摘要:

THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN & IRELAND, INCORPORATED 2nd OCTOBER, 1877, UNDER 30 & 31 VICTORIA, CHAP. 131, SEC. 23. OFFICES: SOMERSET HOUSE TERRACE, W.C. .yJYnbo11: PRINTED BY A. P.BLUNDELL -& Co., 26, GARLICK HILL, E.C. 1879. PRESIDENT. E. FRANKLAYD, Ph.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., &c. VICE-PRESIDENTS. F. A. ABEL, C.B., F.R.S., dzc. ALEXANDER CRUM BROWN, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., &c. ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A., F.C.S. WILLIAX ODLING, M.A., N.B., F.R.S., &c. R. ANGUS SMITH, Pli.D., F.R.S. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. TREASURER. C. R. ALDER WRIGHT, D.Sc., F.C.S. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. JOHN ATTFIELD, Ph.D., F.C.S. DAVID HOWARD, F.C.S. JAMES BELL, F.C.S. C. T. KINGZETT, F.C.S. DUGALD CANPBELL, F.C.S.A. F. MARRECO, F.C.S. MICHAEL CARTEIGHE, F.C.S. F. A. MANNING, F.C.S. W. CROOKES, F.B.S., F.C.S. E. J. MILLS, D.Sc., F.R.S. G. E. DAVIS, F.C.8. E. NEISON, F.C.S., F.R.A.S. WARRENDELARUE,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,&c.JOHN PATTINSON, F.C.S. WILLIAM DITTMAR, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. T. REDWOOD, Ph.D., F.C.S. A. DUPR6, Ph.D., F.R.S.,.F.C.S. J. EMERSON REYNOLDS, M.D., R. J. FRISWELL, F.C.S. M.R.I.A., F.C.S. J. H. GLADSTONE, Ph.D., F.R.S., $c. THOMAS STEVENSON, M.D., F.C.S. GEORGE GORE, LL.D., F.R.S. R. R. TATLOCK, F.R.S.E,, F.C.S. W. N. HARTLEY, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. R. V. TUSON, F.C.S. DOUGLAS HER,MAN, F.C.S. T. WAY, F.C.S. SECRETARY. C. E. GROVES, F.C.S. MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 1.The name of the Association is “THE INSTITUTEOF CHEMISTRYOF GREAT BRITAIN.BED IRELAND.” 2. The Registered OEce of the Association will be situated in England. 3. The objects for which the Association is established are-(A) To promote and encourage a thorough study of Chemistry and all branches of Science allied thereto in their application to the Arts, to Agriculture, to Public Health, and to Technical Industry. (B) To adopt such measures as may be necessary for the advancement of the Profession of Chemistry, and par- ticularly for the maintenance of the Profession of the Consulting and Analytical Chemist, on a sound and satisfactory basis. (c) The doing of all such other lawful things as are incidental or conducive to the attainment of the above objects.4. The income and property of the Association, mhencesoerer derived, shall be applied solely towarcls the promotion of the objects of the Association as set forth in this Memorandum of Association, and no portion thereof shall be paid or transferred, directly or indirectly, by way of dividend or bonus, or otherwise howsoever, by way of profit, to persons who at any time are or have been Members of the Association, or to any of them, or to any person claiming through any of‘ tliern. Provided that nothing herein shall prevent the payment in good faith of remuneration to any Professors, Examiners, Lecturers, Tutors, Sccretary, or other officers or servants of the Association, or to any Meinbers of the Association, or other person, in return for any services actually rendered, or goods or other propcrty sold to the Associ at’Ion.5. The fourth paragraph of this Memorandum is a condition on Ehich a License is granted by the Board of Trade to the Associa- tion, in pursuance of Section 23 of (( The Companies’ Act, 1867.” For the purpose of preventing any evasion of the said fourth paragraph, the Board of Trade may from time to time, on the application of any Member of the Association, impose further conditions, which shall be duly observed by the Association. 6. If the Association act in contravention of the fourth paragraph of this Memorandum, or of any such further conditions, the liability of every Member of the Council of the Association shall be unlimited, and .the liability of every Member of the Association who has received any suck dividend, bonus, or other profih as aforesaid, shall likewise be unlimited.’7. Every Member of the Association undertakes to contribute to the assets of the Kssociation in the event of the same beiiig wound up during the time that he is a Xember, or within one year afterwards, for payment of the debts and liabilities of the Association contracted before the time at which he ceased to be a Member, and of’ the costs, charges, and expenses of winding-up the same, and for the adjustment of the rights of the contributories amongst themselves, such amount as may be required, not ex-ceeding fire pounds ; or in case of his liability becoming unlimited, such other amount as niay be required in pursuance of the last preceding paragraph of this Memorandu 111.8. If upon the windingup or dissolution of the Association, there remains after the satisfaction of all its debts and liabilities, any property whatsoever, the same shall not be paid to or distributed among Ihe Members of the Association, but shall be given or transferred to some other institution or institutions having objects similar to the objects of the Association, to be determined by the Members of the Association at or before the time of dissolution, or, in default thereof, by such Judge of the High Court of Justice as may have or acquire jurisdiction in the matter. 9. The Association may, in accordance wit11 their regulations for the time being, confer upon any duly qualified person the rank or degree of Fellow or Associate of the Institute of Chemistry, but shall not grant to any person any certificate of proficiency or qualification or of his holding any such rzlnli or degree as aforesaid.7 WE, the several persons whose names and addresses are subscribed, are desirous of being formed iiito a Company in pursuance of this Memorandum of Association. Snmes, Addrcssus, and bescriptions sf Subscribers. ~ E. FRANKLAND, Professor of Rojal School of Mines, Museum. F. A. ABEL, Chemist of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Wiv. ODLING, Professor of University of Oxford. ~ ~~ Chemistry in the South Eensington War Department, Clieuiistry in the 1L ANGUS SMITH, Government (Chief) Inspector of Alkali Works, and Inspector under the Rivers Pollution Act.J. H. GLADSTONE, 17, Pembridge Square, London, President of the Chemical Society. RICHARD TINE TUSON, Professor of Chemistry, Royal Veterinary College, London. WALTER NOEL HARTLEY, King’s College,Strand, London, Demonstrator of Chemistry. FREDERICK ALFRED MANNING, 18, Billiter Street, London, Analytical Chemist. E. NEISON, Scientific Club, 7, Savile Row, Analytical Chemist. ROBERT GALLOWAY, Professor of Chemistry,Royal College of Science, Dublin. CHARLES T. KINGZETT, Analytical and Con-sulting Chemiat, 1, Victoria Street. Westminster. S.W. JOHN ATTFIELD, Prcfessor of Practical Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, and Analyst, 17, Bloomsbury Square, London.CHARLES R. ALDER WRIGHT, D.Sc., Lecturer on Chemistry, St. Mary’s Hospital, W. JAMES BELL, Principal of the Laboratory, Somerset House. MICHAEL CARTEIGHE. 81, Mornington Road, N.W., Examiner in Cliemistry to the Phnr- maceutical Society of Great Britain. ALEX. CRUM BROWN, 8, Belgrave Crescent, Edinburgh, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgli. \VILLIAM CROORES, F.R.S., Vice-president of the Chcmicd Society, 20, IIornington Road, N.W. Witness to Signature of Subscribers. ARTHUR J. MASON, Clerk to J. Pettengill, Solicitor, 32, Walbrook, E.C. ARTHUR J. MASON. ARTHUR J. MASON. w. ANDERSONSMITH, Mmufacturing Chemist, Glasgow.GEORGE GLADSTOKE, Gentleman, 31, Ventnor Villas, Brighton. J. PETTEXGILL, SOP 32, Walbrook, London. ARTHURJ. Masus. FRED.WRAGGE, J.P., Co. Stafford, Stoke-on-Trent ARTHURJ. MASON. J. PETTENGILL. HUGHPORTER, Merchant, Belfast. ARTHURJ. MASON. ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION OF THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, As Airwiidecl on the 1st Febniury, 1879. 1. For the purposes of Registration the number of the Members of the Association is declared not to exceed Five Hundred. The Council may, whenever the welfare of the Association requires it, register an increase of Members. 2. These Articles shall be construed with reference to the pro- yisions of “ The Companies’ Act, 1862,” and “The Companies7 Act, 1867,” and terms used in these Articles shall be taken as ha~ing the same respective meanings as they have when used in those Acts. 3.The L4ssociation is established for the purposes expressed in the MemorsnC(um of Association. BORROWING. 4. The Association shall not borrow any money on the security of any property of the Association, except to the extent authorised, and under the restrictions and according to the conditions imposed by a Special Resolution of the Association in General Meeting. GERERAL MEETINGS. 5. The first General Meeting shall be held at such time, not being more than four months after the Registration of the Associn- tion, and at such place as the Council shall determine. 6. Subsequent General Meetings shall be held at such time and place as may be prescribed by the Association in General Neeting, and if no other time or place is prescribed, a General Meeting shall be held on the First day of February in every year, at such place as may be determined by the Council.Ti. The above-mentioned General Meetings shall be called Ordinary Meetings. All ot’her General Meetings shall be called Extraordinary. 10 8. The Council may, whenever they think fit, and they shall, upon a Requisition made in writing by not less than Twenty Members of the Association, convene an Extraordinary General Meeting. 9. Any Requisition made by the Members shall express the object of the Meeting proposed to be called, and shall be left at the Registered Office of the Association.10. Upon the receipt of such Requisition, the Council shall forthwith proceed to conrene an Extraordinary General Meeting. If they do not proceed to convene the same within twenty-one dajs from the date of the Requisition, the Requisitionists or any other Members aniounting to the required number may themselves c'oiiwiie an Extraordinary General Meeting, and give the neces- sary notices for that purpose. PROCEEDIXGS AT GEKERBL MEETINGS. 11. Seyen dags' notice at the least (exclusive of the day of giTing notice, but inclusive of the day of Meeting), specifying the place, the day, and the hour of Meeting, and in case of special business, the general nature of such business, shall be given to the Members in manner hereinafter mentioned, or in such manner, if any, as may be prescribed by the Association in General Meeting ; but the non-receipt of such notice by any Member shall riot invalidate the proceedings at any General Meeting.12. All business shall be deemed special that is transacted at an Extraordinary Meeting, and all that is transacted at an Ordinary Meeting, with the exception of the consideration of the Accounts, Balance Shcet, and the Ordinary Report of the Council. 13. Except as otherwise proyided by these presents, 110 business shall be transacted at any General Meeting iinless a quorum of Members is present at the time when the Meeting proceeds to business, and such quorum shall be ten. 14. If within thirty minntes from the time appointed for the Meeting a quorum is not present, the Meeting, if convened upon the Requisition of Members, shall be dissolved.In any other case it slisll stand adjourned to the same day in the next week, at the same time and pl:we, and no notice of such adjournment shall be necessary, and at snch adjourned Meeting the Members present, whate~ermay be their number, shall haw porrer to decide a11 matters which could properly hare been disposed of by a quorum at the original Mecting. 71 15. The President of the Council, or, in his absence, one of tlie Vice-presidents, shall preside as Chairman at every General Meeting of the Association. 1G. If there be no such Chairman, or if at any Meeting he be not present within fifteen minutes after the time appointed for holding the Meeting, or be unwilling to act as Chairman of the Meeting, the Members present shall choose some one of their number to be Chairman. 17.The Chairman may, unless controlled by a resolution of the Meeting, adjourn any Meeting from time to time and from place to place; but no businea shall be transacted at any adjourned Meeting other than the business left unfinished at the Meeting from which the adjournment took place. 18. At any General Meeting, unless a poll is demanded by at least five Rlemhers, a declaration by the Chairman that a resolution has been carried, and an entry to that effect in the Book of Pro-ceedings of the Association, shall be sufficient evidence of the fact, without proof of the number or proportion of the votes recorded in favour of or against such resolution.19. If a poll is demanded by five or more Members, it shall be taken in such manner as the Chairman direcis, and the result of such poll shall be deemed to be the resolution of the Association in General Meeting. In the case of an eqndity of votes at any General Meeting, the Chairman shall be entitled to a second or casting rote. VOTES OF MEMBERS. 20. Every Member shall have one vote. 21. Votes may be given either personally or by proxy. 22. The instrument appointing a prosy shall be in writing, under the hand of the appointor, and shall be attested by one or more witness or witnesses. No person shall be appointed a prosy wlio is not a Member of the Association and liimself entitled to vote.23. The instrument appointing a prosy shall be deposited at tlie Office of the Association not less than forty-eight hours before the time for holding the Meeting at which the person named in such instrument proposes to vote ; but no instrument appointing a proxy shall be valid after the expiration of one calendar month from the date of its execution. 12 4' 24. Any instrument appointing a proxy shall be taken in the following form :-"THE INSTITUTEOF CHEMISTRYOF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. (6 r, of (6 in the County of "a Xember of the above Association, and entitled to vote, ''hereby appoint of "also a Member thereof, and entitled as my proxy to vote for "me and on my behalf at the (Ordinary or Extraordinary, as ''the case may be), General Meeting of the Association, to be '' held on the day of and at any '' adjournment thereof.'' As Fitness my hand this day of "Signed by the said in the presence of COESTITUTION AND OFFICERS. 25. The Officers of the Association shall be a President, six Vice-presidents, a Treasurer, and a Secretary. 26. The President, Vice-Presidents, and the Treasurer shall be ex oficio Menibers of the Council. 27. The Council shall consist of the President, the Vice- Presidents, Treasurer, and 27 ordinary 3fembers. Every Member of the Council must be a Fellow of the Sssocit~tion. 28. The following persons shall form the first Council of the Association, and shall continue in office until the first General Meeting which shall be held after theend of the second year after the Registration. FIRST COUNCIL.Prssidsnt : E.FRANKLAND,Ph.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., &c., Vice-president of the Chemical Society, Professor of Chemistry to the Royal School of Mines, Science Schools, Soutli Iiensirig ton. Vice-Presidxik : F. A. A4~~~,C.B., F.R.S., cGc., Vice-President of the Chemical Society, Chemist to the MTar Department, Royal Arsenal, Wool~vich. ALEXANDER XD., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., ctc., Professor CRUNBROWN, of C'licruistry in the University of Edinburgh. ROBERTGALLOWAY,M.R.I. A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. WILLIAMODLIKG,M.A., N.B., F.R.S., &c., Vice-president of the Chemical Society, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oxford.R. ANGUSS~KITH, Ph.D., F.R.S., Vice-President of the Chemical Society, Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Alkali Works, Manchester. AUGUSTUSVOELCKER,Ph.D., F.R.X., Vice-president of the Chemical Society, Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agri-cultural Society of England. Treasurer: C. R. ALDER WRIGHT, D.Sc., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, IT. Ordinary Members of Council: JOHNATTFIELD, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Practical Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. JANESBELL,F.C.S., Chemist to the Excise Department, Somerset House. MICHAEL CARTEIBHE, F.C.S., Examiner in Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.W. CROOKES,F.R.S., Vice-president of the Chemical Society. G. E. DAVIS,P.