Dr Page then proceeded to discuss the interpretation of infra-red spectra, particularly in the field of steroid chemistry. By means of slides and diagrams he explained the significance of certain characteristic bands in the elucidation of steroid molecules both structurally and in terms of stereo-chemical configuration. A discussion followed in which questions were asked on steroid chemistry and the application of infra-red spectroscopy to other fields of chemistry. Dr Page answered these questions fully and it appears that there is no limitation to the application of infra-red absorption methods providing one has sufficient reference data.On 24 February Dr C. C. Hall presided at the Norwood Technical College when an audience of 240 were entertained by a talk from Dr J. B. Firth c.B.E. of the Home Office Forensic Laboratory, Preston. The chemist is now an essential member of the team arraigned against the criminal and his lawlessness and Dr Firth outlined the origin of the Forensic Laboratories showing the necessity for such an organisation under the sponsor-ship of the Home Office. Besides dealing with the uses of ultra-violet and infra-red light in the elucidation of such crimes as the forging of documents and bank-notes he described the painstaking examination of vehicles suspected of being involved in road fatalities where such instruments as the comparison microscope and the emission spectrograph play an important role.Attention was also focused on the huge variety of drugs available to the public and consequently the magnitude of the job facing a laboratory that is presented with the essential organs in a case of suspected poisoning. Mow can the chemist interpolate from his findings whether a fatal dose has been ingested ? The variety of work facing a chemist in the Forensic Laboratories was typically illustrated by this lecture and not least among this must be the know-ledge required to ascertain whether or not a burned body was the result of self-combustion ! An enlightened and impressed audience endorsed the vote of thanks to Dr Firth proposed by Dr M. J. Birchenough. The College Staff it must be recorded, devoted some considerable time and thought to the laboratory display of Science in the Detection of Crime which was fully appreciated by the large number of people who took the opportunity of examining the exhibits.About 300 people spent a most elljoyable evening in the Caxton Hall on 25 February at the annual function held jointly with the Society of Chemical Industry. The arrangements for this function are always so har-monious that in themselves they are a tribute to the good relations between our two bodies and on this occasion Mr A. P. Buchanan on behalf of our opposite numbers proved an efficient yet unobtrusive M.C. It was good to see a number of members who were there for the first time but we hope not the last and it can be reported that on this occasion the bar did not run dry.It is understood that a substantial contribution to the Benevolent Fund will result from the evening, and our thanks are again due to the Social Sub-committee for another successful effort. The Symposium on 21 March, arranged jointly with the local sections of the Institute of Biology and the Institute of Physics was an unqualified success and attracted an audience worthy of its setting in the Senate House of the University of London. It will be reported fully elsewhere but the occasion was too important not to receive attention in this issue. The general theme of the evening appeared to be that in communicating information the scientist must have something to say there must be a good reason for telling other people about it and he must be able to tell them in an imaginative and succinct manner.As Chairman Mr A. L. Bacharach put these principles The Chemist in the Detection of Crime. Bufet Dance. The Presentation of Science to the Public 232 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL into practice so well with all speakers that even B.B.C. producers found their time as strictly rationed as is their wont with others “on the air” and the result was a quickly moving and at times inspiring discussion. Dr Archie Clow speaking on sound broadcasting stressed the principles mentioned above together with the need for a broadcaster to give a good per-formance when working from a script. While some scientists boasted that they never listened to radio talks some of their writings suggested that they also did not read.In any event the speaker must not lecture read his subject like a scientific paper or sound like words from a book. He must imagine himself speaking to one person only and establish intimacy and personal contact with him, projecting his personality at the individual listener otherwise he got ‘the switch’. Mr A. W. Haslett as an authority on the written word deplored the modern tendency for over-specialisation. It used to be possible for a man to read a book about say a motor-car or wireless set and then set to and repair it. These were really introductions to science in one form or another but the opportunities for such literature were passing and when only theory was available with no practice the interest of the reader flagged. Any science writer would be well advised to consider which article in his newspaper interested him most and model the approach to his subject on it.What interested him would then surely interest others. Mr James McCloy brought an entirely different approach to the matter-that of a television producer. Scripts were generally useless for a professional actor was usually better than any scientist in interpreting them. Personality is all-important and the anonymous commentary familiar in film production is not well adapted to television. Much more than in sound broadcasting it is impor-tant to address and explain visual effects to one viewer and Mr McCloy gave a vivid demonstration of the difficulties that can arise in this direction. The key to effective television is the intimate close up and this is only successful when the performer has received some training in the art.There is a definite need for scientists to assist in television features but they must realise that in this medium the importance of subject is secondary to its presentation. Dr Maurice Burton opening the discussion for the Institute of Biology, stressed the value of personal reminiscence saying that even the value of ‘fan mail’ should not be disregarded. Even the most serious-minded read some light literature but the great majority drop anything ‘heavy’ that is unleavened, and it may as well have been left unsaid. Dr Kenneth Pankhurst for the Royal Institute of Chemistry pointed out that in all forms of communication sincerity must be accompanied by enthusiasm.This was evident in normal public lectures the best of which were invariably those delivered by competent enthusiastic but unscripted lecturers. Mr Geoffrey Parr speaking on behalf of the Institute of Physics pressed for lucidity and clearness whether the person addressed be scientist or layman. Television and broadcasting are both ephemeral media and the only course of serious study is the written word. Much more use should be made of illustrations, which can when properly treated give a rapid grasp of ideas with economy in words. There were some ten other contributors and it is perhaps regrettable that a non-scientist was not included to comment on the receiving end of the subject. The ideas of Independent Television were presented the function of the Science Museum was discussed and the audience was reminded that all scientists are laymen outside their own particular spheres.The B.B.C. was accused of publi-cising novelties and ‘soap opera science’ rather than true knowledge. To counter this Dr H. J. T. Ellingham wryly remarked that the label ‘scientific’ was often sufficient in itself to discourage interest. Scientists were urged to come out of their ivory towers by some speakers and others urged them not to be commercially minded. It was said that if one aimed ideas at and made them stick on top level politicians and little children the rest of the world would follow suit. On this note a very stimulating evening was brought to a close with a vote of thanks to the speakers by Dr H. 0. J. Collier dead on schedule at 8 p.m 19561 SECTION ACTIVITIES 233 MIDSOUTHERN COUNTIES On 1 March at the Municipal College, Bournemouth Dr M.G. Church of the Ministry of Supply addressed a joint meeting with the Southern Section of the Plastics Institute on “Problems Asso-ciated with the Use of Plastics in High-speed Aircraft”. The lecture began with a consideration of rain erosion of glass-laminated cockpit canopies at high speeds. Rain can cause considerable erosion in a few minutes at 500 m.p.h. The best protection to date is to apply a coating of a neoprene composition but this is far from being a satisfactory answer. Dr Church went on to consider the problems arising from the heating of an aircraft by friction at high speeds. Even in the stratosphere where the ambient temperature is -55”C the materials in present use would be unsuitable at Mach Numbers greater than 3 (i.e.above about 1,700 m.p.h.) and there is a need for all types of plastics capable of withstanding temperatures up to 500°C. This lecture was preceded by a visit to the Admiralty Materials Laboratory, Holton Heath Poole by kind permission of the Superintendent Dr T. C. J. Ovenston. The party saw several of the Divisions covering a wide range of scientific activity. Some of the more interesting exhibits included the testing machines in the Rubber and Plastics Division the Creep Laboratory for the testing of alloys evaporators for the production of fresh water from sea water and the chemical actinometer which was developed at A.M.L. Dr N. P. Inglis of I.C.I. Ltd.