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, Man- Chester. WILLTAXDITTNAR, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Anderson’s College, Gl&gow. A. DUPRE, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, West- minster Hospital Medical School, London. R. J. FRISWELL,F.C.S., Analytical Chemist, London. J. H. GLADSTONE, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the Chemical Society. GEORGE GORE, LL.D., F.R.S., Consulting Chemist, Birmingham. C. E. GROVES, F.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, London. W. N. HARTLEY,F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Demonstrator of Chemistry in King’s College, London. DOUGLAS F.C.S., Analytical Chemist, St.Helen’s. HERNAN, DAVIDHOWARD,F.C.S., Manufacturing Chemist, London. 14 c. T. KISGZETT, P.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, London. A. F. MARRECO,F.C.R., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Durham. F. 9. MANNIECI, F.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, London. E. J. MILLS, D.Sc., F.R.S., Young Professor of Technical Chemistry, Anderson’s College, Glasgow. E. NEISON, F.C.S., F.R.A.S., London. PATTINSON,JOHN F.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, Newcastle-on-Tyne. T. REDWOOD, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. J. EMERSONREYSOLDS,N.D., M.R.I.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. STEVENSON,THOMAS M.D., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in GUY’S Hospital Medical School, London.R. R. TATLOCK,F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, Glasgoa. It. V. TUSON,F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Royal Veterinary College, London. T. WAY,F.C.S., Consulting Chemist, London. And one other person who shall be elected by the Conncil within the space of three calendar months after the Registration of the Association. The Council shall within three calendar months after the Registration of the Association, appoint a Secretary. %9. In case of a vacancy by death, resignation or otherwise, occurring in the office of the President, Treasurer, or any Vice- President or Ordinary Member of the Council, before the first General Meeting which shall be held after the expiration of the second year after the Registration of the Association, or thereafter, between the dates of two yearly meetings, sLich vacancy shall be filled up by the Council, but any person chosen by them shall retain his office so long only as the vacating Member of Council would have retained the same if no vacancy had occurred.30. The Association in General Meetiiig may, by a Special Resolution, remove any Member of Council before the expiration of his term of office, and may by the same or by an Ordinary Resolution appoint another person in his, stead. The person so appointed shall hold office during such time only as the Member of Council in whose place he is appointed would have held the same if he had not been removed.31. At ttie first General Neeting which shall be held after the end of the second year after the registration of the Sssociation, nine of the first ordinary Members of Council shall retire from office, but shall be deemed to remain in office until the dissolution of the Meeting at which their successors shall be elected. 32. No Member so retiring shall be eligible for re-election to the Council until the next Annual General Meeting held afier his retirement. 33, In every subsequent year there shall be a retirement of the like number of the ordinary JlIembers of Council for the time being, mho shall also not be eligible for re-election until the next Annuitl General Meeting held after their retirement. 81. During the first three years after the registration of the Association, the litembers to retire shall be decided by the Council by lot, and in every subsequent year afterwards the Members to retire shall be those who have been longest in office.35. Inimediately after the taking of the lot, the Council shall nominate, or if they are not unanimous, shall select by ballot, six persons to supply the places of six of the Members of Council so retiring, and such six persons, with the continuing ordinary Members of Council, shall be nominated by the Council for election, as hereinafter provided. 36. At and after the end of the second year after the registm- tion of the Association, the Council shall annually nominate a President and six Vice-presidents, and Treasurer.37. No President shall be eligible for his Office for more than three successive years, nor any Vice-president for more than two successive years, but there shall be no other limit to their re-election. 38. Any five Members, not being Members of Council, may nominate one person, being a Fellow of the Association, for election as an ordinary Member of Council, but no Member shall nominate more than one such candidate. If more than three candidates are so nominated, the Council shall select out of those nominated tho three candidates whose nomination papers bear the greatest number of signatures. The nominations shall be delivered to the Secretary of the Association six weeks at least before the Annual General Neeting, and shall be in the following form :-“We, the undersigned, Nembers of the Institute of ‘‘ Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, do hereby certify 16 ('that (A R), of &c., a "Fellow of this Association, is in our estimation a fit and "proper person to be an ordinary Member of Council of the "Association, and we do hereby nominate him a candidate ''for such Menibership." In the event of no candidate or of any less number than three candidates being nominated by Members, the Council shall nominate three candidates, or such less number as may be required in addition to those nominated by them under the preceding provisions of these Articles. 39.One calendar month at least before the date of each Annual General Meeting after the expiration of the second year after registration, the Council shall cause to be forwarded by post to each Member a list of the persons so nominated by them and by the RIembers, as aforesaid, as Candidates for the Office of President,, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and ordinary Members of Council.40. Any Member shall be at liberty to erase any name or names from such list of Candidates, and to substitute the name or an equal number of names of any other Fellow or Fellows of the Association for whom he desires to vote, and in that case preyious nomination of such Fellow or Fellows shall not be necessary. 41. Each Member shall de!iver the list so altered by him personally or by his proxy to the Secretary on the day of election, or if he does not attend the meeting in person or by his proxy, he shall transmit such list in a sealed envelope to the Secretary one clear day before the day of election.42. The said envelopes shall be opened by Scrutators to be nominated by the Chairman and elected by the IRTembers present at the Meeting. 43. The several candidates shall be elected by majority of votes, but in any case of equality of Totes, the Chairman of the Meeting shall have a casting vote. POWERS OF THE COUNCIL. 44. The Council may exercise all such powers of the Association as itre not by Statute or by those Articles required to be done by the Association in General Meeting, subject, nevertheless, to any Regulations of these Articles and the provisions of the Companies' Acts, 1862 and 1867, and to such valid regulations as may be prescribed by the Association in General Meeting; but no regulation made by the Association in General Me&ng shall 17 invalidate any previous act of the Council which would have been valid if such regulation had not been made. 45.Without prejudice to the generality of the powers hereby conferred upon the Council they shall be at liberty to do the following acts :-(A) They may receive entrance fees and subscriptions. (B) They may aBoint and remove Professors, Lecturers, Scholars, Examiners, Secretary, and servants. (c) Out of the Funds of the Association they may give Prizes or found Professorships, Lectureships, or Scholarships, and may remunerate Professors, Lecturers, Examiners, Sec- retary, and servants, with such remuneration as they may deem fit, and may print and publish any report, document, or paper of any kind whatever as they may deem fit.(D) They may establish and conduct classes for instruc- tion in the science of Chemistry and the allied sciences. (E) They may purchase apparatus and appliances for chemical experiments or pursuits. (F) They may provide a laboratory and allow the same to be occupied and enjoyed by such persons and upon such terms as they may deem expedient. 46. Continuing Members of the Council may act, notwithstand- ing any temporary vacancy in their body. PROCEEDINGS OF COUNCIL. 47. The Council may meet together for the despatch of business, adjourn and otherwise regnlate their meetings as they think fit, and determine the quorum necessary for the transaction of business, which until otherwise provided shall be eight.Questions arising at any Meeting shall be decided by a majority of -votes. In case of an equality of votes, the Chairman shall have a second or casting vote. At the request of any five Members of Council, the Sec- retary shall at any time summon a meeting of Council by giving ten days’ previous notice to the Members thereof. 48. The President, or in his absence one of the Vice-presidents, shall be the Chairman at all meetings of the Council, but if no such Chairman is present at the time appointed for holding the same, the Council present shall choose some one of their number to be Chairman of such Meeting.49. The Council.may delegate any of their powers to Uom- mittees consisting of such Member or Members of their body as C 18 they think fit. Any Committee so formed shall, in the exercise of the powers so delegated, conform to any regulations that may be imposed on them by the Council. A Committee may elect a Chairman of their meeting. 50. If no such Chairman is elected, or if he is not present at the time appointed for holding the same, the Members present may choose one of their number to be Chairman of such meeting. 51. A Committee may meet and adjourn as they think proper. Questions arising at any meeting shall be determined by a majority of votes of the Members present, and in case of an equality of votes, the Chairman shall have a second or casting vote.52. All acts done by any Meeting of the Council or of a Com-mittee of Council, or by any person acting as a Member of Council shall, notwithstanding that it be afterwards discovered that there was some defect in the appointment of any such Member of Council or persons acting as aforesaid, or that they or any of them were disqualified, be as valid as if every such person had been duly appointed and was qualified to be a Member of Council. 53. Every deed sealed by the Association shall be signed by two Members of Council and by the Secretary, as witnesses to the execution thereof. DISQUALIFICATION OF MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. 54. The Office of President, Vice-president, or Member of Council shall be vacated by any person who shall- (1) Hold any office or place of profit under the Association.(2) Become lunatic or of unsound mind. (3) Become bankrupt, or file a petition for liquidation of his affairs. FELLOWS. 55. No one shall be a Member of the Association unless he be a Fellow or Associate thereof. 56. During the first six calendar months after the registration of the Association the Council may admit Fellows and Associates, upon such evidence of fitness or qualification as the Council may deem sufficient, or without any such evidence, at their dis- cretion. After the said first six calendar months, and during the then succeeding thirty calendar months, the Council shall require from any candidate for a Fellowship the following evidence of qualifications :- (1) That he is not less than tventy-four years of age.(2) That he has passed through a course of three years’ training to the satisfaction of the Council in Theoretical and Analytical Chemistry and Physics, and has subsequently been engaged for three years either as Assistant to a Chemist of repute, or as a Professor or Demonstrator of Practical Chemistry at some known University, College or Zedical School, or as a Chemist in a technical industry, or has, after three years’ training as above, conducted and published an original research of sufficient merit, in the opinion of the Council, on some Chemical subject necessitating practical work, or (3) That he has been trained and occupied in other ways which in the opinion of the Council are equivalent to fulfilling the Conditions stated in the preceding article.57. Subject to the preceding article each person applying for admission as a Fellow, shall give evidence that he possesses the undermen tioned qualifications :-(1.) That he is not less than twenty-four years of age. (2.) That he has been admitted to the Institute as an Associate. (3.) That he has since his admission as an Associate and for a period of three years therefrom been continuously engaged in the study and practical work of Applied Chemistry in a, manner that shall be satisfactory to the Council. 58. Where candidates are unable to produce evidence upon the above points satisfactory to the Council an examination shall be imposed.59. This examination shall be conducted by such Fellows as may be appointed by the Council, and under such regulations as may be prescribed by the Council; and any person may, not- withstanding the foregoing Articles, be admitted a Fellow on passing such examination to the satisfaction of the Council. ASSOCIATES. 60. Subject to the powers vested in the Council, as aforesaid, during the first six calendar months after the registration of the Association, each person applying for admission as an Associate of the Association shall give evidence that he possesses the under- mentioned qualifications. In the case of each person applying for admission after the said first six calendar months and during the 20 then succeeding 30 calendar months, the Council shall require evidence of the following qualifications :-1.That he is not less than 21 years of age. 2. That he has passed through a course of three years’ study of Theoretical and Analytical Chemistry, Physics, and Elementary Mathematics satisfactorily to the Council. 3. That he has passed such Examination in the subjects mentioned in the last precediug clause as shall satisfy, or shall have been prescribed by the Council. 61. After the expiration of the said 30 calendar months, the Council shall require from each person applying for admission as an Associate the following evidence of qualifications :-1. That he is not less than 21 years of age. 2. That he has been educated and trained in such a manner as the Council shall from time to time direct.3. That he has passed an examination approved by the Council in Chemistry, Physics, and Elementary Mathematics, conducted by a recognised University, College, School or Society, or has passed such other examination as shall have been prescribed by the Council. 62. Associates shall qualify themselves for election as Fellows within a period of five years after their admission as Associates, otherwise thcy shall cease to be Members of the Association, but they shall not be thereby disqualified from being admitted as Fellows at a future period. ADMISSION OF FELLOWS AND ASSOCIATES. 63. All persons desirous of becoming Feltows or Associates shall be proposed for election in such manner as the Council may from time to time direct.64. The admission of any Fellow or Associate shall be decided by the Council, by show of hands. For a valid election at least nine Members must rote; after the expiration of the first two years after registration of the Association tn-o-thirds negative votes shall be required to exclude. 65. Every person, prior to his admission as a Fellow or Associate, shall, in the presence of a witness, make and subscribe his name to the following declaration :-‘‘I (A B.), of do solemnly and sincerely declare that while a Fellow (or ‘‘ Associate) of THEIKSTITUTEOF CHENISTRY,I mill observe 21 “the Regulations thereof. That I will demean myself “honourably in the practice of my profession, and to the ‘‘ utmost of my power maintain the dignity and welfare of ‘‘the Institute.” 66. Every person, prior to his admission as a Fellow or Associate, shall subscribe his name to a Copy of these Articles of Association, with a Statement that he has read the same, in testimony of his having engaged himself to the observance thereof, and shall pay the fees prescribed.CENSORS, 67. Four Censors shall be elected annually at the first and every subsequent Annual General Meeting by the Members of the Association in the same manner as the Couucil. The Council shall nominate persons from whom the four Censors shall be elected. 68. The President of the Association shall be ex oficw a fifth Censor.69. The Censors shall enquire into any alleged misconduct or infringement of the regulations by Fellows or Associates, and shall carry into effect the Regulations of the Association pith regard to such matters. If at any time it be made known to the President that any Fellow or Associate has obtained admission to the rank of Fellow or Associate by fraud, or false statement, or imposition, or that any Fellow or Associate has been guilty of any notorious crime, or has, in the opinion of the President, acted in any respect in a dishonourable or unprofessional manner, or has violated any regulation of the Association, the President shall lay the case before the Censors, who may call the Fellow or Associate so offending before them, and, having investi- gated the case, may admonish or reprimand him, or, if they deem the case of sufficient importance, may call upon the person offend- ing to resign his connection with the Association : and, should he decline, may report such Fellow or Associate to the Association, and thereupon two-thirds of the Members present, and voting by ballot at an Extraordinary Meeting, specially summoned for that purpose, of which at least ten days’ previous notice has been given, and at which Meeting, not less than 15 Members shall be preseat, may declare such offender to be no longer a Fellow or Associate, and such offender shall forfeit all the rights and privileges which he does or may enjoy as a Member, whether Fellow, or Associate, 23 and his name shall be expunged from the list of Fellows and Associates accordingly; and if he had previously been a Member of the Council he shall thereupon cease to be a Member thereof.FEES. 70. The Annual Subscription of Fellows shall be Two Guineas. The Council may receive from any Fellow a payment of Twenty- five Guineas as a Life Subscription, and during the first six calendar months after registration of the Association receive from any Fellow a payment of 321, and thereafter in either case upon payment thereof, the liability to pay an Annual Subscription shall cease. 71. The Snnual Subscription of Associates shall be One Guinea. 72. When examination of any person shall be required by the Council, each Candidate shall pay such fee upon examination as the Council shall prescribe.73. An Entrance Fee of Two Guineas shall be paid by every person who shall on or before the 2nd day of February, 1878, be elected a Fellow of the Association, in addition to the Annual Subscription, but in the case of all persons elected after t.hat date as such Fellows, the Entrance Fee shall be Five Guineas, in addition to the Annual Subscription. 74. If any Fellow or Associate shall allow his Annual Sub- scription to be in arrear for one year, and shall not pay the same within six calendar months after application for payment shall have been made by the Secretary, the Council may, by resolution, declare that he shall cease, and thereupon he shall cease, to be :I Fellow or Associate, but he may, at the discretion of the Council, be readmitted as a Fellow or Associate within eighteen months after declaration, on such terms, and subject to the payment of such fine (if any) as the Council may impose.ACCOUNTS. 75. The Council shall cause accounts to be kept of the sums of money received and expended by the Association, and the matters in respect of which such expenditure is made ; of the credits and liabilities of the Association ; and of all other matters necessary for showing the true state and condition of the Association. The books of account and other books shall be kept at the Registered Office of the Association, and, subject to any reasonable restrictions as to the time and manner of inspecting the same that may be imposed by the Association in General Meeting, shall be open to the inspection of the Members during the hours of business.76. Once at least in every year the Council shall lay before the Association in General Meeting a Statement, made up to a date not more than three calendar months before such Meeting, of the income and expenditure of the Association, from the foot of the last statement, or, in the case of the first statement, fiom the date of Registration of the Association. 77. The Statement so made up shall show, arranged under the most convenient heads, the amount of gross income, distinguishing the several sources from which it has been derived, and the amount of gross expenditure, distinguishing the expense of the establishment, salaries, and other matters.78. A general Balance Sheet shall be made out in every year, and laid before the Association in General Meeting, and such Balance Sheet shall contain a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Association, arranged under convenient heads. 79. A printed copy of such Balance Sheet shall, previously to such Meeting, be sent to every Member in the manner in which notices are hereinafter directed to be served. AUDIT. 80. Once at Teast in every year the accounts of the Association shall be examined, and the correctness of the Balance Sheet ascertained by three Auditors. 81. The first Auditors shall be appointed by the Council. Subsequent Auditors shall be appointed by the Association in General Meeting.82. The Auditors may be Members of the Association, but no Member of Council or other Officer of the Association shall be eligible during his continuance in office. 83. The election of Auditors shall be made by the Association at the Annual General Meeting. 84. Each Member who attends the Meeting himself, or by proxy, may nominate one candidate for the office of Auditor, and from the candidates so nominated the three Auditors shall be elected by a majority of votes, but in any case of equality of votes, the Chairman shall have a casting vote. 85. The remuneration (if any) of the first Auditors shall be 24 fixed by the Councif ;that of subsequent Auditow ghall be fixed by the Association in General Meeting. 86. Any Auditor shall be re-eligible on his quitting office.87. If any casual vacancy occurs in the office of any Auditor, the Council shall forthwith supply such vacancy. 88. Every Auditor shall be supplied with a copy of the Balance Sheet, and it shall be his duty to examine the same, with the accounts and vouchers relating thereto. 59. Every Auditor shall have a list delivered to him of all books kept by the Association, and shall at all reasonable times have access to the books and accounts of the Association. The Auditors may at the expense of the Association, employ Account- ants or other persons to assist them in investigating such accounts, and they may in relation to such accounts examine the Members of Council or any other officer of the Association.90. The Auditors shall make a report to the Members upon the Balance Sheet and Accounts, and such report shall be read, together with the Report of the Council, at the Annual General Meeting. NOTICES. 91. A Notice may be served by or on behalf of the Association upon any Member, either personally or by sending it through the post, in a prepaid letter addressed to such Member, at his registered address or place of abode. 92. Any notice, if semed by post, shall be deemed to hare been served at the time when the letter containing the 8ame would be delivered in the ordinary course of the post, and in proving such service, it shall be sufficien-t to prove that the letter contain- ing the notice was properly addressed, and put into the Post Office. 93. No Member who shall be described in the Register as residing out of the United Kingdom, or who shall have omitted to give his address for registration, shall be entitled to receive any notice from the Association, or to make any objection in respect of such notice not having been given.

ISSN:0368-3958    

DOI:10.1039/PG879030C001

出版商:RSC    

年代:1879

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, REPORT OF i4 CONFERENCE ON THE ADULTERATION OF FOOD, Held Thursduy, liebruury 27th, 1879. YJunbalt : PRINTED BY A. P. BLUNDELL -& Co., 26, GARLICK HILL, E.C. 1879. INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY. CONFERENCE ON THE ADULTERATION OF FOOD, DR.VOELCKERsaid-In opening the discussion on the subject of Adulteration of Food, I need not take up the time of the nieeting by making any preliminary reinarks on the importance of the subject to the general pnblic, the serious responsibilities with which public food analysts are charged in drawing up reports on the genuineness of articles of consumption, and tlie necessity of the adoption of trustworthy and accurate methods of analysis in the examination of articles of food and drink.We are all agreed in this that Nilk, Butter, Bread, Beer, Spirits, and all articles of food or drink should be supplied to the consunier by the trading community in a perfectly wholeso~~e and genuine condition, and under names correctly describing the character of the several articles of con-sumption. There can be no doubt that the Food Adulteration Act has had a beneficial influence in checking the nefarious dealings of unscrupulous tradesmen, and providing the consumer more readily with pure articles of food and drink tliari before the Act came into operation. It is coniparatively easy to define wliat legally constitutes Adulteration, but it is much more difficnlt for H food analyst to 28 apply the legal definition in practice without running the risk of either of letting the guilty escape just punishment, or to inflict undeserved in jury on honest tradespeople.It is easy enough to ascertain whether milk has been adulterated with a considerable quantity, say 20 per cent., of water, or whether skimmed milk has been sold as fresh, or m-hether or not coffee is adulterated with chicory, or whether bread contains much alum. In cases of that kind the chemical or microscopical examination of the articles in question decides with certaint,y whether they are genuine or adulterated ; but when we have to deal with articles of food which naturally vary in composition, the difficulties in deciding whether such articles have been tampered with are all the greater the more they naturally vary in composition. Take as an example the case of milk.Genuine milk we understand to be the well known secretion in the condition in which it leaves the udder of healthy cows, nothing haring been added to the milk, nor any cream having been abstracted from it. The question, what is the composition of such genuine milk? admits of a variety of answers, for I need hardly say that it is now admitted by all persons who possess some knowledge of dairy matters that the composition of equally genuine samples of milk varies greatly, and that there is no such thing in existence at3 normal milk. As long ago as in 1863 I directed attention to the great influence which the nature of the food upon which cows are fed has on the composition of the milk they furnish, and pointed out in what way the quality of the milk is affected by the breed of cows and the size of the animal, the season of the year, the distance from the time of calving, and a few other conditions, which all more or less affect the qnality of the niilk.Thus, a herd of cows fed upon an insufficient amount of grass froin a poor pasture, and milked in my presence, produced niilk which, on analysis, in round numbers yielded fully 90 per cent. of water, and only 10 per cent. of total solids, including not quite 2 per cent. of fat ; whilst the same herd in the following months, mlien liberally fed upon palm-nut kernel meal, a food rich in fat, 29 in addition to sliced mangolds and good hay, produced milk con- taining from 32 to 4 per cent. of fat, $I&to 10 per cent.of solids not fat, and only 86 to 87 per cent. of water. Again, in the milk of another herd of cows in August, I found 87.40 per cent. of water, 3-43per cent. of fat, 9-17 solids not fat 3 and in the milk of the same herdof COKS analysed in November, I found 85-21 per cent. of water, 4.95 per cent. of fat, and 9-84 per cent. solids not fat. Here, then, we have in equally genuine milk the total solids varying from 10 to 15 per cent., and the fat varying from 2 to 5 per cent. in round numbers. In passing I may observe that in ten or twelve days from the time of calving, after the milk has assunied its ordinary condition, the flow of milk is plentiful and continues so for a couple of months ;it then diminishes in quantity, but becomes richer in quality, and more especially in cream.Thus in the spring and early summer months, cows produce abundance of milk, but of a more watery character than towards the approach of autumn, when the supply diminishes, but becomes richer in cream. Again, small breeds, such as Alderney and Jersey cows, generally speaking, produce less, but richer, milk, than large races, such as the Yorkshire cow, a cross-bred short-horn, or Dutch cows, or other large-sized animals. In view of these natural variations in unquestionably genuine milk, what is the analyst to do in reporting upon a sample of milk suspected to have been watered? Is it possible, I would ask, for a chemist to declare positively, on the strength of his analysis-as has been done in not a few instances by public analysts-that samples of milk were adulterated with 10, 8, or even 5 per cent.of added water. I have seen a report of a chemist who positively states that 12.8 per cent of skimmed milk had beenadded to milk, and on the strength of such an opinion, the magisbrate inflicted a fine upon the unfortunate milkman. In carrying out legislative measures of the nature of the Food Adulteration Act, you will agree with nie that great care should be taken to prevent its becoining a dead letter, on the one hand, 30 and on the other, to guard against undeserved injury being done to honest traders.Now in the case of milk: what has been done in that direction? This qnestion may be briefly answered as follows : Public analysts at first adopted H standard of quality, based on the supposition t!iat the coniposition of genuine milk does not vary to any great extent, and that, more especially the percentage of solids, not fat,, practically is constant in all genuine milks. In practice, the adopted standard of quality was found too high, and was lowered subsequently. Applying the preseiit standard rigidly, most public analysts calculate to a nicety the amount of water added to, or cream abstracted from, milk, by a simple rule vith which most of those present on this occasion are perfectly familiar. The author of this plan of estimating the exact percentage of added water in milk, says, '' Milk exhibits great constancy of composition; the effect of variations in the diet of the cow, showing itself in the amount of the secretion, rather than in its quality; and again, as wiIl be readily comprehended, this constancy of com-position is a cardiual fact in milk analysis.When I first opposed thia theory of the constancy of com-position of milk, I rnet with the ridicule of not a few public analysts, some of whom where so ungenerous, not to say unjust, as to call in question the correctness of my milk analyses,whilst a few, no doubt very young and inexperienced analysts, were bold enough to maintain that great improvements had been introduced of late years in the analysis of milk, and that no good or accurate method of analysing milk was known at the time when I published a paper on milk in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1863.By degrees my opponents-at least, the best informed of them -altered their views on the milk question, and more and more come round to my own. The analysis of milk is so simple an operation that I need not say anything on this head ; surely any properly trained analyst may be charitably supposed to be able to determine the exact percentage of water, fat, and ash in milk, and 31 I fail to see that the plan I invariably follow in weighing the fat and not determining it by difference, is less accurate on this account, or because I generally work upon 5-10 times the quantities of milk which now-a-days some chemists employ in rapid and cheap analyses.In passing I may observe that it is it disgrace to our profession that analysts can be found who make milk analyses at the munificent rate of two shillings and sixpence to five shillings a-piece. However, to return to the discussion respecting the propriety of adopting the present standard used by most public analysts, or any other standard, I would observe at once that I object in foto to all standards whereby to judge of the exact amount of water added to milk, on the ground that such standards are based on wrong principles, and are often mischievous in practice. The effect of the adoption of the present somewhat lorn standard, in my judgment, does harm, because for the greater part of the year it enables milkmen to take off a certain quantity