(Metals Division) gave a lecture entitled “The Production and Properties of Titanium and its Alloys” to a joint meeting with the London Section of the Society of Chemical Industry at the University of Southampton on 8 March. After a brief historical account of methods for preparing titanium Dr Inglis described the modern commercial process whereby TiO is converted to TiCl and this is made to react with mag-nesium or sodium to give metallic titanium. The biggest problem is the lack of a method for the removal of impurities the presence of which even in small amounts has a profound effect on the properties of the metal. As a result the metal cannot easily be recovered from scrap and this is one reason for its high cost. Nevertheless the commercial production of titanium has risen from none in 1946 to about 25,000 tons per annum in 1956.Dr Inglis concluded by describing the properties of some of the alloys of titanium. On 13 March at Salisbury Dr F. L. Rose of I.C.I. Ltd. (Pharmaceutical Division) spoke on “Chemotherapy”. Dr Rose described three approaches to the problem of finding a drug to combat a particular disease (1) the method of trial and error involving the bio-assay of a very large number of unrelated compounds ; (2) the completely logical method requiring a knowledge of the cell system and the planning of substances to interfere with it; (3) the working hypothesis method which starts with a compound having some of the wanted activity and varies the molecule systematically. These approaches (the last of which has proved the most fruitful) were illustrated by many examples, and in particular by the sulphonamides and the antimalarials.Dr Rose also discussed drug absorption. Plastics and High-Speed Aircraft. Titanium and its Alloys. Chemotherapy. Gas Phase Chromatography. On 16 March at the University of Southampton, Dr A. T. James of the National Institute for Medical Research gave a lecture entitled “Gas Phase Chromatography”. This was a joint meetmg with the Chemical Society and the University of Southampton Chemical Society. After pointing out the disadvantages of fractional distillation as an analytical method, Dr James described the use of gas phase chromatography for the separation of a mixture of homologous fatty acids. The mixture is applied to one end of a column of kieselguhr treated with stearic acid and a silicone the apparatus being maintained at a constant elevated temperature.A stream of nitrogen is then passed through and the emerging gas washed with water to dissolve out the acid fractions which are titrated automatically and recorded. By this means many homologous series of organic compounds which are otherwise inseparable o 234 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL difficultly separable can be separated easily and in a short time. An improve-ment of the technique is to estimate the emerging fractions by methods inde-pendent of their chemical nature and for this purpose both gas densities and thermal conductivities have been used. As an example of the speed of the method nine alkylamines were separated estimated and recorded automatically in one hour.~ T O R T I I LANCASHIRE The Annual Dinner was held at the Bull and Royal Hotel, Preston on 25 February when over 60 members wives and guests attended. Dr A. R. Urquhart a former member of the Section and Mrs Urquhart together with eight New Associates were the guests of the Section. After dinner the Chairman Mr E. Taylor welcomed the new Associates as they were presented to him. Dr Urquhart then spoke on “Clothing in the Twentieth Century”. He developed the thesis that sartorial distinction between the classes had largely disappeared with the increase of man-made fibres. In doing so he delighted his audience with a clever and humorous survey of the clothes of the working classes from the Victorian era to the present day.Mr D. J. Williams brought an enjoyable evening to a close with a warm vote of thanks to Dr Urquhart. A fact-finding Committee is to visit North Lancashire on 10 and 11 April to consider the facilities for the training of students for the Associateship at three of the Colleges in the area. The Section will be repre-sented on this Committee by Messrs A. N. Edmondson and A. B. Crowther. A well-attended meeting at Lancaster on 8 March heard Mr R. A. Wells speak on “Analytical Aspects of Inorganic Chromato-graphy”. Restricting his talk to partition and ion-exchange chromatography, Mr Wells described first the techniques of paper strip and cellulose column sepafa-iion of metals. This part of the lecture was illustrated with many coloured slides as well as actual paper strips on which chromatograms had been developed.The description of applications of the paper-strip technique to field testing of large numbers of soil samples was as intriguing as it was unexpected. Turning to ion exchange Mr Wells referred briefly to methods of preparing paper with ion-exchange properties and then to the substitution of organic solvents for inorganic eluting agents. The meeting concluded with a hearty vote of thanks by Mr R. A. Cowin. Annual Dinner. Fact$nding Committee. Meeting at Lancaster. NORTH WALES A meeting of the Section under its Vice-chairman Dr E. W. Bodycote at the Denbighshire Technical College Wrexham on 24 Febru-ary was addressed by Mr E. Pedley Director of the West Midlands Forensic Science Laboratory.The lecturer explained how his laboratory follows up by all available scientific means the clues almost invariably left by the criminal and how it reports its findings with entire impartiality whether the results obtained favour prosecution or defence. Methods used in the identification of poisons blood stains forgeries and vehicles were mentioned and reference was made to the use of photographic methods involving infra-red ultra-violet or oblique lighting. The lecture illustrated by lantern slides provoked a keen discussion at the conclusion of which a vote of thanks to the speaker was proposed by Mr W. R. Stanton. Forensic Science. SHEFFIELD SOUTH YORKSHIRE AND NORTH MIDLANDS The sixth annual public lecture of this Section was held in the City Memorial Hall Sheffield on 7 March when some 350 members and visitors met under the Chairmanship of Mr IS.C . Barraclough to hear Dr R. R. Gordon of the National Coal Board discuss “Coal Utilisation-Past Present and in the Future”. Dr Gordon succeeded in treading delicately that narrow path on either side of which lie the twin errors of a too technical and a too non-technical presentation to a mixed audience a course aided not a little by his native Scottish wit. The lecturer discussed the research and development projects with which Annual Public Lecture 19561 SECTION ACTIVITIES 235 he is associated for the production of smokeless fuels together with by-products, and the use of fluidised processes illustrating his lecture with slides and models. The lecture evoked considerable discussion and numerous questions from local industrial concerns and Dr Gordon showed himself to be at least an equal match for the more sceptical of their number.The meeting’s appreciation was voiced by Mr E.J. Miles. TEES-SIDE Block and Branched Polymers.-The first meeting of the 1955-56 Session was held on 5 October when Professor H. W. Melville P.R.s. lectured to a large audience on recent work at the University of Birmingham in the polymer field. He dealt especially with the synthesis of heterogeneous linear polymers in which the constructional units are segregated into blocks of the same type (e.g. X- [A] - [BIn-Y) in contrast to randomly arranged mixed polymers and also with the synthesis of branched polymers of known molecular weight con-taining pendant groups of known composition size and number.Some Recent Advances in the Chemical Technology of Tin.-On 2 November, Dr J. W. Price of the Tin Research Institute discussed some aspects of recent work on the utilisation of tin. He explained that the Institute is financed by tin producers and controlled by the International Tin Research Council which consists of delegates representing the tin mining industry in the main producing countries in order Malaya Indonesia Bolivia the Belgian Congo Nigeria and Indo-China. The tin deposits are all alluvial or detrital except those in Bolivia, which are primary deposits in granite occurring at heights of between 12,000 and 20,000 feet. The total world production of tin in concentrates in 1954 amounted to about 180,000 tons.One of the main uses of tin is in the manufacture of tinplate and the old method of dipping sheets in molten tin is being displaced-with the advent of continuous cold reduced steel strip-by the electrolytic process in which the tin is electrodeposited from aqueous solutions. Another old-established use for tin is in the production of bearing metals-‘Babbit alloys’-but these have limited strength and to meet higher pressures such as occur in the modern Diesel engine a promising new bearing alloy (20 to 30 per cent Sn 1 to 3 per cent Cu, remainder Al) has been developed in the Institute. In recent years plating processes have become available in which tin is co-deposited with another metal and coatings with interesting special properties have been produced.The first of these alloy plating processes to be developed was tin-copper (40 per cent Sn). This alloy in the cast form was once used for mirrors (speculum) and as now deposited is silvery-white hard and