of cream from milk, and to dilute it up to the requirements of the standard quality, without laying themselves open to fines.On the other hand, if a high standard is chosen, injustice may be done at certain times in the year, when the quality of the niilk naturally is much poorer than at others. There is no denying the fact that there is considerable difficulty in meeting this case. It does not appear feasible nor just to legislate to the effect that all milk must be sold of a guaranteed composition, or not below a certain standard quality, €or such a rule would at once give rise to abuses, and promote, rather than restrict, the manipulation of milk.But, it may be asked, can nothing be done effectually to stop the adulteration of milk :Z My answer to this question is, certainly, much may be done in this direction, if only chemists will exercise their judgment properly, be taught by experience, and deport themselves as sensible men, and show themselves to be something more than mere analysing machines. As long as the world is going to last, I fear there will alnTays be men who mill go, as far as they can safely do so, in a wrong direction, without actually breaking the laws of the ~IHE~XJ'. These are the clever, and for this reason, far more mischievous rogues of Society than the doimright vagabonds who rob their neighbours in broad daylight, and, unfortunately, aubtle roguery cannot be cured by legislative measures, and it is only against the more open or grosser vices that human laws can be devised and enforced effectuiilly.In the case of milk prosecutions, it appears to me public analysts should exercise more discretion, and not condemn a milk if, according to the present standard method, it shows 5, or even 10, per cent. of added water at a time of the year when milk naturally is more watery than ab other periods. Would not the same ends be reached if public officers mere appointed to inspect milk shops, and take from time to time samples for analysis? If a sample of milk sold were reported to be watery and poor in cream in comparison with tha$ milk sold by another dealer at the eame time, would the publication of the report not quite as much promote the sale of good milk as a vexatious prosecution ? I do not think there is any difficulty in determining by analysis9 or by even a much more simple means, whether milk is watered to the extent of 20 per cent., or if skimmed milk, instead of fresh milk, has been sold.This leads me to refer briefly to the much despised in- strument for testing roughly the quality of milk,-I mean the gravimeter, and with your permission I would read the following passages from my paper on Milk, which you will find in Vol. XXIV., part iv., of the Journal of the Royal Agri-cultural Society :-''A good many experiments have led me to the conclusion that within certain limits the specific gravity is a trustworthy indicator of quality.It is true that the cream globules are lighter than milk, and thus milk containing much cream bas a lower specific gravity than skim milk; but surely no instrument is required to tell us whether milk is extra rich, or, like skim-milk, poor in cream. The lactometer mas never intended to indicate the 33 relative richness of extra good samples of milk, but it was designed to be a simple instrument which shonld unmistakably point out whether samples of a fair or doubtful appearance had been watered, or were of a naturally defective composition ;and this purpose it astisfactorily fulfils. ''Some of the objections to the use of hydrometers for testing milk, are based on the mistaken opinion that cream is lighter than water. This is not the case; it is lighter than milk, but denser than water, in the proportion of 1012, or even 1019 to 1000.The addition of cream, therefore, cannot depress the specific gravity of the milk in the same degree as the addition of water. A low specific gravity, therefore, always indicates it large quantity of water ;at all events, I find milk rich in butter, of a gravity that is a good deal higher than milk adulterated with even little water. The results of a few experiments may here be cited, showing the quantity of cream which is thrown on the surface by pure milk of known composition, and milk purposely adulterated with fixed quantities of water, and also the specific gravity of milk adulterated with variable portions of water.''The milk used in the first set of experiments had the following composition:-Water ..........86.00 Pure fat (butter) ........ 3.71 *Casein and albumen ...... 3.37 Milk-sugar .......... 5.31 Mineral matters ........ -81 100*00 *Containing nitrogen ...... a54 Percentage of solid matter ....13.20 '(This milk had a sp. gr. of 1.0320 at 62"F. After standing for 15 hours it threw up 11.5 per cent. of cream by volume, having a sp. gr. of 1,0183at 62" F. 'c Portions of the milk were mixed with 10,20, 30,40,and 50 per cent, of water respectively, and the specific gravity of eack eample 34 thus diIuted with water was compared with that of pure milk, when the following results were obtained :-Percentage%;,it;.of Cream in bulk. Pure milk at 62O F. ........ 1.0320 ..ll+ ,, and 10 per cent. of water at 62' F. .. 1.0315 .. 10 19 ,320 .. 1,0305 .. 919 11 9,30 ,l .. 1.0290 .. 8 11 40 99 93 .. 1.0190 .. 6 60 9, .. 1.0160 ... 53, 1, "After removal of the cream from each sample, the specific gravity of the skim-milk at 62" F. was determined, and found to be as follows :-Pure skim milk ............ 1.0350 .. and 10 per cent. of water ...... 1.0320 20 and 30 per cent. of water (spoiled by accident). 99 11 40 per cent. of water ...... 1.0210 50 9, ...... 1.018019 ((In the preceding experiments the specific gravity of the milk was determined by means of an hydrometer; but as results obtained in this way are not considered so accurate as determi-nations made by direct weighings on a delicate balsnce, and, moreover, as the second of the series accidentally failed, a second set of experiments was made. *'The milk was analysed, and had the folloming composition :-Water ..........88.10 Pure fatty matters (butter) ....2.61 *Casein and albumen ...... 3.12 Milk-sugar .......... 6.46 Mineral matters (ash) ...... -71 100~00 *Containing nitrogen .... *50 Percentage of solid matter ....11.90 €6 Its sp. gr. at 62*, ascertained by hydrometer, was 1-0320;and by direct weighing 1.03141. After standing 24 hours it gave 12 35 per cent. of cream by volume; having been shaken, and then left to stand for 24 lloiirs, it pve 8 per cent.of cream by volume : Percentage ot Cream by bulk. This milk and 10 per cent. of water, after 24 hours’ standing at 62O, gave 10,; 93I, 20 1, ’7 ?I 10 30 619 ’1 ?I $7 I’ 97 40 ’I 9’ ?? 31 5 ,> 60 ,? 4;’1 Y’ ?I “The relative proportions of cream in these samples do not agree with theamount of water that has been pnrposely added to each. I account for these variations by the fact that in mixing the milk and water together, the cream globules hare been more or less broken, accordiiig to the degree of agitation to which the milk was exposed, in consequence of which the cream in the different samples had a variable composition. ‘‘On comparing the milk of the second set of experiments with that of the first set,it will be seen that the latter, notwithstanding it contained more pure fatty matter, threw up a little less cream in bulk than the former.“The subjoined table gives the specific gravity of the different samples of milk used in the second set of experiments, before and after skimming. All determinations were made at 62” F. ~~ -Specific Gravity at 629 F. Specific at 62P F.before skimming. after skimming. Pure milk .. .. .. .. .. 1.0320 1-03141 1-0337 ,, + 10 per cent, of water 1.0285 1.0295 1.0308 I? 3-20 ,, ,* .. 1.0250 1.0257 1.0265 4-30 99 I, + 1.0235 1.0233 1.0248$3 1.0200 1.0190 1.0208I) -I-40 1) 99 * 1.0170 1.0163 1.017593 + 50 I9 99 ‘‘This second serieg of experiments was made with great care, and the numbers obtained are probably more trustworthy than those of the first series. ‘‘It will be seen that the hydrometer indications agree very nearly with the specific gravity determinations by direct weighings.It follows, further, from the preceding experiments :-I‘ 1. That good new milk has a specific gravity of about 1.030. “2. That skim-milk is a little more dense than new milk, its specific gravity being about 1’034, “ 3. That milk which has a specific gravity of 1.025, or less, is either mixed with water, or naturally very poor. ‘‘4. That when milk is deprived of about 10 per cent. of cream by bulk, and the original volume is made up by 10 per cent. of waster, the specific gravity of such skimmed and watered milk is about the same as that of good new milk.‘45. That when unskimmed milk is mixed with only 20 per cent. of water, the admixture of water is indicated at once by the hydrometer, which gives for such milk a specific gravity of about 1.025. “ 6. That for these reasons the hydrometer, or lactometer,’ which gives the specific gravity of milk, is well adapted for detecting the admixture of water in milk, or to show an unusually poor condition of undiluted milk. No. 4 do not by any means prove that the hydrometer gives unreliable results ;for although it is quite true that by substituting 10 per cent. of water for 10 per cent. of cream, the original gravity of the new milk is preserved, it may be observed that milk skimmed to that extent cannot be mixed with Kater without becoming so blue and transparent that adulteration cannot be practised.At all events if it should occur, no instrument whatever is required to detect it.” Passing from milk to cream, I would ask the question, what is the composition of genuine cream ? The following are a few analyses, which show how even genuine cream varies in composition :-conclusion, it map be stated that the facts mentioned under In 4‘ 37 1 1I. 11. III. IV. Water .. .. .. ., .. 74.46 64.80 56.50 61-67 Butter (pm fatty matters) 18.18 25.40 31.57 33-43 *CaseinMilk-sugar . . . . ,.., . . i::: { 7-611 { 8.44) !:!: Mineral matters (aah) .. 0.59 2.19 3.49 0.72 100~00 100*00 100~00 100~00 *Containing nitrogen.. 1 *43 1 .. .. 1 .. .. -42 ~ “Cream is lighter than milk, but slightly denser than pure water ; consequently it sinks in distilled water.No. 1 was skimmed off after standing for 15 hours, and was found to hare a specific gravity of 1.094 at 62” F. The specific gravity of two other samples of cream which stood 48 hours was 1-0127 at 620 F., and 1-0129 at 62” F. Rich cream, I find, has a lower specific gravity than thin cream mixed with a good deal of milk, such ILIJ the sample analysed under No. 1. ‘‘No. 2 may be taken as representing the composition of cream of average richnem. It then contains about one-fourth its weight of pure butter. 66 These differences in the composition of cream fully explain the rariable quantities of butter which are produced by a given bulk of cream.” I have spoken somewhat fully on the adulteration of milk, because it is a subject on which I have had, perhaps, more extensive and varied experience than most people, and because it occupies so prominent a place in the occupation of public analysts.Intimately connected with milk and cream is butter. A good deal of useful and careful work on butter analysis has lately been done by Mr. Bell, Mr. Hehner, Dr. Duprk, and others, and as some of these gentlemen are present to-night, they will, perhaps, give us the benefit of their experience; I therefore pass on to throw out as a hint for discussion, the question of how much alumina may be allowed to be present in bread, as due to earthy matters which may have been in the flour used in baking 38 the bread, and the best methods of detecting the presence of alum in bread.I hardly think we need occupy our time in talking about adulterated tea, coffee, cocoa, and arrowroot, and I would only make a single remark about the examination of vinegar supposed to have been adulterated with sulphuric acid, or, rather, to say a word of caution to food analysts, namely, to be careful to distinguish between free and combined sulphuric acid. A few years ago, Messrs. Hill & Evans, the eminent vinegar makers, of Worcester, requested me to analyse their vinegar, which had been declared by several food analysts to have been largely adulterated with sulphuric acid, but in the manufacture of which not even 1 part of sulphuric acid in 1000 was used, the very hard water, containing much gypsum, used in the Worcester Vinegar Works, having been found to answer all the purposes of adding the small quantity of sulphuric acid allowed by law.In the next place, allow me to suggest to you for discussion the question of how far the colouring of articles of food is allowable, or whether it has to be regarded as coming within the provisions of the Adulteration Act. I would ask the question should it be permitted to colour milk with annotta or carrots, so as to give it the appearance of richness. Snd again, if milk is not to be coloured, should it be lawful to colour butter or cheese ? In my judgment, all harmless colourings, although having a mark of deception, might be passed orer without notice.The use of metallic, or other poisonous matters, in colouring articles of food or confectionery, should, in my opinion, be regarded as a punishable offence, and on no account be permitted, even in preparations in which, as in the case of peas coloured green by copper, the amount of poisonous matter may not be so large as to effect in any way the health of those who partake of the coloured substances. There is another matter in connection with the adulteration of food, to which I would briefly direct your attcntion and on which invite discussion ; I refer to substances ~~'hich are used ~.itli the 39 avowed intention of preserving perishable articles of consumption, such as milk, meat, butter, &c.Of course, I do not refer to the use of common salt or sugar, or spices, or any equally harmless matters, but have in view compounds which have a more or less powerful medicinal effect when taken internally. At the present time, as you are aware, salicylic acid is frequently recommended as a preservative of food. Thus, Dr. Van Heyden, of Dresden, recommends to add one-third of a tea-spoonful of the solid acid to aquart of milk. I do not know what you think of bringing-up babies, if you have any, on milk containing per quart + of a tea-spoonful of solid salicylic acid; for my own part I should be sorry to drink myself such doctored milk, or to give it to my children. In conclusion, I would invite discussion on the subject of the adulteration of spirits? What, it may be asked, is brandy? Should burnt sugar be allowed to be added to brandy? Why should a man be fined for selling gin, as gin, if it be diluted with much water? Are not all spirits mixtures of alcohol and water? Why should spirit of a certain strength only be called gin or whiskey, and not, if it contaius a larger proportion of water ? I am not a teetotaller myself, but I think it would be a very good thing indeed for the people frequenting public-houses, if they got very little alcohol and much water in the spirits they drink there.If a man is to be fined if he sells gin that contains much water, why should a man not be punished if he sells very thin beer ? I would further throw out the suggestion to discuss the subject of adulteration of wines and beer.It appears to me unjust and absurd to fine a man in whose beer 20 or 30, or even 80, grains of common salt are found per gallon. How much salt, I would ask, does every man eat with his breakfast or dinner ? If he drinks a pint or a quart of salted beer, how much salt does that add to the salt in the meal he takes? In a scientific and chemical point of view, some of the sug- 40 gestions which I have thrown out for discussion may be considered to be trivial and not worth talking about. However, food analysts, be it remembered, have a good deal to do with an un-scientific public, and it ie unquestionably a matter of some importance for food analysts to entertain reasonable and sound views on chemical points relating to foods and drinks, for the attitude which food analysts assume will necessarily -influence public opinion, and either strengthen or weaken the regard in which our profession is held by the public at large, and, taking this view of the matter, I do not think our discussion to-night will be regarded as trivial or useless.THE PRESIDENTsaid: We have before us to-night a very wide subject, and one which is full of difficulty, not only for the vendor and legislator, but also for the chemist. I am sure you will agree with me that we are very fortunate in having the subject introduced to us by Dr. Voelcker, who is so thoroughly acquainted with at least one branch of it, namely, the chemistry of milk. As for myself, I am here as a learner, since I have had but little experience in connection with adulteration.I have, however, listened to Dr. Voelcker’s remarks concerning milk with considerable interest, for at one time of my life I was in the habit of spending a few weeks occasionally at a dairy ; and I remember that it was always in the power of the farmer to make a con-siderable difference in the quality of the milk, according as he mixed the whole of the produce together, or divided it into two portions (a very common custom), reserving the ‘‘strippings,” or last flow of each cow, for butter, selling only the remainder, or poorer portion. Although I have ZI weakness for standards, and have sometimes been blamed for advocating them, I must admit that there is some force in Dr.Voelcker’s argument against their me, so far as milk is concerned. At the same time, a rea-sonable amount of pressure might be put upon the seller. If it farmer sells milk from which the best part is excluded, although the milk is actually sold as it comes from the cow, he ought, in my opinion, to be fined, because it is in his power to improve the quality of his milk so as to bring it up to a reasonable standard. 41 Without in any way wishing to narrow the discussion, I may remark that the subject will probably divide itself into two main lines, namely : adulteration, and the means, both qualitative and quantitative, for its detection. Definitions of adulteration ought to protect the public so far as it is possible ; but hhey ought not to throw too much onus on the ignorant trader, for me cannot expect retail dealers to be either chemists or physicists. There is one point which Dr.Toelcker mentioned in his introduction relating to the specific gravity of' milk, and the objections to the use of the lactometer, on account of the comparative lightness of the fat, or cream globules, about which I should like to hare a word of explanation. Was it the ordinary lactometer to which his remarks applied ? DR. VOELCKER:Yes. THEPRESIDENT: Then Dr. Voelcker is perfectly right in the conclusion he draws, because the quantity of fat present would exercise no influence on the indications of the lactometer. Imagine for a rnorneiit you are taking the specific gravity of a sample of water, full of moving organisms; these organisms might be heavier or lighter than water, but iu neither case would they exercise any influence on the iiiclications of the hydrometer.The globules of fat are, I believe, freely suspended in milk, each one being surrounded by the aqueous liquid. They would, therefore, have no effect on the lactometer. DR. DUPR~ :I must say a few words in favour of public analysts, for I have no hesitation in stating that the Society of Public Analysts is as well able to deal with the subject of adulteration as the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Even clever chemists may make mistakes, as Dr. Voelcker himself did when he said the Society of Public Analysts had laid down standards.On the contrary, they alvmys protested against them. It is true we have laid down certain limits, but this is a very different thing. We consider everythiiig which falls below a certain limit as adulterated, but this limit, below which everything is rejected, is a very low one. As regards the definition of adulteration, it must be remembered that the Act of Parliainent is not an Adulteration Act, 42 but a Sale of Food and Driigs Act; the word adulteration is entirely excluded from the Act. There is no such thing as an adulterated article, but only an article which is not of the nature, quality, and substance demanded. If, hovever, a definition of adulteration is wanted, there cannot be better ones than those laid down by the Society of Public Analysts, who may be bad chemists, but who certainly have some common sense.These definitions were reprinted in several German papers, but I have not seen them in any English ones. They are as follows : DEFINITION OF AN ADULTERATED ARTICLE. An tcrticle shall be deemed to be adulterated : (A) In the case of food or drink-1. If it coutain any ingredient which may render such article injurious to the health of a consumer. 2. If it contain any substance that sensibly increases its weight, bulk, or strength, or gives it a fictitious value, unless the amount of such substance present be due to circumstances necessarily appertaining to its collection or manufacture, or be necessary for its preservation, or unless the presence thereof be acknowledged at the time of sale.3. If any important constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted, unless acknowledgment of such abstraction or omission be made at the time of sale. 4. If it be an imitation of, or be sold under the name of, another article. (B) In the case of drug,+--1. If,when retailed for medicinal purposes under a name recognised in the British Pharrnacopceia, it be not equal in strength and purity to the standard laid down in that work. 2. If, when sold under a name not recognised in the British Phar- mscopceia, it differ materially from the standard laid down in approved works on Materia Medica, or the professed standard under which it is sold. To go back to the question of milk, I repeat that there is no such thing as adulteration, but as an article which is not of the nature, quality, and substance demanded.I mention this to bring forward the instance of the starving COTS. Now, if I vant to have milk, I want it as supplied by ahealthy con-, properly fed. If I have it from a starving cow, I might as well have it from one 43 that is diseased-the milk is not of the natnre, &c., &c., demanded, and fairly comes under the operetion of the Act. I think Dr. Voelcker’s analyses have done a good deal of harm by lowering the hit unnecessarily ; it enabled farmcrs and milk dealers to bring forward instaiices where cows have supplied milk containing a less amount than 9 per cent. of solids not fat, Even in the case of starring cows ttie amount of solids was not much less than 9 per cent.He also stated that no niilk which contained 3+ per cent. of fat could be adulterated. I must entirely differ from that. Only very recently I had a sample which gare 60 per cent. of cream, or 15 per cent. of fat, and yet I should not have had the slightest hesitation in saying that this milk was adultera,ted, if the solids not tht Elad falIeii below my limit of 9 per cent., after taking the excessive proportion of fat into consideration. You must remember that articles of food for analysis are bought by inspectors-the public take very little interest in the matter. have been eugaged as a public analyst five or six years, and only remember one occasion where the article was not brought by the inspector. Every dealer knows the inspector, and, of course, the latter is served with a good article, and, in the case I have mentioned, the sample had evidently been carefully taken from the top of a can mliich had stood some time, nevertheless, the milk itself might have been adulterated.As to alumina in bread, I do not think that any limit can be laid down, bccause the amount present differs very much, according to the purity of the materials. There is at least one compound of alumina, naniely the soil in which the wheat has been grown, and more or less of which adheres to the grain, which, unless present in excessive proportion, cannot be looked up011 as an adulteration. All re can therefore, contend for, is, that the alumina fouud should not exceed a certain proportion of the silica present.What that proportion should be will have to be decided by a large number of analyses, but when once fixed it may furnish a means, the only means as far as I can see at present, for estimating the amount of alum contained in a given sample of bread. Slum added to flour can be estimated with ease and exactness by the method described by myself a little while ago, and printed in The Analyst, for January, 1879. With reference to butter, I must differ from Dr. Voelcker in regard to the value he seems to attach to the specific gravity of pure butter fat, and any public analyst who relied upon this method would be liable to class pure mutton fat as pure butter, as the specific gravity of some samples of mutton fat is as high as that of butter fat.A great difference of opinion has been expressed as to the amonnt of fatty acids insoluble in water contained in pure butter fat, but I am decidedly of opinion that most, if not all, of the high results given, are simply due to errors of analysis, that is, to insufficknt washing of the insoluble acids. No analysis of butter fat giving a high percentage of insoluble acids was worth anything unless the soInble fatty acids are given at the same time, so that both may be calculated into fat. Whenever the fatty acids, plus their glycerine residues, come to much above 98 per cent. of the butter fat taken, the andysis may be looked upon as Forthless (taking the molecular weight of the insoluble acids at 278*,and that of the soluble at 88.).Towards the end of the washing, for, say 1 per cent., of acid we wash out of the so-called insolnble acids, we add only per cent., or even less, to the soluble acids, if TTe assume, as is usually done, that the soluble acids consist of butyric acid only. There are one or two considerations upon which I should like to remark, not, perhaps, strictly chemical, but which are as important as any chemical question that can be raised. First of all, the ridiculousIy low fines inflicted by some magistrates. There are such fines as five shillings or two-shillings and sixpence for milk adulterated with only ten per cent. of Tvater. 01zIy ten per cent.of Tater in t.he milk consumed in London means 32150,000 a-year paid for water ; a five shilling fine means the sale of 12 quarts of water, and there are few dealers who cannot get through 12 qumtsof water between two visits of the inspector, who cannot go too often,or it Todd be called persecution. There are some milk dealers to whom an adulteration of 10 per cent. means S.1000 a-year gained by the sale of water. In conclusion, Dr. Dup4 said, that with respect to a definition of what redly constituted adulteration, he was afraid there would be a great difference of opinion, as what one would hold mas adulteration, another would say was not, and he instanced the case of drugs, which by long keeping would be liable to changes.In Germany an inspection of all chemists’ shops took place every year, and every chemist was bound to keep his drugs up to the prescribed standard. This was a question which he thought the Institute of Chemistry might well take tip. DR. STEVENSOX:I must re-echo a good deal of what has fallen from Dr. Dupr6 with regard to public analysts. As a public analyst I have had to listen to some rather strong language from Dr. Voelcker, who does not seem to have one word to say in their favour. Of course, there are public analysts and public analysts ; but as a body, I believe they are as trustworthy as the members of any other profession. I was also sorry to find the paper referred to so few subjects and introduced so little new matter. THE PRESIDENT: It would be unfair to Ur.Voelcker if we regard his paper as an original communication. It is not so intended, but merely to furnish the basis for the discussion. DR. STEVENSON:I was coining to that, because chemists have been condemned by Dr. Voelcker on the strength of old analyses made by methods now scarcely ever adopted by analysts. Milk analysis has been much improred, and with more modern methods we have more accurate results. It would have been well if the old had been tested by comparison with the new methods. As to standards, I differ from Dr. Voelcker and agree Fith Dr. Dupr6, when he said it would be rery unwise if analysts were not to have standards below which articles should not fall. With regard to milk, I may say that I am well acquainted with all agricultural operations, and made many analyses of milk direct from farms, following up the subject scientifically.I have had the oppor- tunity with milk of a great number of cows, and have had access to a large number of dairies, taking individual cases as well as large herds. The milk of fairly fed cows I consider does not present that wide difference which we have heard this eTening. A cow, of course, might he found to have a low quality of milk from an exceptional cause, but not so frequetitly as Dr. Voelcker stated. As to alum in bread, very little has been added to our knowledge from what Dr. Voelcker has said, I quite agree with Dr. Dupr6 in not relying on the alumina, alone, for there are few samples of bread tested which do not show a certain quantity of alumina.It is as well, therefore, to apply the logwood test, and to determine the amount of silica. I should like to hear the opinion of the meeting on drugs, because the Local Government Board have drawn attention to the fact of so few drugs being analysed by the public analysts. Apparently the question has not been settled as to whether when a drug is sold to their inspector under the name of a preparation of the British Pharmacopceia, the vendor is bound to sell it of a quality laid down in the Pharmacopceia. Suppose iron and quinine asked for-THE PRESIDENT:The question of drugs would make a very interesting discussion, but it would be better to have a separate evening for this subject.DR. STEVEKSON:It is the Sale of Food and Drugs Act I thought we were discussing. I understood we were to discuss drugs as well as food. It is a point which is just now mnch exercising the minds of public analysts. THE PRESIDENTobserved that he would take the sense of the meeting as to whether drugs should be discussed, and the question having been decided in the negative, DR. STEVENSONsaid he quite coincided in the decision. Passing on to speak of spirits, he said : I do not think, because all spirits are, as has been remarked, more or less mixtures of aleohol and water, it implied that the vendor should be allowed to sell any mixture of water and spirits as genuine. We know from the evidence of the Customs and Excise that most spirits, except perhaps rum, when imporked or manufactured are of certain definite strengths. It is the custom to dilute these in various ways, and although no standard is laid down by law, yet there is one laid dom-n by custom.We cannot fall into much error with 47 brandy, gin and whiskey, but rum is different. As to whether brandy distilled from wine should be distinguished from brandy made from corn-spirit and flavoured with an essential oil, and the latter spirit be termed adulteratsd, there is a difference of opinion. I think, however, that most public analysts in this respect have decided in favour of the vendor who supplies the last named compounds. I hope Dr. T'oelcker, because I said his matter was old, will not think I undervalue what he has said, but I regret as to milk that we have not had more recent evidence from him.DR. VOELCKER:1 make every year a great many analyses of milk, and my recent experience but confirms what I hare already said. I have not had to retract a single word, for nothing new has come out. DR. REDWOODsaid that not only had there been suficient matter introduced for discussion, but that there was more than they could cornpletcly discuss in one evening. He had been glad to observe that Dr. Voelcker had not attempted to define the meaning of adulteration, for he felt satisficd they might discuss it, not only for hours, but for days, without coming to any satis- factory conclusion. It would be much better to confine themselves to the question of what the articles of food vere that n-ere most subject to adulteration in the commonly accepted sense of that term, and what the kiqds of adulteration were that were most objectionable, as affecting the health of the consumer or the pocket of the purchaser.Some of the subjects introduced had been pretty fully dealt with, but others, and especially two or three of those last touched upon by Dr. Voelcker, had been but sliglitly referred to. It was with reference to these he proposed making Borne remarks. He agreed with Dr. Steyenson respecting the adulteration of spirits. There were certain limits in regard to strength within which potable spirits should be kept in order to justify the application to them of their popular names.This had been taken as the basis of a decision by the Judges in one of the superior Courts in an appeal case. The question &-as asked by them, what was the usual strength of the spirit sold under that particular name by thebetter class of dealers in the locality in 48 which the sample in question was obtained ;-and that was taken to be what the public had a right to expect when they asked for the article under that name. Gin, for instance, was supplied bg the rectifier to