resistant to corrosion under indoor conditions. Its good reflectivity points to its use in car headlamp reflectors. Another electrodeposited alloy that has found con-siderable use in the electrical aircraft and motor industries is tin-zinc (75 per cent Sn) . It is a fine-grained matt deposit possessing good corrosion-resistance and solderability and provides a good basis for paint. An alloy giving good protection for special purposes is tin-cadmium (50 per cent Sn). This is superior to cadmium in resistance to corrosion by organic vapours while being as good as cadmium in protection against rusting.Possibly the most interesting new tin alloy obtained by electrodeposition is tin-nickel (65 per cent Sn) which is a bright deposit showing high resistance to tarnishing and to attack by corrosive media. It is suitable for any application using nickel/chromium coatings and stability tests have shown that brass analytical weights plated with Sn-Ni are better in highly corrosive conditions than non-magnetic Ni-Cr weights. The use of organo-tin compounds as stabilisers for P.V.C. is now well established and an entirely new branch of tin technology seems likely to result from work now proceeding on the chemistry of organo-tin compounds in general. The discovery of other tin-containing compounds possessing strongly biocidal properties is likely to lead to the formulation of organic molecules containing tin that can be used as fungicides or pesticides in such applications as the rot-proofing of cotton and jute and the preservation of timber 236 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL The Brewing Industry Research Foundation.-Dr A.H. Cook F.R.s. spoke on 23 November about the Central Research Institute of the brewing industry, which was founded a few years ago. The Foundation carries out research for the industry as a whole and is financed entirely by it. Its primary purpose is fundamental rather than applied research but its extensive buildings at Nutfield, Surrey provide a home for the national collection of yeast cultures. Dr Cook outlined the processes of the brewing industry and illustrated their pilot plant in which batches of experimental beers are made on a 5-gallon scale.He then dealt with the stages in more detail discussing troubles that sometimes arise and how research has helped to overcome them. He concluded by describing investigations into the bitter and preservative substances present in hops in which the structures of the active substances were elucidated and novel methods of analysis devised to estimate them. The Present Position of Fluorine Production.-On 7 December Dr A. J. Rudge traced the development of fluorine cells at the Widnes laboratories of I.C.I. Ltd. (General Chemical Division). Before 1940 the preparation of elementary fluorine was a matter of considerable difficulty but in that year it became necessary to make fluorine on a scale much larger than had hitherto been attempted.The first laboratory cells in use in England during the war period worked at room temperature with a nickel anode and an electrolyte of composition approximating to KF.8HF. The anode suffered severe corrosion the products of which accumulated in the cell and ultimately prevented the passage of current. Though considerable quantities of fluorine were made in this way the process was unpleasant and inefficient. Later cells used an electrolyte of composition KF.2HF at 90" to 100" C, again with nickel anodes but the rate of corrosion was now about one third of that previously experienced and there were advantages derived from the con-siderably lower partial pressure of hydrofluoric acid over the electrolyte.Most of the cells of both types were of 60 to 100 A capacity. When war-time needs had been satisfied attention was directed to the development of improved cells with carbon anodes. The use of carbon or graphite as an anode material for fluorine cells is by no means straightforward, largely because of frequent and severe polarisation and the difficulty of making a permanent electrical connection to these materials under the conditions of use. Laboratory-scale carbon anode cells of 10A and 60A capacity were ultimately developed with complete immunity from anodic polarisation and capable of trouble-free operation for periods of up to one or two years. A number of such cells have been in use in universities and industrial laboratories in this country over a number of years.The design of a plant to produce fluorine on an industrial scale was based on the experience gained with laboratory cells. The present plant which has a capacity of about 100 tons per year uses cells of approximately 1.5 kA capacity. No signs of anodic polarisation have been observed in five years' operation. The average life of individual cells (i.e. cells which have required no replacements or other major attention) is one year and the maximum so far achieved has been one-and-a-half years. Maximum anode lives of two years and average lives of one-and-a-half years have been attained. Anodes are readily replaced in pairs with the cell in situ. Judged solely on the basis of available published information which may not be up to date the indications are that the British plant is in advance of those in other countries.Dr Rudge concluded his lecture by demonstrating the production of fluorine with an extraordinarily simple cell. Chemistry in the Internal Combustion Engine.-On 2 1 January Professor F. Morton discussed work at the University of Birmingham on the various processes occurring in a diesel engine. The Chemistry of Vitamin BlZ.-Professor A. W. Johnson gave a fascinating account on 22 February of the investigations that have recently led to the establishment of the formula of the anti-pernicious anaemia factor Vitamin B12. The life of the mild steel bodies is more than six years 1956) SECTION ACTIVITIES 237 After mentioning the physiological effects of the vitamin he dealt first with early work in which the presence of cobalt was found (in the U.S.A.using a flame spectrophotometer and in Britain using a borax bead) and with the identification of the smaller fragments obtained by hydrolysis reactions. These reactions leave a ‘red gum,’ containing the cobalt co-ordinated in a complex molecule. Professor Johnson detailed the Cambridge work in which a crystalline compound was isolated from this gum and the work of Professor D. Crowfoot on this degradation product which led to its identification using X-ray analysis, as a condensed pyrrole system similar to a porphyrin except that one of the bridge methine links is missing. The National Research Development Corporation.-The Rt Hon. The Earl of Halsbury addressed the Section on 7 March and described the work of the Corporation of which he is the Managing Director.In particular he dealt with some chemical engineering aspects of their work which is designed to develop inventions submitted by academic workers and Government laboratories (see also p. 194). EASTERN INDIA Calcium Carbide. A meeting of the Section was held in the lecture theatre of the School of Tropical Medicine Calcutta on 12 December. Mr J. N. Rakshit, Vice-chairman presided. Mr D. S. Naidu Chief Chemist Calcium Carbide Factory Birlapur gave a lecture on “Calcium Carbide.” Introducing the subject with an historical account of the manufacture of the substance the lecturer dealt with its various uses such as the generation of acetylene gas for lighting metal cutting and welding the manufacture of cyanamide and synthetic organic compounds and so on.The purity of commercial calcium carbide seldom exceeds 85 per cent (corresponding to about 4.8 ft3 of gas per lb.) it being invariably associated with a considerable amount of free lime (desirable for easy tapping) and impurities derived from the raw materials used. Calcium carbide is produced in the electric furnace according to the reaction CaO + 3C+CaC + CO - 108 kcal. But at the temperature of 2,000-3,000”C attained in the furnace a number of other reactions also take place side by side under certain conditions. Several eutectic mixtures of carbide and lime of different melting points and specific gravities are formed. The temperature of decomposition of calcium carbide also is close to the temperature of its formation.All these bring in complications in the process of manufacture. Special precautions are therefore to be taken in the operation of the furnace to maintain a constant current and heat concentration. The position of the electrode (Soderberg electrodes) should be arranged in such a way by the adjust-ments of voltage and raw material charging that as far as possible a submerged arc exists in the furnace avoiding open arc formation. Raw materials used for the manufacture of calcium carbide are lime coke, charcoal and petroleum coke. It is desirable to obtain these materials with as low impurities as possible as these interfere with furnace operations consume additional power and lower production. Phosphorus is a most undesirable impurity and the speaker specified the tolerable limits.Lime is high in silica alumina and magnesia. The best coke available gives some 22 per cent ash and the phosphorus content is high. The charcoals also contain very high and varying amounts of phosphorus. In the circumstances it is not possible to manufacture economically calcium carbide with a purity higher than 75-80 per cent (corresponding to about 4.5 ft3 of gas per lb.) nor to generate from it acetylene with less than 0.08 per cent phosphine by volume. Thus India, unlike many other countries is not in a favourable position as regards raw materials. It is therefore necessary to frame an Indian Standard specification to replace the existing British Standard taking into account the quality of raw materials obtainable at economic costs.The lecture was followed by a keen discussion and the lecture was thanked by the Chairman on behalf of an appreciative audience. The raw materials available in India are generally not of high purity 238 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL A meeting of the Section was held jointly with the Fuel Research Institute and the Indian Section of the Institute of Fuel on 20 October in the Hall of the Fuel Research Institute Jealgora Bihar. Dr A. Lahiri Director of the Fuel Research Institute presided. Dr K. H. Osthaus of Messrs Weinrich Koppers G.m.b.h. Essen Germany gave a talk on “The production of Synthesis Gas from Coal Oil or Gaseous Hydrocarbons and the Synthesis of Ammonia and Liquid Fuels.” Modern methods for the production of synthesis gas were described with special reference to the Koppers-Totzek process for the gasification of pulverised coal with an oxygen-steam blast.It was pointed out that various fuels could be successfully gasified by the Koppers-Totzek process and that the composition and coking characteristics of the fuel did not matter provided that the fuel has been suitably ground. This method was therefore of great importance to India as the reserves of coking coal were not large. A detailed description of the commercial plant installed at Oulu (Finland) for the production of ammonia synthesis gas from pulverised fuel was given. It was also mentioned that a similar plant using coals of 40 per cent ash had been working at Tokyo. The capacity of the former plant was 140,000 m8 synthesis gas per day and that of the latter 210,000 m3.A lively discussion of many of the practical points raised by the lecture followed, and the meeting terminated with a vote of thanks proposed by Dr S. K. Sircar. Production of Synthesis Gas. NEWS AND NOTES SCIENTIFIC COURSES Borough Polytechnic.-A two-week intensive course in Practical Plastics Further details may be obtained from the Department of Chemistry and Food Technology will take place from Monday 25 June to Friday 6 July. Technology Borough Polytechnic London S.E. 1. Bradford Technical College.-The Department of Chemistry and Dyeing has organised a post-advanced course on Instrumental Methods in Chemical Analysis. Eight lectures will be held in the Department on Wednesdays at 7 p.m.beginning 2 May. The aim of the course is to present analytical methods depending on the measurement of physical properties by instrumental methods. Treatment will be descriptive and lectures will be followed by demonstrations or practical work. The course is particularly designed to be of value to industrial chemists and others interested in the use of instrumental methods in routine and specific analyses. Application should be made as soon as possible to the Principal, Technical College Bradford 7. Fee 30s. College of Production Technology.-The College of Production Tech-nology Charing Ashford Kent has arranged evening courses of lectures on Work Study in many principal towns. To meet the demand of firms in the London area an evening course of 8 sessions is being held at The New Hall The Royal Horticultural Society Grey Coat Street London S.W.1 from 6.30 to 8.30 p.m.on Thursdays 26 April to 31 May and Tuesdays 5 and 12 June. Application should be made to the College of Production Technology 2nd Floor Francis House Francis Street London, S.W. 1 as soon as possible. Fee for the course 412 12s. Od. Imperial College of Science and Technology.-The Department of Chemical Engineering has organised a course of six lectures by Dr A. G. Gaydon, F.R.s. on Flame Spectroscopy to be given on Mondays at 2.30 p.m. beginning 30 April. Application for admission should be made to the Deputy Registrar City and Guilds College Exhibition Road S.W.7 19561 NEWS AND NOTES 239 Fee 42s. Students of the College and Inter-collegiate students will be admitted free to the lectures.Imperial College Preliminary Science Course.-The College announced in February the introduction of a new Preliminary Science Course in October, 1956. Its purpose is to help gifted young men and women who have con-centrated mainly on arts subjects at school but who decide at a late stage in their school career that they would like to study science or technology at the University. The new course will bridge the gap for them by providing a year’s intensive study in Mathematics Physics and Chemistry; the successful student will then enter one of the College’s normal three-year courses for the B.Sc. Degree in Science or Engineering. Only a comparatively small fraction of the entry to the College will come from this source and the vast majority will continue to be those who have specialised in science at school.Details of the proposals have been circulated to Head-masters and Headmistresses and there has been a warm response. MEETINGS AND EXHIBITIONS Glasgow Careers Meetings.-The Glasgow Education Commit tee’s programme of careers meetings for senior secondary pupils extends this year from 18 April to 16 May. Careers talks will be given in the Hall of The High School Holland Street Glasgow C.2. On the last day (16 May) Dr John McLean Senior Lecturer in Chemistry at the Royal Technical College will speak on Chemistry and Professor J. P. Todd also of the Royal Technical College on Pharmacy. Institution of Chemical Engineers.-l’he Thirty-Fourth Annual Cor-porate Meeting and Annual Dinner is being held at The May Fair Hotel, Berkeley Street London on 24 April.In the course of the meeting the Moulton Medals and the William Macnab Medal will be presented. Mr J. A. Oriel, c.B.E. M.c. will then deliver the President’s Address entitled “The Technological Awakening”. The principal guest at the Annual Dinner will be Lord Tedder of Glenguin. Iron and Steel Institute Meetings.-The 87th Annual General Meeting is being held on 16 and 17 May at the Royal Institution Albemarle Street, London W.1 and at 4 Grosvenor Gardens S.W.1. A Bessemer Centenary Lecture will be given by Mr James Mitchell c.B.E. Past President on the evening of 15 May and the Ninth Hatfield Memorial Lecture will be given by Professor N. F. Mott F.R.s. also at the Royal Institution on 16 May at 11.45 a.m.At the Members’ Dinner at Grosvenor House Park Lane on 16 May the principal guest will be Lieut.-General Sir Ronald Weeks K.c.B. C.B.E. Mechanical Handling Exhibition and Convention.-An international convention the first of its kind is being held in conjunction with this year’s Mechanical Handling Exhibition at Earls Court London from 9 to 19 May. A full programme of industrial films has also been arranged. Tickets to attend the convention and the film shows can be obtained free of charge from Mr H. A. Collman Mechanical Handling Dorset House Stamford Street London S.E. 1. OCCA Eighth Technical Exhibition.-Nearly 5,000 persons visited the Eighth Technical Exhibition organised by the London Section of the Oil and Colour Chemists’ Association during the three days of the Exhibition 20-22 March.This attendance was larger than any in previous years and visitors from at least 15 oversea countries were present. A full report of the Exhibition with photographs will appear in the May issue of the Journal of the Oil and Colour Chemists’ Associa tion 240 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Society of Chemical Industry 75th Annual Meeting.-The Society of Chemical Industry has announced the names of those who have been invited to give the lectures planned in connection with the Society’s 75th Annual Meeting, which is being held in London from 9 to 14 July. These lectures which will be given under the title of Achievements of In-dustrial Chemistry will be introduced by Dr I,.A. Jordan c.B.E. on I1 July, speaking on “Modern Methods of Research”. Thereafter there will be two parallel series of lectures. Series I . Products of Industrial Chemisty. Hastings M.B.E. 12 July. “New Products of the Fermentation Industry” by Mr J. J. H. “Hydrocarbon Macromolecules” by Mr C. W. Bum. “Carbohydrate Macromolecules” by Professor M. Stacey F.R.S. ‘ ‘Nitrogen- and Chlorine-containing Macromolecules” by Pro-13 July. fessor H. w. Melville F.R.S. Series II. Tools of Industrial Chemistry. 