publicans at 17" or 22" under proof, but this was generally reduced to 30" under prbof by the publican before he Bold it. The public, in fact, rarely obtained it by retail either stronger or weaker than 30" under proof. There were, however, a few unscrupulous dealers who lowered it doKn to 40°,or more, under proof, and the question was, had the public a right to complain in such cases.Dr. Voelcker said, and some might be disposed to agree with him, that the more the spirit vas diluted, the better for the health of the public, but he could not agree in that opinion unless all spirit sold under the same name were equally reduced in strength, otherwise the pockets as well as the health of the public would suffer. While the strength varied between 22" and 40" or 50" under proof, there was more danger to health than there would be if the strength were equalised. He thought it was not only necessary to regulate the strength and composition of spirits, such as gin, but also of beers, and if it were possible- but it hardly appeared to be so-of wines.He had devoted a good deal of time and attention to this subject, and had been very anxious that the public should be enabled to get from public houses the genuine beers of the grcat brewers, such as Combe & Go., Meux & Co., Reid & Co., whose names were put up by the publicans to induce the public to belieye that they were selling such beers. He had obtained the co-operation of most of the great London brewers to effect what they all admitted was a desirable object, but unfortunately, although he had commenced successfully, the object had been defeated by the adoption of a practice which became common among the publicans, of putting up a notice that all their alcoholic liquids were diluted, and the magistrates ruled that this exonerated them.One other subject he wished to allude to, namely, the colouring of articles of food. On this point again he could not agree with Dr. Voelcker. He thought if the artificial colouring of such articles aa butter, cheese, pickles and sauces, mere an offence, it was at least a rerj venial 49 one, provided that nothing injurious was employed for the purpose. Take, for instance, the case of butter ; tliat which was imported in bulk was collected- in small quantities from different makers, and was subject to variations of colour which would give the bulk an unsightly appearance, but this was prevented by the addition of a small quaniity of annatto, which gave a uniformly agreeable and natural appearance to the whole.Mow he con-sidered that if by such simple means food could be made to appeal. to, and to satisfy the requirements of, other senses as well as the palate, it would be rendered more wholesome and nutritious than it would be if it offended any one of these. And, therefore, he justified such harmless additions as he had alluded to. Of course, the colouring of pickles with copper was a very different thing, and that he decidedly condemned. DR. TIDY:I do not know how to suggest anything in the place of standards in some form or snother, although I confess they appear to me to be objectionable. The only question is, who is to settle the standard ? Shall every man be a lam unto himself, or shall a society fix a standard, to which, of course, they can bind no one. At any rate, I object to a standard in which the analysis of any article as a whob is not taken count of.For this reason a standard of milk founded on the solids not fat, is, to my mind, unscientific. I do not profess for the past few Tears to have had the experience that has fallen to many in food analysis, but for Some years preceding these adulteration days, I expect, as an assistant to Dr. Letheby, I examined more samples of food than most people. Dr. Letheby was much interested in the subject of milk, and before coming liere to-night, I referred to his original notes on the subject. He examined the milk yielded by two cows for 115 consecutire days.The total solids not fat of the milk of one of these cows never fell belo\v 0 per cent., biit in the second con. in no less than four several occasions, the amount of solids not fat was less than 7.5 per cent. Of the purity of the milk, there was no question. I do not think it possibIe, therefore, to say that because a milk contains 7.5 per cent.: it must he adulterated, although I think there are ninety-nine chances in it hundred that it is. And now, as to the question of nutriment, let me refer to human milk. My first paper on “Human Milk ” appeared in the London Hospital Reports for 1867. I there gave 12 as the average total solids per cent. of healthy human milk, but a larger number of experiments iyould lead me to give quantities varying from 8 to 13 as the normal of the milk of the human kind.Siiice that payer was written, I have examined a large nuiuber of milks takcn from unhealthy women. These analyses are very interesting ;I will only say this much about them, viz., that taking several cases of advanced phthisis, I found 14 per cent., and in one case 14-8 per cent. of total solids, but in spite of this apparent richness the children did not thrive. Conversely, in various neuroses and in cancer, I have found milk with only G.4 per cent. of total solid malter, and in one case actually only 5 per cent., and yet in some of these cases, the children thrived very well. This much appears to me certain, a milk niay appear poor and yet not be poor-it may appear rich and yet not be nourishing.The fact is, the nourishiiig property of milk is in a great measure altogether beyond the scope of a chemical inquiry. I have now notes of over 100 cases where the milk of diseased women Elas been examined, and at the same time careful mcdical examination made of their cases. This appeal to human milk as to composition and nutritive power (for we may hope it is outside the adulterator’s hands) is of importance, not simply chemically, but physiologically. MR. BELL: With regard to the question of milk, we at Somerset House do not subscribe to the limit which is laid down by the Society of Public Analysts. We have laid down no par-ticular limit, as in jndging whether a milk has been watered or not, we take the whole of the constituents into account, and from these we form an opinion as to the genuineness or otherwise of the sample. We have fourid it impossible to adopt the limit laid down by the Public Analysts, because we have taken great trouble to investigate the subject of milk, and we have found considerable variations in its composition, and that no one constituent forms a constant quantity in genuine milk.From the results of our in- vestigation we found that in the case of individual cows, 18 per cent. contained upmards of 14 per cent. of total solids ; that 83 per cent. contained upwards of 12 per cent. ; that 96 per cent. contained over 11 per cent., and that 4 per cent. contained less than 11 per ceut. of total solids.In the case of dairy mixtures we found tlmt 20 per cent. contained upwards of 14 per cent. of total solids, that 79 per cent. Contained upn-ards of 12 per cent., and that 20 per cent. contained less than 12 per cent. total solids. The solids not fat showed also a con-siderable variation. In the case of individual cows we found that 24 per cent. contained over 9.5 per cent. of solids not fat ; that 56 per cent. contained upwards of 9 per cent. ; that 43 per cent. vas under 9 per cent., and that 18 per cent. vas under 8.6 per cent. In the case of' dairy mixtures we found thab 25 per cent. contained over 9.5 per cent. of solids not fat ; that 66 per cent, contaiiied over 9 per cent. ; that 33 per cent. contained less than 9 per cent., and that 12 per cent.contained less than 8-6 per cent. The percentages of fat were equally variable ;for instance, in the case of individual cows, jve found 42 per cent. over 4.0 per cent ; 84 per cent. oxr COO per cent. ; 93 per cent. over 2.5 per cent., and G per cent. uuder 2.5 per cent. In the case of mixed milk from dairies, we found 33 per cent. over 4.0 per cent ; 9s per cent. over 3.0 per cent., and 4 per cent. under 3.0 per cent. In the face of these results, it is obvious that we could not draw a hard and fast line of 9 per cent. of solids not fat, by which to judge as to vhether a milk ms genuine or not. I may here obser-re that in every case, both of individual cows aid of mixed milk from dairies, whether in town or country, the samples represent entire milliings made in the presence of one of the assistant chemists at Somerset House, and the representative character of the samples is assured by the wide range of country, extending from Yorkshire to Devonshire, from Fhich they xere obtained.With regard to intoxicating liquors, when the question has been one of watering, we have simply determined the strength and left the question of undue dilution for the decision of the magistrates. We felt that we had no pwer to lay down any standards of strength, and this being so, we considered it best not to interpose between the analysts and the trade in casesof charges of excessive w,itering. The colouring of spirits with burnt sugar is a practice that has existed for many years, and the practice is a very harmless one.The preparation of brandy, by adding brandy flavouring to plain spirits, and selling the article as foreign brandy, is, in my opinion, an infraction of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act. With respect to salt in beer, we have found in the course of our experience from the analyses of breqing waters and the materials used in brewing, that large percentages of salt may be naturally present in many beers. We indicated as much in our certificate in the first reference case that came before us, but we were very much abused at the time for making such a statement. In many cases, however, that have since occurred, it has been proved that we were right in our warning, but in some instances I have observed successful prosecutions for salt in beer, where from my own knowledge the brewing waters contained large percentages of salt, and if proper precautions had been taken to fix the chlorine, larger percentages of salt would have been found in the beer than represented.In confirmation of the position which we took up, I may mention that I observed recently from an extract of a report of a public analyst, that he found over 120 grains of salt per gallon in a sample of beer, and that he gave it as his opinion that the salt was naturally present, being derived from the brewing water and other materials employed. The Discussion n-as then adjourned. PAGES MISSING FROM 53 TO 76

ISSN:0368-3958    

DOI:10.1039/PG879030B025

出版商:RSC    

年代:1879

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY f ,l. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,-REPORT OF A CONFERENCE ON THE RELATIONS OF THE CHEMICAL PROFESSION TO PUBLIC SANITATION, gil'rrnban: PRINTEP BY A. P. CLUNDELL & CO., 26, GARLICK HILT,, E.C. -lS79. INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY. CONFERENCE ON THE OF THE CHEMICALRELATIONS PROFESSION TO PUBLICSANITATION. Held Wedneshy, November 12th, 1879. --+++--DR. C. R. ALDERWRIGHTsaid-It is a self-evident proposition that civilization necessarily in- troduces various sources of injury to health which do not exist amongst uncivilized nations ;amongst such injurious influences may be cited the massing together of large populations on limited areas, which tends to produce various diseases through the action of many different causes, of which an important one is the pollution of air and water through imperfect means of removing the excreta from the body by ventilation, drainage, &c.; whilst the spread of arts and manufactures daily introduces and extends the use of materials and products in the preparation of which un- wholesome emanations are apt to be evolved, thereby causing injury, not only to the workmen engaged in the processes, but also to other inembers of the community. That the spread of civilization sets in motion agencies which tend to prolong life, as well as those which tend to impair it, is also true ; the extension of medical skill and the knowledge gained of the con- ditions requisite for perfect health under different circumstances 80 are amongst the chief of these agencies ; against which may-be set the consequent deteriorating influence on the average health and strength of the community, through the circumstance that individuals of weakly constitiition, instead of being killed off early in life by inability to bear hardships, as is the case in most uncivilized races through a true ‘‘ survival of the fittest,” are now-a-days largely enabled to grow up and propagate races of comparatively feeble vigour and vitdi ty.With this latter cause of injury to the health of the population, as Fell as with the evils introduced through voluntary and habitual overwork, mental anxiety, imperfect observation of the conditions as to diet, exercise, &c., best suited to the individual, and many similar injurious influences, the present paper has nothing to do ; they hardly belong, if at all, to that class of causes of injury to health which can be in any my grappled with by the Legislature, save in an indisect way by the enforcement of elementary instruction in the general principles of hygiene in all our schools : for, desirable as it may be that persons of unsound health or hereditarily disposed to consump tion, scrofula, insanity, &c., should not become the parents of children cursed with the Bame weakly frames as themselves, it is not likely that, in this country, at least, a law would ever be passed preventing persons of such infirm and unsound constitutions from being able to contract a legal marriage ; and even if such a law mere passed, as has been suggested before now, it is not clear that it would effect the desired result of diminishing the number of con-genitally unhealthy chilken.This result can only be brought about by the operation of causes dependent solely on the individuals affected. Nany of the other noxious influences on health introduced directly or indirectly through the spread of civilization and progrew admit, however, of being diminished and kept within comparatively narrow limits by the use of proper precautions, the observance of which can be legally enforced without great public inconvenience ; it is the recognition of this fact, and of the validity of the principle of “the greatest good to thc greatest 81 number,” that has led to various legisIative enactments being passed for the purpose of finding out, by the appointment of suitable officers, where these noxious influences are in operation, and of enforcing, when necessary, such restrictions on, alterations in, or modifications of the causes of these influences, as will diminish or abolish their evil effects ; even though this enforced procedure may result in serious pecuniary loss, or other inconvenience, to individuals.Thus ariaes the appointment of factory inspectors, to gee that children and others are not habitually overworked ; of mining inspectors, to see that certain causes of danger in the mines are minimized ;of inspectors deputed to examine chemical works, &c., to see that undue pollution of air by noxious emana- tions does not take place ;of food analysts and inspectors, to guard against injury to health by adulteration of the food supply ;of medical officers of health, to see, amongst other things, that proper conditions are observed in dwelling houses, &c., for avoiding injury to health from defective ventilation and improper drainage, for preventing the spread of epidemics, fevers, small pox, and other contagious diseases, &c., &c.; and of various other analogous officials, armed with authority not only to investigate into such matters, but also to enforce compliance with such alterations and changes as the requirements of each several case may render necessary; and from this, too, arises the existence of such laws as permit of the enforced removal or prohibition (after due legal trial and inquiry) of a manufacture, &c., carried out under such con-ditions as to be a nuisance and source of injury to the surrounding population ;of the destruction of food in a state unfit for con-sumption, and of cattle suffering from rinderpest, &c.; and, generally, of the compulsory removal, and, as far as practicable, prevention of the existence, of sources of injury to the public health.Public sanitation, then, in the widest sense includes three kinds of machinery, viz : that for finding out ‘what conditions and circumstances, produce, or are liable to produce, injurious effects on the public health ; that for determining whether, in any given instance, such conditions obtain or circumstances exist ; 82 and that for effecting the removal of these injurious influences when existing, and preventing