12 July. “Metals as Plant Construction Materials” by Dr N. P. Inglis. “Non-metals as Plant Construction Materials” by Mr H. W. “Manufacturing Techniques” by Mr W. d’Leny. “Records and Control” by Dr G. M. Dyson. Cremer c.B.E. and Mr G. Brearley.13 July. CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AT THE BRITISH INDUSTRIES FAIR The second B.I.F. in 1956 will be held at Olympia in London and Castle Bromwich in Birmingham simultaneously from 23 April to 4 May. At the Olympia Fair which will be opened by Mr R. A. Butler Lord Privy Seal the chemical section will occupy 50,000 square feet of the three main exhibition halls, and will have a special decor and lay-out. This fair-within-the-Fair is sponsored by the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers and it will be fully repre-sentative of the British chemical industry. Another self-contained exhibition will be the electrical and electronics section. This will occupy the largest hall at Olympia and a major feature will be the “Atoms for Britain” exhibition presented by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority.This will be the first time that this exhibition which created world-wide interest when originally staged at Geneva during the atomic energy conference has been seen in Britain. It covers 7,000 square feet and will show by means of models films diagrams and sample apparatus Britain’s progress in harnessing nuclear power and in using atomic energy in industry agriculture and medicine. Other technical products on show at Olympia in addition to chemicals and electrical and electronic equipment will include scientific instruments office appliances printing and packaging. According to the latest information received the exhibitors in the Chemical Section will include Abril Corporation (Great Britain) Ltd., Albright & Wilson Ltd.The Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, The Association of British Pharmaceutical Industry B.X. Plastics Limited, Bakelite Limited Benger Laboratories Ltd. A. Boake Roberts & Co. Ltd., Boots Pure Drug Co. Ltd. British Drug Houses Limited British Geon Limited, British Glues and Chemicals Ltd. British Hydrocarbon Chemicals Ltd. British Industrial Solvents British Oxygen Chemicals Ltd. British Resin Products Ltd. Brotherton & Co. Ltd. Burroughs Wellcome & Co. Ltd. W. J. Bush & Co. Ltd. Calfos Limited The Carbon Dioxide Company Carless Cape1 & Leonard Ltd. The Clayton Dyestuffs Co. Ltd. Coalite & Chemical Products Ltd. Cocker Chemical Co. Ltd. Croid Limited,Joseph Crosfield & Sons Ltd., The Distillers Co. (Biochemicals) Ltd.The Distillers Co. Ltd. (Industrial Group), The Distillers Co. Ltd. (Industrial Alcohol Division) Distrene Limited Evans Medical Supplies Ltd. The Export Review of the British Drug & Chemical Industries Fisons Limited Fisons Chemicals (Export) Ltd. Fisons Milk Products Exhibitors 19561 NEWS AND NOTES 241 Ltd. Fisons Pest Control Limited Fullers’ Earth Union Ltd. Gardinol Chemical Co. Ltd. Genatosan Limited Glaxo Laboratories Limited Grange Chemicals Ltd. Hardman & Holden Limited Hercules Powder Co. Ltd. Heywood & Co. Ltd. Hickson & Welch Ltd. Hopkin & Williams Ltd. Howards & Sons Ltd., Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. Imperial Smelting Corporation (Sales) Ltd., Johnson of Hendon Ltd. Kaylene Ltd. Kemball Bishop & Co. Ltd. Laporte Chemicals Ltd.Laporte Titanium Limited J. W. Leitch & Co. Ltd. Lough-borough Glass Co. Ltd. Chas. Lowe & Co. (Manchester) Ltd. Marchon Products Ltd. The Methylating Co. Ltd. The Midland Tar Distillers The Mond Nickel Co. Ltd. Monsanto Chemicals Ltd. Murgatroyd’s Salt & Chemical Co. Ltd. Orobis Limited P.R. Chemicals Limited The Permutit Co. Ltd., Personality Beauty Products Ltd. Petrochemicals Limited L. J. Pointing & Son Ltd. Pure Chemicals Ltd. Robinson Brothers Limited Shell Chemical Co. Ltd. The Society of Chemical Industry Peter Spence & Sons Ltd. Spencer, Chapman & Messel Ltd. Theodore St. Just & Co. Ltd. John & E. Sturge Ltd. Tothill Press Limited Ward Blenkinsop & Co. Ltd. Whiffen & Sons Ltd. B. Young & Co.Ltd. Showcases. Showcases in the Chemical Section are being provided by: Alginate Industries Ltd. Borax Consolidated Limited British Chrome & Chemi-cals Ltd. The British Dyewood Company Ltd. The Chemical & Insulating Co. Ltd. Ciba Laboratories Limited Cooper McDougall & Roberts Ltd., Durham Chemicals Ltd. William Edge & Sons Ltd. Foundry Services Ltd., The General Chemical & Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. Edward Curr Limited, Robert Haldane & Co. Ltd. L. Light & Co. Ltd. Manley & James Limited, A. H. Marks & Co. Ltd. Midland Silicones Limited Milton Industrial Chemicals (London) Ltd. Reckitts (Colours) Ltd. Roche Products Ltd. Thorium Limited, Whey Products Limited. Scient& Instruments. Exhibitors in the Scientific Instruments Section will include Barr & Stroud Ltd.Cinetechnic Limited The Cygnet Joinery Limited, Easiwork Limited Elite Optics Limited S . & R. J. Everett & Co. Ltd. Endecotts Filters Ltd. Fortiphone Ltd. Laboratory Equipment (London) Ltd. Lintronic Limited Q.V.F. Limited Quickfit & Quartz Ltd. Tintometer Ltd. Vokes Ernst Scientific Surgical Appliances Ltd. G. H. Zeal Ltd. PLASTICS A FINANCIAL TIMES SURVEY This survey published as a supplement to the Financial Times on 20 February, is divided into 28 sections all but three anonymously contributed. A well-balanced statistical survey is an apt prologue for the survey of the industrial applications which are divided quite logically according to specific industries, ranging from coal-mining to toy-making and to classified group uses such as applications in surgery and in the production of household appliances.Some of the less obvious but none the less very widespread applications are surveyed under the title of “Adhesive Uses,” and surprisingly enough in a review that covers such a wide field in 32 pages half a page is devoted to “The Components of the Refrigerator.” A brief half page is given to “Machinery for Plastics,” and this account though perhaps dealing disproportionately with thermosetting, is useful in that it gives the layman a sense of the ease with which plastics are manipulated by telling him that a modern calender will produce P.V.C. bathroom curtains at 100 ftlmin. of as low gauge as 0.003 in. within tolerances in thickness of f 0.0001 in. or that plastics extruders are available with screw diameters ranging from 1 in.to 20 in. and consuming from $ to 450 h.p. This section omits any reference to the increasingly popular vacuum or suction forming although this is briefly referred to in the section dealing with “Signs and Displays.” Apart from the statistical introduction and the brief treatment of plant the survey deals with the applications of plastics in almost every phase of life strangely enough no separate reference is made to the use of plastics in the printing publish-ing and allied trades 242 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Difficult though it would have been to give any adequate picture of the nature of plastics themselves in the space available it is unfortunate that the chemical nature of plastics and their importance as a rapidly increasing section of the chemical industry was not more definitely stressed.Plastics are chemicals which are used for their physical properties and this is a fundamental fact which surely cannot be too often stressed in any publication such as this which is circu-lating primarily to the business world. It is significant of the growing importance of plastics materials and of the industry per se that it can now rank with old-established industries such as agriculture and become the subject of a separate survey. That it could be published and circulated gratis as a special supple-mental number by a leading financial daily paper is indicative of the potential of the industry from the viewpoint of the ‘city.y It is unfortunate that such an excellent compilation must of its very nature have such an ungainly format; it would most certainly be much appreciated in the form of a compact pocket edition.V. E. YARSLEY City and Guilds Broadsheet.-The City and Guilds of London Institute proposes to issue an information broadsheet five times a year (February April, June October and December). The first issue has recently been circulated. As an indispensable partner of industry in the promotion of technical and tech-nological education the Institute states that over a quarter of a million people are taking one of the hundreds of City and Guilds courses and that more than 100,000 candidates in the whole field of technology are examined annually. Among the nine subjects which are reported upon in this broadsheet special interest attaches to the activities of the Associated Examining Board for the General Certificate of Education for which the Institute has accepted the admin-istration and financial responsibility in the initial years.The first examinations were held last summer and attracted nearly 5,000 subject entries in over 70 subjects at Ordinary and Advanced levels. I t is already known that more than twice this number of entries will be received this year. There will also be an annual ‘Autumn’ examination beginning in November or December 1956. The Board caters especially for secondary schools e.g. technical and modern schools and students at establishments of further education who require pre-liminary qualifications in various subjects before or while studying for national certificates or various professional or technical qualifications.These examina-tions have been accepted by the Civil Service Commission and by the Minister of Education for the purpose of entry to teacher training colleges. Exchange of Students for Technical Experience.-In 1946 the inter-national exchange of students for technical experience was developed by Mr J. Newby through the Imperial College Vacation Work Committee. In 1948 IAESTE was founded with Mr Newby as General Secretary. His work has already been recognised in France by the award of the insignia of “Officier d’Academie” while at a recent meeting in Trondheim 20 member countries made a joint presentation to him on his retirement from the office of General Secretary.Mr Newby will continue as British Secretary of IAESTE (G.B.) and his international work will be carried on by Mr R. A. Beijer of Sweden. Silver Jubilee of the N.Z.1.C.-A special Jubilee issue of the Journal of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry was published in November with the title “Twenty-Five Years of Chemistry in New Zealand”. The first article by the Secretary W. G. Hughson outlines the history of that Institute from 1930. There follow accounts of “Chemical Research and Servicing in the Department of Agriculture” by R. E. R. Grimmett; “Chemistry in the D.S.I.R. and Research Institutes” by W. A. Joiner (a past Secretary); “Twenty-Five Years of the Chemist and Industry” by J. C. Andrews and S. G. Brooker; “Chemistry and the Teaching Profession in the last 25 Years” by P.0. Veale; “The University Chemistry Departments 1930-1955” by H. N. Parton; “Memories of Earlie 19561 CORRESPONDENCE 243 Days of Chemistry in New Zealand” by F. P. Worley; “Chemistry Today” by W. A. McGillivray the present Editor; “The Future of Chemistry in New Zealand” by G. W. Butler F. B. Cousins and J. Melville. This Jubilee issue ends with historical notes on the Institute’s Branches and an account of the Journal first published in 1936. West Midlands Advisory Council.