their occurrence as far as practicable, by putting in force such legal restraints and powers as already exist, and taking steps to obtain such extensions of these powers as may from time to time be rendered desirable or necessary.Medical science generally, and the exercise of ordinary powers of observation aided by special knowledge and experience, afford the means of carrying out the first and fundamental branch of sanitation, viz., the laying down of canons as to what conditions and circumstances either have in former times produced injury to health, or are likely to do so in future : with this branch of sanitation, professional chemistry, has only the very indirect associa- tion that probably most of these injurious effects are due to improper chemical changes induced in the bodies of the sufferers ;but as our knowledge of the actual internal mechanism of these abnormal chemical changes (and, indeed, of most of the normal changes in the organism, as well as of the exact modus operandi of most drugs), is at present only of the most general and superficial character, the whole of this branch, although theoretically wholly within the domain of the scikntific chemist, is practically quite outside of that of the professional chemist.To a great extent, also, this is true of the third branch; viz., the compulsory removal of causes of injury to health, and prohibition by the exercise of legal authority, of such causes being set in action when not pre-viously existent.When the chemist, as such, is mixed up in this branch of sanitary duty, it is simply as an expert, adviser, or witness, just as is the case with the medical man, as such, under similar circumstances. It is otherwise, however, wit.h the second branch of sanitary science above referred to, viz., the determination whether, in any given case, conditions obtain which are known or believed from past experience to be injurious to health: in a very great number of cases, the requisite information can only be gained by the performance of chemical operations, often requiring a high degree of skill and profound acquaintance with laboratory 83 manipulation.For instance, the inspection of chemical works under the Alkali Act, for the purpose of determining whether the air pollution caused by these works is kept down within certain limits; such work a8 that done by the Rivers Pollution Commission, and the various public analysta throughout the country under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act; and so on. In matters such as these, the chemical knowledge of the ordinary medical officer of health is usually quite insufficient for the purpose required. The course of practical chemical training passed through by the average medical student, embracing little more than a smattering of qualitative analysis, and frequently not that, is not sufficiently deep or extended to render it possible for him to obtain reliable analytical evidence by the work of his own hands; and, even when a course of so-called special instruction in the analysis of water and articles of food, is supradded to the limited amount of laboratory experience gained during his curriculum, the result is often the production of but an indifferent analyst, as various cases under the Food Adulteration Acts have shown.In the writer’s opinion, the importance of a thorough knowledge of analytical and general chemistry on the part of sanitary officers is such as to render it desirable that a considerable change should be brought about in the way in which public sanitation is now carried out.The magnitude of the acquirements now expected of a first-class medical sanitary officer, and rendered necessary by the multifarious duties that often fall to his share, is, however, too great already to render it reasonable to demand that a man should spend some two or three years in the study of analytical chemistry, as well as the large amount of time requisite for the attainment of the other branches of knowledge required to be possessed by him. As an illustration of the onerous and laborious course of study and preparation now considered necessary for a first-class medical sanitary officer, the regulationa of the University of London with reference to the “Examination in subjects relating to Public Health ” may be quoted. Before being admissible to this examination, a candidate must have taken his degree as Bachelor of Medicine in the University of London 84 at least a year previously ; and this degree can only be obtained after passing, in succession, the Matriculation (sometimes familiarly styled “diluted omniscience ”), Preliminary Scientific, 1st M.B., and 2nd M.B.examinations, between the first and last of which four years must be spent in study at one or more of the medical schools or institutions recognized by the University. Besides the subjects already taken up in these four previous examinations, the candidate must show satisfactory acquaintance with ‘I Chemistry and Microscopy, as regards the examination of Air, Water, and Food ” ;certain branches of I‘ Meteorology,” (‘Geology,’’ ‘‘Physics, and Sanitary Apparatus,” also form part of the examination, which further embraces, ‘6 Vital Statistics,” “ Sanitary law,” and, in particular, ‘‘Hygiene,” of which branch some nineteen different subsections are enumerated in the calendar.The cir-cumstance that the possession of the degree of Bachelor of Medicine (which of itself implies a medical education of a some- what higher class than that attained to by average non-graduated practitioners) is not sufficient to stamp a man as a competent medical sanitary officer, clearly shows that it is unlikely that any large proportion of the gentlemen obtaining appointments as medical sanitary officers will, for some time to come, be men who hare passed the London University Public Health Examination, or any other similarly stringent one, still less, one requiring the expenditure of a further amount of time in acquiring a thorough knowledge of quantitative analysis ;for it is evident that this ex- amination, searching as it is both in its own nature and in the character of the previous training requisite, affords no guarantee that the graduate who has passed it is a sound and competent chemist, inasmuch as it is not evident from the regulations that any kind of quantitative analytical knowledge is essential for any of the five examinations required in all.If,then, the premises be conceded: firstly, that for the per- formance of many duties pertaining to the office of a thoroughly competent sanitary officer an accurate knowledge of analytical chemistry is indispensable ; secondly, that the existing regula- tions as to the training of such officers, even of the very highest 85 class, do not provide for the acquirement of this thorough knowledge (although they do provide for the acquisition of a smattering of some minor portions thereof) ; and, thirdly, that to compel sanitary officers of the highest class to spend, in addition to the four or more years now required to be passed in almost con tinuons professional study and preparation for examin.(1t‘ion, an additional couple of years or more in acquiring a competent knowledge of analytical chemistry (e. g., such a knowled, ee as would enable them to become Fellows or Associates of the Institute of Chemistry), would be practically to limit most un- desirably the number of men who would consent to pass through such an arduous curriculum ; it must result that it is essential that sanitary officers should be divided into two classes, viz., those possessing the special medical knowledge and training requisite for the due carrying out of the medical portion of the sanitation system rendered necessary by the march of civilization and progress; and those possessing the special chemical skill and attainments requisite for the proper discharge of the chemical portion of this system. In other words, it appears to be desirable that the system of sanitation now being developed throughout this country should be extended in this sense, that, instead of having only one kind of sanitary officer (vie., the “Medical Officer of Health ”), there should be two classes, viz., MedicaZ Sanitary Opcers, and Chemical Sanitary Oficers, the latter body being engaged in the performance of such duties as require special knowledge of chemical analysis, kc., the which duties are at present either neglected altogether, done in a perfunctory manner, or relegated to some other kind of official, not always enjoying the same status, or possessed of the same authority, as the Medical Officer of Health.Before such a twofold system of Sanitation could be effectively worked, it is possible that a Special Government Department, perchance under the control of a “ Minister of Public Health,” might require to beconstituted.It may be that the Medical Depart. ment of the Privy Council could be augmented into the (( Sanitary Department of the Privy Council,” with two subdepartments, yiz., the Medical and Chemical ones (possibly, a third, the Mining Sub-Department, having to do with the inspection of mines, &c., and even more sub-departments might be requisite). In whatever way this Sanitary Board or Department were ultimately constituted, it should bring under one common control a number of things at present isolated in their action, and therefore, in some respects, not so effective as is desirable. This department should be responsible for the proper putting into force of all acts relating to Public Sanitation, such as the Alkali Act, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, the Rivers Pollution Prevention Act, the Public Health Act, and the various Acts relating to the Medical Profession generally, Pharmacy, Lunacy, Local Boards of Health, Ssc., &c.; and for the appointment of the necessary officials and officers requisite for the due discharge of the duties of the Department.Without interfering materially with the powers of Local Boards to elect their own local medical and chemical sanitary officers, the Department should exercise such supervision as to ensure that competent men were appointed, and that the purposes of their appointment were not nullified by purposed neglect and obstruction, snch as occasionally takes place under the existing Bystem, aa, for instance, when a public analyst is appointed for it district, so as to comply with the letter of the Act, but its spirit wholly stultified by the intentional neglect of the obtaining any samples of food, &c., for him to analyse! The following is an outline of the writer’s notion as to how the duties of a chemical sanitary officer should be carried out, and of the provisions that should be made for their due performance.In the first place, the chemical sanitary officer for any con- siderable district, should necessarily be something more than simply a person who had a knowledge of general analytical opera- tions : just as instrnction in numerous subsidiary branches of knowledge, besides the art of diagnosing disease and prescribing for its cure, is requisite in the ‘‘ Medical Officer of Health” as he exists at present, EO a knowledge of various branches of science more or less akin to chemistry, and requisite in the case of questions as to drainage, water supply, nuisance, air pollution, and 87 the like, would be essential in the skilled chemical sanitary officer.Possibly, it might be desirable that a special form of diploma in the chemical sub-department of Public Health should be in-stituted, the possession of which would be a guarantee of having passed satisfactorily through the particular curriculum prescribed for officers of this kind. In this respect the examinations now compulsory for the Associateship of the Institute of Chemistry would occupy a position about equivalent to that which the examinations of the College of Surgeons, and other medical licensing boards, occupy in reference to the acquirements of a Medical Officer of Health. Secondly, inasmuch as it would probably be convenient that the chemical sanitary officer for any given district should be, e.x o$iciu, the public analyst under the Sale of Food and Drugs 9ct for that district, a suitable district laboratory a,nd staff of competent assistants would be required ; for, under the energetic system of Sanitation supposed by the writer to be in force, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act would be carried out in a manner very different from the present diminutive scale of' procedure.Instead of an analyst being appointed at the munificent salary of 3.80 or $100 per annum, to do perhaps a couple of hundred analyses in the course of a year, the district laboratory staff should include, besides the head chemical sanitary officer (of status equal to that of the medical sanitary officer, and paid at the rate of 2600, 2800, 2,1000, or even more, per annum, according to the district), such a staff of principal and subordinate assistants as the size of the district and its population might render necessary.Instead of an analyst examining, as at present, in the course of a year perhaps one sample for every hundred food shops of one kind or another in his district, a small army of food inspectors should from time to time pounce down simultaneously on, say, every baker or every milkman, &c., in the whole district, thus collecting samples perhaps by hundreds at a time.4 system of supervision such as this, coupled with effective support from the magistracy in cases of convictions (such, perhaps, as imprisonment without option of fine for a third offence), would soon lead to a wonderful 88 alteration in the nature of food stuffs sold, or, at least, in the names and titles under which they were sold. Besides supervising this class of work, the chemical sanitary officer would also be required to undertake the investigation of questions falling within his scope, relating to the character of water supplies, sewage contaminations, nuisances, &c., &c. In all probability it would be found desirable that the inspection of works under the Alkali Act, and other Acts of a similar nature, should be carried out as at present by a different staff of inspectors; but consultation with the chemical sanitary officer of’ the district, and co-operation on his part, might often be advantageous. Moreover, another class of Eork might with great propriety be ex o~ciorelegated to the chemical sanitary officer, viz., the ex- amination for poisons, &c., of stomach-conteiits and the like for coroner’s inquests, i.e., as long as the anachronism of the “crowner’s quest,” as it is still conducted, continues. Under existing circumstances, a coroner is only empowered (without a special order from the Home Secretary, only granted in exceptional cases), to pay at most a guinea for an analysis and another for attendance to give evidence-a scale of fees clearly insufficient to obtain the services of competent analysts.Accordingly, it often happens that analyses are not made at all on account of the expense in cases where it is desirable that they should be performed, whilst in many instances the analytical operations are intrusted to imperfectly skilled hands, who bestow on the work an amount of knowledge, labour, and time just commensurate with the fee paid, and no more: usually finding no trace of poison, for the simple reason that the mode of testing em-ployed would not detect it, were it there. Such a so-called analyst will test pokable water for lead by adding potassiuni chromate, and if no precipitate is tlirvwii down, will regard lead as absent.Occasionally, however, to balance mathers, a poison is found which is not there, as in one instance where arsenic was pronounced to be present in certain stomach-contents, because the matter, when treated with nitric acid and strained, gave a precipitate (of sulphur) with sulphuretted hydrogen, no 89 confirmatory test of any kind being employed. It is manifest that if an examination for poisons be made at all, it should be done thoroughly and properly ; wherefore, the appointment in each district of a chemical sanitary officer, whose duties were understood to include the performance of analyses for inquests (or, at least, the supervision of the examination by skilled under-chemists) would be far preferable to the present unsatisfactory state of matters in such cases.It may be urged that the establishment of n chemical sanitary officer at a high salary, with a number of properly paid assistant chemists in each district, would add notably to the rates, and that a popular objection would thus be created. But, in the first place, the actual increase in expenditure in any given district thus introduced would be relatively but small ; and, secondly, the advantages accruing to each food consumer by the greatly diminished probability of his being