-The 1955 Report of the West Mid-lands Advisory Council for Technical Commercial and Art Education has now been published and copies are obtainable from the Secretary 16 1 Corporation Street Birmingham 4. During the year the Academic Board studied certain administrative difficulties that had arisen in connection with the continued development of ‘sandwich’ courses .particularly at the College of Technology Birmingham where such courses in engineering as well as in metallurgy and in applied chemistry and chemical technology were introduced. It was noted that the establishment of ‘sandwich’ courses especially those used on a national basis by large firms “had repercussions on other colleges and L.E.As in the region”. Short evening courses were held at Coventry Smethwick and Stoke-on-Trent for part-time and intending part-time technical teachers. An evening course for the Technical Teachers’ Certificate continued at Wolverhampton. The constitution of the Applied Chemistry Advisory Committee was amended to include representatives from the Midlands Chemists’ Committee the Institution of Chemical Engineers the Plastics Institute and the Society for Analytical Chemistry.Though the Royal Institute of Chemistry was not directly repre-sented on this committee for 1954-55 the Chairman the seven members of Committee and the Ministry of Education Assessor were members of the Institute. Other Institute members served on the Standing Committee the Regional Academic Board and the Advisory Committees for Mining Fuel Technology, Civil Engineering and Metallurgy. INCO Annual Report.-The International Nickel Company of Canada, Limited like many progressive companies is developing its product research activities its general research laboratories and its programme of research grants and fellowships.Under product research work was continued during 1955 on the development of nickel alloys suitable for use in the generation of power at elevated temperatures and pressures in jet engines and in gas turbines for commercial aircraft marine propulsion and the like. The effects of nuclear radiation on metals are also being studied more exten-sively and representatives of the Company are to work at the Research Center of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited at Chalk River Ontario. The only fully automatic pilot plating plant in the world was completed at the Bayonne (N.J.) Research Laboratory. Work at the Mond research labora-tory and the Wiggin plant in Birmingham has brought about considerable progress in the direct rolling of powdered metals into strip.At Acton further progress in the electrodeposition of rhodium in relatively heavy thicknesses was made. Work on increasing the recovery of by-product elements has continued at Copper Cliff and Port Colborne. CORRESPONDENCE GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS SIR,-In his paper on “Gaseous Explosions,” given to the East Anglia Section on 29 November 1955 and reported in the February issue of the Journal (p. 67) Dr Burgoyne showed how various accidental dust mist or gas explosions often initiated research into their cause and prevention. His main illustrations were drawn from the coal industry 244 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL Since the gas industry was also mentioned it may be of interest to your readers that work is being done at the Midlands Research Station of the Gas Council on problems associated with explosions in drying ovens; this has recently been reported in part.(“An Investigation of Explosion Reliefs for Industrial Ovens. I Top Reliefs in Box Ovens,” P. A. Cubbage and W. A. Simmonds, Gas Council Research Communication G.C. 23.) Their method of construction weight and the necessary clearance above the oven as well as the risks from flame and blast are discussed. As this communication was published only in the week before Dr Burgoyne gave his paper it was obviously too recent for him to be able to refer to it. Design data for top reliefs on drying ovens are given. This work is continuing. Midlands Research Station, Solihull Birmingham. M. LANDAU A THIRD QUALIFICATION ? SIR,-May I as a Student Member of the Institute be permitted to express my views on the matter of a Third Qualification.When the Council was discussing the revision of admission to membership I understand that it was stated that there were far too many insufficiently prepared candidates taking the examination for the Associateship. This caused the Institute a good deal of unrewarded work in providing examination facilities for a large number of people who were unlikely to be successful. The Institute’s remedy for this has been to introduce a second examination of a standard slightly higher than the H.N.C. for the purpose of ‘weeding out the undesirables’ before the final examination. There are many students who are quite capable of attaining a good H.N.C. but who, by virtue of their age employment and domestic status find the study required to bridge the terrific gap between H.N.C.and A.R.I.C. an extremely difficult task and these are quite likely to be insufficiently prepared when they take their finals. If however the Institute provided a third quaIification intermediate between H.N.C. and A.R.I.C. (thus achieving a higher standard than the L.I.M. quoted by Dr Bulmer) many of the ‘insufficiently prepared’ students would be satisfied to achieve it. The standard of the qualification could be set either by raising the standard of the present A.R.I.C. Part I or by accepting a lower pass mark in the A.R.I.C. Part 11. There are also other important benefits that would accrue from a Third Qualification. The Institute’s problem of inadequately prepared candidates would be solved and their membership figures and income from membership fees could be increased.At present a student with H.N.C. who is unable to reach A.R.I.C. standard is ultimately lost to the Institute. The introduction of the Third Qualification would retain this person on the Institute’s rolls and he would naturaIly pay a membership fee intermediate between a Student Member and an Associate. Finally the qualification would be of value in recognising the fact that a person has reached an academic standard over and above the H.N.C. and by extending the requirements for the qualification in the manner used for the Associateship could also be used to show a certain amount of industrial experience. May I suggest that this is not a complete remedy.Sunnybank Road, Bury Lancs. R. BUTTERWORTH BROMINE FROM THE SEA SIR,-Whilst reading an article in Discovery for February 1956 entitled “The Sea as a Chemical Store,” I found that the pumping capacity of the Amlwch bromine plant was quoted as 350,000 gallons sea water per day when in fact it was 350,000 tons per day. The same error is made on p. 25 of Dr Barnes’s monograph Chemical Aspects of Oceanography (L.M. 43 R. 1955 No. 4) from which much of the material for the Discovery article is acknowledged to have bee 19561 OBITUARY 245 taken. The error is an unfortunate one as it gives a very false impression of the capacity of the Amlwch plant. In his description of the original plant in North Carolina Dr Barnes does not mention the rapidity with which this plant was extended from the original capacity of 18,000 lb bromine per day or the fact that a second larger plant was built at Freeport Texas.This latter plant appears to have proved more economical than the North Carolina plant and according to the article on “Bromine” in Volume 2 of The Enqclofiedia of Chemical Technology the use of the original plant was discontinued in 1945. Research and Development Dept., The Associated Ethyl Company Limited. R. 0. GIBSON, Manager. EDTA ET AL. Sir,-In your issue of January 1956 I reviewed Sutton’s Volumetric Analysis. When dealing with the more notable omissions from the book I wrote “Most surprising of all a search has failed to reveal any discussion of ethylenediamine-tetra-acetic acid in any of its many titrimetric uses,” being of the opinion that a reagent which has for a number of years been mentioned in well over 5 per cent of analytical papers in the abstracts should have received extended treatment in a work of this nature.Dr Grant who was responsible for the revised edition has written to me pointing out “that the reagent in question is dealt with quite fully on pages 573-574 and that six references to the original literature are given in these pages. It also occurs in the Index though under the heading of Versenate its commoner and more convenient name.” This inclusion of the water-hardness method does not greatly affect the general tenor of my remarks in the review. Dr Grant fears however that my review, through this mis-statement might convey a false impression.I am therefore happy to apologise for my oversight and to ask you to give this correction a place in your columns. Incidentally my failure to notice the reagent lends additional point to some remarks which I have made elsewhere (Ann. Reports 1952 49 306) about the naming of analytical reagents. At the same time I am constrained to question the postulate on which Dr Grant claims to justify his indexing. When the current names for ethylenediamine-tetra-acetic acid (or one or other of its sodium salts) include Calsol Chelaton Complexone-11 Complexone-111 EDTA ED Enta, Iminol-D Nervanaid Nullapon Sequestrene Sequestric Acid Sequestrol, Titriplex Trilon B Versenate Versene and Versenic acid it seem rash to assert that one of these (which bears no relation to the chemical name or the structure of the compound) is commoner than the formal name; and indefensible to assert that it is more convenient for the purpose of indexing.Department of Chemistry, Queen’s University, Belfast. CECIL L. WILSON OBITUARY Horatio B h t y n e . B. 1871. Ed. Garnethill School and Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. Became assistant to the Glasgow city analyst in 1887 but continued his training in the laboratories of Wallace Tatlock & Clark, and later in those of R. R. Tatlock Thomson & Redman. Following the well known action brought by the Welsbach Incandescent Gas Light Co. against a manufacturer for infringement of patent at which Ballantyne appeared as an expert witness he set up as a consulting chemist in London in 1896 where he established a reputation as an authority on patent law in connection with chem-ical processes and cognate matters.Frequently appeared as a witness in the High Court. Served as a member of the Inter-Departmental Committee o 246 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY [APRIL methods of dealing with inventions made by Government servants which sat after the first World War and was also a member of the Board of Trade Com-mittee on Patent Law and Practice in 1929. He gave up his consulting practice in 1928 to join the board of Unilever Ltd. and although he retired in 1937 he continued as an advisory director until the time of his death. See also Nature, 24 March 556. Council 1899-1 900 19 15- 18 ; Vice-president 19 18- 19 (F.1898. 1920-23). D. 25.1.56. David Runciman Boyd. B. 26.2.1872. Ed. John Watson’s Institute and George Watson’s College Edinburgh; Anderson’s College Glasgow 1887-88, University of Glasgow 1888-93 University of Heidelberg under Victor Meyer, 1893-94. Ph.D. (Heid.) DSc. (Glasgow). Barrister of the Inner Temple. Became Demonstrator in Chemistry at Mason College Birmingham 1894. Appointed Examiner in Chemistry to the University of Glasgow 1895. In 1896 he commenced his long association with Hartley College which was later to become the University College of Southampton (now the University of Southampton) firstly as Lecturer in Chemistry and later as Professor. He was chairman and later Dean of the Faculty of Science for many years and was also Vice-principal for a time.He retired in 1937 bearing the title of Emeritus Professor. He was a Fellow of the Chemical Society for 60 years. Author of papers in the J. Chern. SOC. “His unvarying maintenance of high academic standards unselfishness and outstanding integrity earned the confidence of his colleagues; and he was much loved and respected in his own department.” (F. 1904.) D. 28.12.55. Francis Hereward Burstall. B. 29.1 1.03. Ed. Brighton College; University of Birmingham 1921-25. MSc. (Birm.) 1926 D.Sc. (Lond.) 1952. He became personal research assistant to Sir Gilbert Morgan at the Chemical Research Laboratory Teddington in 1925 and remained at the laboratory for the rest of his working life attaining the grade of Senior Principal Scientific Officer. His brilliance as a research worker became immediately evident and he made substantial contributions to the organic chemistry of complex metal compounds.In 1947 he took charge of a small section set up to study the analysis of uranium and thorium ores on behalf of the Department of Atomic Energy. This venture grew and developed into the present Radiochemical Group of the laboratory. Author of a number of papers and co-author with Morgan of a book published in 1933 on recent developments in inorganic chemistry up to that time. “Modest almost to the point of self-effacement his attitude to his fellow men may be summed up in the words-if he could not find something good to say of a particular person he had nothing to say.” ( A . 1927, F. 1950.) D. 2.12.55. Walter Thomas Collis.B. 1875. Ed. Shrewsbury School ; Mason University College Birmingham 1894-98. He was appointed in 1899 as chemist to Lewis Demuth & Co. Ltd, and later became chief chemist. Shortly after the company changed its name to The Midland Tar Distillers Ltd. he was appointed works manager a position which he held until his retirement in 1933. “He never spared himself in his work but he never allowed it to submerge his sense of fun and his personal interest in his men and colleagues by whom he was well loved.” ( A . 1899 F. 1902.) I). 14.12.55. Stephen Rathbone Holden Edge. B. 10.5.1892. Ed. Newcastle High School and The Leys School Cambridge ; University of Cambridge 19 1 1 - 14. M.A. In 1919 he was appointed Lecturer in Chemistry at King’s College London and in 1924 became research chemist with Wiggins Teape & Co.(1919) Ltd. He remained with this firm until 1953 when he was forced to give up work owing to serious illness. Author of a number of papers and took out several patents. (F. 1944.) D. 23.12.55 19561 OBITUARY 247 James Stewart Kerf. B. 30.6.1879. Ed. King Edward’s School and Tech-nical School Birmingham; Royal College of Science London 1898- 1902. A.R.C.S. Taught chemistry and physics in 1902 at the Methodist College, Belfast. Appointed chief chemist and buyer to Holders Brewery Ltd. Birming-ham in 1910. Consultant to several food concerns 1920-32 and then became chief chemist to A. Bird & Sons Ltd. Birmingham. Returned to consultant practice in 1935. ( A . 1903 F. 1906.) D. 24.10.55. Donald John Matthews.B. 3.7.1873. Ed. Hartley House Winchfield, and Marlborough College ; University College London 1892-95 assisting Sir William Ramsay in devising methods of extraction of minerals subsequently found to contain helium. Assistant in the laboratory of W. Macnab 1895, and in November of that year appointed chemist to the British Aluminium Co., Ltd. later becoming under-manager. He returned to the laboratory of W. Macnab in 1900 and joined F. W. Harbord in 1902. In the same year he was appointed chemist and physicist at the Marine Biological Association, Plymouth. He was connected with International Fishery Investigations until 1910 and took part as chief scientist in an ice patrol of the North Atlantic under the Board of Trade 1913-14. He worked for half his time for the Irish Fishery Department from 1910 to 1916 when he helped in work for the Davenport Military Hospital on cerebro-spinal meningitis though remaining in the Plymouth laboratory.He also travelled widely on scientific business visiting Colombo, Singapore Hong Kong Shanghai and Japan. Chief Analyst Lawes AgricuItural Trust 19 17 and a few years later joined the Hydrographic Office of the Admiralty, where he remained until his retirement in 1936 as a Principal Scientific Officer. Author of Government papers on International Fishery Investigations and scientific papers in J . Mar. bid. Ass. He played an important part in the affairs of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea and the International Association of Physical Oceanography and for many years attended meetings of the Challenger Society.He added to his wide interests the hobbies of microscopy photography and wireless and in his declining years would often derive solace from favourite Greek texts. “A11 opinions of Matthews bear testimony to his kindly-wise and helpful disposition.” (F. 1919.) D. 6.1.56. Arthur Matthew O’Brien. B. 15.3.1885. Ed. Warrington Technical School, 1902-05 ; Royal Technical College Glasgow 1906-07. Trained in laboratory of J. Crosfield & Sons Ltd. 1901-05. Became chemist in charge of the glycerine and caustic soda plant of S.C.W.S. Ltd. in 1905 and chemist to Burmah Oil Co. Ltd. in 1908. Transferred to Persian Oil Co. Ltd. Abadan and appointed chief chemist in 1913. About 1920-21 he joined the National Oil Refineries Ltd., Skewen as works manager.Some years later he set up practice as a consulting chemical engineer and petroleum technologist first at Manchester and later at Warrington and in 1938 became associated with the New Forest Laundry Ltd. (A. 1920 F. 1924.) D. 28.8.55. Leslie Heward Plenderleath. B. 17.4.05. Ed. Rutherford College New-castle upon Tyne ; Armstrong College University of Durham 1923-26. B.Sc. Engaged in teaching in various elementary schools in Newcastle 1927-30. Appointed assistant master at Heaton Grammar School in 1930. Became senior science master at the Cedars School Leighton Buzzard in 1948 a post which he held up to the time of his death. (A. 1948.) D. 6.12.55. George Gilbert Sargeant Pullen. B. 16.4.03. Ed. St Bartholomew’s Church School and Regent Street Polytechnic ; Sir John Cass Technical Institute 1922-28.Became assistant chemist to J. Kear Colwell Public Analyst 1920-28 and was also part-time gas examiner to the L.C.C. 1927-28. He was then appointed assistant chemist to C. & T. Harris (Calne) Ltd. and in 1929 became chief chemist to Waste Food Products Ltd. In the same year he left this country to take up a post as senior chemist to the Egyptian Oil & Cake Mills Ltd. returning in 1932 as works chemist and afterwards production superintendent the Linoleu 248 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMSSTRY [APmt Manufacturing Co. Later became factory manager at Wilsons Foods Ltd. (A. 1933 F. 1943.) D. 12.1.56. Edmondson Spencer. B. 8.4.1885. Ed. Colne and Burnley Technical Institutes; Royal College of Science and Royal School of Mines London 1909-12.Ph.D. D.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. A.R.S.M. D.I.C. He carried out research in chemistry and geology until 1915 when he became a metallurgical chemist in the Inspection Department Royal Arsenal Woolwich. Appointed metallurgist to the Gnome Aero Engine Co. Walthamstow 1916 and metallurgist and steel expert to Vickers Ltd. Crayford Kent 1917. He went to India in 1919 and for many years was associated with the firms of Bird & Co. Ltd. and F. W. Heilgers & Co. Ltd. Calcutta. As Consultant and Head of the Research Department of Bird & Co. he was responsible for the laboratories and all technical consultant work of a chemical or chemical engineering nature arising out of the firm’s paper and jute mills.Dealt also with the chemical and pulp side of the Titaghur Paper Mills Co. Ltd. Invented the bamboo digestion system known as the “Cascade Process” and also patented with Mr F. S. Mitchell improvements to the drainage arrangements of bamboo digesters. Served for many years on the Institute’s Indian Advisory Committee. On his return to this country he became a consulting chemist geologist and chemical engineer working in London and, for a period in Lancashire. He was well-read extremely fond of music and opera and possessed a fine sense of humour. (A. 1914 3’. 191 7.) D. 19.1 1.55. James Stewart. B. 17.6.03. Ed. Robert Gordon’s College Aberdeen ; University of Aberdeen 1920-24; University of Cambridge (research student), 1927-29. M.A. D.Sc. (Aberd.) Ph.D.(Cantab.}. In 1924 he became an assistant in the Biochemistry Department of the Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen. Moved to Cambridge in 1925 to fill position of assistant chemist in the Animal Nutrition Institute of the University. In 1927 appointed biochemist in the Institute of Animal Pathology becoming Head of the Biochemistry Depart-ment in 1930. Left Cambridge in 1936 to take up post of Head of the Bio-chemistry Department of the Moredun Institute Gilmerton Edinburgh a position he held until the time of his death. Served on numerous committees of the Department of Agriculture for Scotland and was prominent also in the nutritional sciences. Outstandingly active in Civil Defence he was at one time District Gas Adviser for S.E. Scotland and at the time of his death was Chief of the Edinburgh Reconnaissance Corps.External Examiner in Chemistry of Foods for degree of BSc. (Veterinary Science} University of Edinburgh 1940-43. Author or co-author of a large number of papers and reports. Dr Stewart was an enthusiastic supporter of the Local Section of the Institute and inaugurated the annual Christmas lectures for senior school children sponsored by the Institute and organised them for twelve years. At the time of his death he was Vice-Chairman and Chairman-elect of the Section. His death leaves a gap in the life of the Local Section which will not be filled for a long time. (F. 1944.) D. 26.12.55. THE REGISTER [Bracketed letters indicate Local Sections. For key set page 1791 ASSOCIATES ELECTED TO THE FELLOWSHIP (A) BARNETT Adam John Guilbert (Q) CAMPBELL Colin B.SC.(MANC.) D.SC. PH.D. (EDIN.) F.R.S.E. (P) CONSDEN Raphael B.SC. PH.D. (PI BERKOVITCH Israel &i.sc.TEcH. ( LOND.) (MANC.) (0) COOPER Robert Christian B.SC., (Q) BICKERTON James Roy PH.D. (EDIN.) (M) BLUNSDEN Archibald Beresford (P) CORBETT Philip Frederick B-SC., M.I.CHEM.E. M.1NST.F. B.SC.ENC. (LOND.) M.INST.F. (SS) BOWERS Allan BSC. (LOND.) (P) DAVIES David John B.SC. (LOND.), M.1NST.F. (J) DONALD Robert B.SC. (LOND.) BRITNELL Edward B.SC. (LOND.) A.I.M THE REGISTER 249 EDWARDS Walter Robert Newton, B.SC. (BIRM.) FEITELSON Bruce Norman B.SC., PH.D. (LOND.) HALL Clifford James HARRIS Robert John Cecil B.SC., PH.D. (LOND,) A.R.c.s. M.I.BIOL. HILLMAN Herbert Victor M.A. BSC. (LOND.) HULBERT Francis Lloyd M.SC.(WALES) JEPSON John Buchan M.A. (CANTAB.), KRAMRISCH Bernard F.T.I. F.S.D.C. LIGHTFOOT David Evan B.SC. (BIRM.) LIMMER Bernard George B.SC. (LOND.) A.M.I.CHEM.E. MCALLAN William B.SC. (GLAS.), MCKAY Alan A.M.INST.S.P. MCKIE Douglas D.SC. PH.D. (LOND.) MCLEAN Joseph Shanks B.SC. MARCH Peter James B.SC. (LOND.) MATrHEws Geoffrey Charles B.SC. B.SC. D.PHIL. (OXON.) A.R.T.C. M.1.CHEM.E. (LOND.) (LOND.) MEADOWS George Swithin NEIL Michael Wells B.SC. PH.D. PARKER Richard Eric B.SC. PH.D. PERKIN Leonard Arthur B.SC. RICE Cedric Bertram Fitzsimons, SCOTT Fred B.SC. (LOND.) SEALE Frank M.SC. (LIV.) DIP.ED. SHARP David Henry B.SC. PH.D. (LOND.) TAYLOR John Roberts B.SC. (LOND.) THOMPSON Gordon Vallins Elliot, B.SC.(LOND.) A.R.C.S. THORNTON John Desmond B.SC. (LEEDS) PH.D. (BIRM.) A.M.I.CHEM.E. TURNER Alan TURNER Harold Silas B.SC. PH.D. (LOND,) VINCENT Ewart Albert B.SC. PH.D. (R’DG) M.A. (OXON.) WATSON John Adam Cunningham WEBB Kenneth Richard B.SC. PH.D. (LOND.) (LOND.) (LOND.) (LEEDS) B.SC. (LIV.) NEW ASSOCIATES ALBERTYN Christoffel Coenraad, ATHERTON Cyril Ignatius BALL Clarence Patrick BAMFORD Herbert B.SC. (LOND.) BEASLEY Yvonne Marion B.SC. BENNETT Lionel Connett BENNETT Royston Henry BLAKE Peter Gerald B.SC. (LOND.) BOREHAM Dennis BOSANQUET Percival Alfred M.B.E., BRAYFORD David John B.SC. (LOND.) BROWN Eric Gradwell BSC. (LIV.) BRUNSKILL John Sidney Almond, BURAK Nathan M.SC.TECH. (MANC.) CALDERWOOD Robert Craig B.SC. CAMPBELL John Malcolm B.SC.CHAMBERS George B.SC. PH.D. CHARLESWORTH Derek B.SC. (LOND.) CHETWYN Alan B.SC. (WALES) CHISMAN Dennis Geoffrey B.SC. CLARKE John Shipley B.A. B.SC. COBB Peter George William CORRY Brian Reginald Cox Robert Ashley B.SC. PH.D. Cox Richard Clare CUMMINGS William Allen Wesley, DANIELS Norman William Roy, B.SC. (CAPE T.) ( LOND. ) B.SC. (BRIS.) B.A. (OXON.) (GLAS.) (LOND.) (Q.u.B.) (LOND.) (OXON.) (BIRM.) B.SC. PH.D. (DUNELM.) B.SC. (BIRM.) DAVIES Edgar Wynne BSC (WALES) DERRY Eric DICKER Eric Sydney DRIVER Norman F.P.S. DUGGAN Patrick Finbarr M.SC. DYKE Stanley Frederick B.SC. EDWARDS Alan Arthur B.SC. (HULL) FERGUSON Francis Desmond FISHER Arnold FLETCHER Kenneth Leonard GARDNER Kenneth John B.A. ( CANTAB.) GATES Michael B.A. (OXON.) GELLNER John George B.SC. ( DUNELM.) GITTINS Peter B.SC. (BIRM.) GOUGH Gerald Gordon James HANLEY Patrick Kieran M.SC. (N.u.I.) HANSON Thomas HENDERSON George Henry HILL Derrick Albert HOLLAND William Henry B.SC. HOLT Roland M.SC. (LOND.) HONAN William James B.SC. (Q.u.B.) HOUSTON Peter Scott B.SC.ENG. JACKSON Norman B.SC. B.Agr. (Q.u.B.) JAMES David Read BSC. (Wales) JONES Elizabeth B.SC. PH.D. KAPNOUDHIS Andreas Efthymiou KENYON John Russell KEOGH Patrick Joseph B.SC. (LOND.) KERRIDGE Kenneth Albert, (N.u.I.) (LOND.) M.I.C.I. (SHEFF.) (LOND.) (DUNELM.) B.PHARM. PH.D. (LOND.) F.P.S JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY KIRBY Peter Edward B.SC. (LOND.) LADELL Roy Leslie LATIMER Anthony Harold B.SC. LAWLER James Joseph B.SC. (N.u.I.) LINDER Peter William M.SC. (NATAL) LONES David Peter B.SC. (BIRM.) MCCAMBLEY William Henry MCCAUSLAND Robert James MACDONALD Alison Margaret Graham B.SC. (ABERD.) M.SC. (BIRM.) h'fACEWAN Thomas Hood B.SC. ( GLAS.) MARSHALL Derek Lawrence MARTIN Harry B.SC. (MANC.) MARTIN Ian Smith Edgar B.SC. MILLS Allan Alfred B.SC. (NOTT.) MULLIN Douglas B.SC. (LOND.) NORTON Desmond Godwin B.SC., O'BRIEN John James B.SC. (WALES) OVERTON Terence Kim Webley, PERRY Sidney George B.SC. ( LOND.) PETO Andrew George B.SC. PH.D. PHILLIPS Denys Arthur POYNDER Theodore Michael B.SC. PROBERT Norman (LOND.) (GLAS.) PH.D. (LOND.) B.SC. (LOND.) (LOND.) (LOND.) PROFFITT James Adrian QUARTERMAIN Philip Geoffrey RADFORD Peter John Mayhew Ross James SIIIEL Leslie Edward SMITH Derek Geoffrey B.SC. (LOND.) SMITH John Munro A.R.T.C. STEVENSON Jeremy B.SC. (LOND.) TAYLOR Peter Anthony TERRY Ronald Albert THOMAS David Vivian B.SC. (WALES) THOMPSON Donald Thomas B.SC. (WALES) DIP.CIIEM.ENG. (MANC.) TINKLER IViIliam Samuel Nightin-gale TREBLE Donald Harold B.SC. (BRIS.) TUCKER Alan Cyril A.M.C.T. TULLY Eric Robert M.SC. (N.u.I.) TURNER James Bryan B.SC. (HULL) VIVIANI Mario B.SC. ( GLAS.) WALKER Stanley M.A. B.SC. D.PHIL. WARD Margaret Annie B.SC. (LOND.) WATTS Ronald Edward B.SC. (LOND.) WEATHERLEY Eric George WHITE Dorothy Joyce B.SC. (NOTT.) WHITE Kenneth B.SC. (LOND.) WHITFIELD Leslie WILLIAMS Enid Mary B.SC. (NOTT.) WILSON Alan de Sillery WORKMAN John B.SC.ENG. (LOND.) YOUNG Derek Malcolm Verney (OXON.) CHANGE OF NAME Eileen Beryl JARMAN Associate to GILBERT on marriage. George Richard KOTTEN-KAYE Associate to COTTEN by Deed Poll. DEATHS Fellows BAUM Gustav D.SC. DIPLJNG. (0) FENNER Joseph Bell. Died 29 Feb-(VIENNA) M.I.CHEM.E. Died 20 ruary 1956 aged 53. A. 1930, March 1956 aged 69. F. 1947. F. 1934. BULLOCK Edmund Rayner M.SC. (H) MATTHEWS Charles Pask M.A. B.SC. (LOND.). Died 24 February 1956 (LOND.) F.C.P. Died 24 Feb-aged 76. A. 1906 F. 1920. ruary 1956 aged 70. A. 1908, (MANC.) M.I.CHEM.E. A.I.R.I. Died (V) PRYCE-JONES John M.SC. (WALES), 27 February 1956 aged 71. F. Died 4 March 1956 aged 62. A. 1918. 1920 F. 1955. CAMPBELL Arthur Fred D.SC. F. 1911. (P) SHENTON James Porter. Died 24 February 1956 aged 85. F. 1919. Associates BUTTERWORTH John Pilling B.SC. (MANC.). Died 13 January 1956, aged67. A. 1918. MILLS Leonard B.SC.TECH. (MANC.) . Died 9 March 1956 aged 67. A. 1917. MUKHERJEE Ajit Kumar M.SC. (CAL-CUTTA). Died 3 December 1955, aPed29. A. 1955. (P) SPEAKMAN Gruffyd 'Thomas B.SC. (WALES). Died 25 February 1956, aged65. A . 1919. (K) STEEL James King B.SC. (GLAS.), A.R.T.C. Died 18 February 1956, aged 55. -4. 1922. (P) WALKER James B.SC. (LOND.). Died 26 December 1955 aged 57. A. 1926

ISSN:0368-3958    

DOI:10.1039/JI9568000181

出版商:RSC    

年代:1956

数据来源: RSC