supplied with adulterated and sophisticated provisions, and the lessened risk of unwholesome emanations in the air he breathes, &c., &c., are well worth paying a trifle extra for, The views thus put forward for discussion will, doubtless, appear to be very crude, and in some respects impracticable ; but it may be that, although these suggestions in their present form could not readily be put into practice, yet discussion thereon may point the way to some better system, or to such modifications of existing arrangements as are possible, and which would more or less completely fulfil the objects in view.That this result might possibly ensue the writer is encouraged to hope from the eir- cumstance that the existence of the Institute of Chemistry itself is traceable to a similar origin, viz., firstly, the suggestion in 18’72 by Dr. Frankland to the Council of the Chemical Society of the creation of a class of Fellows to be styled Licentiates of the Chemical Society, or by some analogous title, for the purpose of distinguishing between competent professional chemists and those interested in chemistry only as a science: a proposition not adopted by the Council ; secondly, the subsequent suggestion in January, 1876, in the Chemical News, by the writer, of the formation of a guild of professional chemists ; thirdly, the hearty co-operation of many leading chemists-now largely represented on our Council-in altering, modifying, and reducing to practicable shape the rough notions thus sketched out.Amongst the friends to whose labours the practical successful establishment of the Institute of Chemistry is mainly due, the writer is glad to have the present opportunity of naming Mr.W. N. Hartley, by whom a very large portion of the more laborious part of the preliminary rough shaping work was carried into effect. Should the hopes of the writer be fulfilled, and the present paper be the means of directing attention to the important part played by professional chemistry in a thorough scheme of public sanitation, not only will considerable advantage be derived by professional chemists as a body, but, which is of far more importance, a considerable addition to the public good will accrue. THE PRESIDENT : We are much indebted to Dr. Wright for his suggestive introduction to this Conference. He has given us a wide range of subjects for discussion-from the regulation of marriages to the establishment of “an army of inspectors to pounce down on the tradesman.” Many of these suggestions are of great importance, although, as Dr.Wright himself owns, some of them are, at the present time, very unlikely to be carried into effect. Still, me are a progressive nation, and it is to be hoped that we shall make progress in the direction indicated. State interference of this kind at its outset met with powerful opposition, but thinking men seem to be gradually coming to the conclusion that Government organisations constitute the most efficient means for carrying out sanitary regulations. will not, however, take up your time with any remarks of my own, as there are many gentlemen here much better acquainted with sanitation than I am, and we may anticipate an interesting and valuable discussion of the subject which Dr.Wright has so ably brought to our notice. DR. MEYMOTTTIDY: I should be unwilling to trespass on the time of the members, were it not that, as medical officer of health of oiie of the lrtrgest Metropolitan parishes, containing over 295,000 persons, and also aB a chemist, it may fairly be supposed that this question of the relationship of the chemical profession to sanitation, does not come before me to-night for the first time in the paper which has just been read. It appears to me that a man may be a very excellent medical oflcer of health, and yet know nothing about chemistry ; and the reason of this is obvious, vix., that it depends upon the laws and acts under which he is ap- pointed, and which it is his business to administer.I speak of the Nuisance Removal Act and the Metropolis Local Management Act, for instance. Now, what is the duty of a medical officer of health under these Acts ? We must face this fully. A medical officer smells a stink. He says to himself, “This stink is injurious to health.” He says, “My opinion is, that this stink comes from so-and-so.” He goes back to his office, and serves a statutory notice on the owner or occupier of the premises (according to his judgment), to abate the nuisance within 21 hours, or 21 days, as he thinks fit It is not his biisiness to ask himself the cause of the nuisance, nor to suggest a remedy.I appeal to you, then, whether a man may not do this work perfectly satisfactorily, and yet be ignorant of “bonds ” or “radicals.” But I now go a step further : I say a man cannot be a good sanitarian without being fully acquainted with chemistry. A good sanitarian smelling a stink, argues, for instance, to himself, “This is in the neigh- bourhood of an oil of vitriol factory.’’ He says, “I know what the cause of the smell probably is.” But he goes further than that. He is not content with imagining the cause, or even with the evidence of his nose, but he says, “I must proceed to prove that the smell is due to the cause I suppose.” And his chemical knowledge leads him even a step further, for, he not only knows the cause of the stink, but he is able to suggest the remedy.A good sanit,arian always believes that to cure a nuisance is infinitely more scientific than to annihilate a factory. You will, perhaps, pardon me if I think it admirable that this medical sanitary officer and this chemical sanitary officer should be combined in a single individual. I must run the risk of your thinking it personal to hold such an opinion, but there is always a danger, to my mind, 92 in a specialist exalting too much his specialism. I mean by this, that in a nuisance case, the chemist might be inclined to regard the chemical aspect as of too great importance, and the physician to think too much of the medical aspect, both disregarding the opposite side of the question.This compound animal (half doctor, half chemist), on the other hand, although he might not take so accurate a view of either the medical or the chemical side per se, is more likely to take a better view of the whole. cc Now,” says Dr. Wright, “how are you to get this compound animal ?” and he very properly asks, ‘‘Are our medical schools doing anything to educate him ?” I am not going to defend the practical chemical teaching of the medical schools. Dr. Wright says, “The course of practical chemical training passed through by the average medical student, embracing little more than a smattering of qualitative analysis, and frequently not that, is not sufficiently deep or extended to render it possible for him to obtain reliable analytical evidence by the work of his own hands.” I do not dispute that statement, but I say that, looking back to the time when I first entered as a medical student, a marvellous im- provement has taken place in the matter of practical teaching, and an equally marvellous advance in the interest taken in it by students.I scarcely like to refer to my personal knowledge of this improvement, but I may, perhaps, say, that out of 60 men in my own practical chemistry class, last summer, 51 never missed a demonstration. Although I do not mean to attach importance to the amount of analytical work the students may learn, never-theless, it undoubtedly furnishes a certain foundation for them, upon which to build and to work in the future for themselves. Now, sir, among the many great a,dvantages to be derived-if understand Dr.Wright-in the appointment of a public chemical officer, is that he will be able more fully to carry out the Adulteration Act. Dr. Wright has rather bold views on the subject. He is not content with 200 samples of food, as at present, being examined in one district in the course of a year, but suggests the appointment of a small army of food inspectors, who from time to time shall “pounce ’’ down simultaneously upon the bakers in a whole dikrict, colIectingsampTes by hundreds at a time. Now, sir, although Dr. Wright has, I admit, enormous persuasive powers, I do not think he will ever manage to persuade local authorities into that. I am bound to say this, that local authorities do riot seem to attach that importance to the Adulteration Act which some fondly hope.The general feeling of local authorities is not in my opinion, in favour of their extension, but rather the other way. Local authorities say, and very correctly, ‘‘ How many cases of prosecution under the Adulteration Act are instances of adulterations actually injurious to health ? ” They will say (and a great many of these members of local boards are very clear-headed, faithful representatives), “If we found tradesmen putting coculus indicus into beer, or metallic substances into sweets, we would prosecute and punish them without mercy ; but what are the usual cases of adulteration prescribed? Water in milk, fats in butter, starch in mustard, chicory in coffee, sugar in cocoa, and things of the like kind.” Now, sir, it appears to me, there is something analysts hare lost sight of too much in all this, although local anthoriiies have not lost sight of it.There is in trade a thing called competition, and I cannot help thinking this army of inspectors pouncing down on every baker in a district, collecting samples by hundreds at a time, would destroy a great principle of all trade. The fact is, that trade is di&yilt enough as it is, and that such a system as the one Dr. Wright suggests, would make it ten times more so. I cannot help thinking there is a danger in any extension of the Adulteration Act. It has already done something we did not want, viz., it has made adulteration a little more scientific.What have the constant prosecutions in the matter of milk done ? The milkman has increased the price of milk, and not materially improved the quality. There is no disputing the truth of this, for the milkman, nomadays, does his best only to reduce his milk to meet what is called a “standard,” required by a certain body of analysts. From this point of view, the Adulteration Act, as at present worked, may even have done harm to the pnblic. There is, however, one point which Dr. Wright has mentioned, which 94 certainly has a yery intense undercurrent of truth in it. He suggests whether one reason why there has been so little success in working the Adulteration Act, may not be due to the inferior analysts who have so often been appointed.This is a very delicate question. I may venture, as my ownopinion, to say that, when the chemical history of this country for the last few years comes to be writ-ten, there mill be found in the general brightness of the chemical work to be recorded a few dark spots. At the same time, I cannot help thinking that in the midst of these dark spots will shine out this fact, that it was because of the inefficiency of some who pretended to be chemists, but were not, that it was found necessary to establish the Institute of Chemistry. I cannot help thinking that the establishment of this Institute has done much to sweep away that false notion that a man may become an analyst by attending six lessons in a laboratory, or become a chemist by reading a ninepenny primer of chemistry. Only one thought more.If we are to raise the chemical pro- fession in the respect of local authorities and of the public generally, we must teach the people that chemistry is not a thing that can be acquired at a moment’s notice. We must inspire local authorities with confidence in Science, where now there is doubt, and certainty where there is now unrest. And that we shall do, not, I venture to think, by such means as Dr. Wright has sog- gested, but by teaching them, first of all, that chemistry is a magnificent science, which requires no advertisement to draw attention to its work, and no testimonial to announce its claims. DR. REDWOOD: I feel that we are indebted to Dr.Wright for having brought before us a subject which is so highly deserving of our very careful consideration. I havenot given it the amount of attention that would enable me to discuss the details of the principles of what may be called a new system of chemical sanita- tion; but there are one or two points adverted to by Dr. Tidy, in reference to which certainly I feel that we may go with Dr. Wright to a very great extent in admitting that, so far as the duties of the general class of medical officers of health are con- cerned, the chemical qualifications they possess cert;iitily do not 96 enable them to perform their duties in a perfectly satisfactory and efficient manner. Dr. Tidy has very properly said that where we can get the two kinds of qualification united in one individual, advantages would result, from the combination which would be extremely valuable.I have not had sufficient experience of the matter to say that the large proportion of medical officers of health are deficient in that kind of chemical qualification which is so essential, but it appears to me, so far as I hare been able to observe, that in the majority of cases where medical officers of health are called upon to exercise their functions, that the redly efficient performance of their duties mainly depends upon the possession of a considerable amount of chemical knowledge. I quite agreed with Dr. Tidy when he said that a medical officer, when he smelt some foul smell, is apt to jump to a hasty conclusion as to its source, and to arrive at a very erroneous assumptiou as to what should be the best remedy.can say from personal experience I have found cases in which, unjustly, medical officers of health have condemned certain factories as the source of some foul emanations calculated to do mischief, simply because reliable investigations as to the source of the evil have never been adopted; and although the real emanation has come from an entirely different source, manufacturers have been put to serious inconvenience from a too hasty conclusion being arrived at with regard to the application of remedies. I am quite certain that in the great majority of cases disinfectants are improperly used, and very often carbolic acid is slopped about in a manner not calculated to do any good.It perhaps satisfies the public that something is being done, but that something is frequently done without thought, and without effecting that which is really required. I scarcely know of anything connected with sanitation that is more imperfectly and more vastefully performed than the use of disinfectants. DR. STEVENSON:Although our best, thanks are due to Dr. Wright, I wish the subject had been somewhat more ripe for discussion than it appears to be at the present time. Certainly, a chemical officer, whether he be purely chemical or partly sanitary, will be a person whom we must expect in the future, but it would be a great detriment to the chemical profession if such an officer were a,ppointed before public opinion is ripe on the subject of chemical knowledge.Public analysts were appointed because the great necessity of having an examination of food and drugs was admitted by the public, and because the pressure of public opinion forced the Legislature to pass an Act for the purpose. But the result of the question not being fully ripe was that there was not a sufficient number of skilled analysts familiar with the examination of food and drugs, and the Act was nearly made a fiasco, partly in consequence of the incompetency of a great number of the officers. Dr. Wright divides public sanitarians into three classes. One of these, the chemical sanitary officer, simply becomes the ex-ecutive officer ;he is the officer to find out certain unsanitary conditions which are laid down by the sanitaria,n proper, who is it medical man.If this is to be the case, the chemical officer must be subservient to the medical ;he must receive his cue from the latter, and must necessarily hold an inferior position, not only in the eyes of those under whom he serves, but in the eyes of scientific men. And with all this he is to be a man under whom there is to be an army of sub-officers, and he is to receive a salary amounting to a thousand a-year. I doubt whether there are more than two or three sanitary officers in the kingdom who at present receivesalaries as high as this,and not many who get as high as 3600 or 2800. The consequences of this will be, that if the latter part of the scheme cannot be carried out, the chemical sanitary officer will be paid badly, inferior men will be drawn in, and chemical sanitation will receive its death blow.As Dr. Redwood has remarked, the perforinsrice of the chemical duties of the medical officer of health is not al\vays satisfactory, and I think it is the confinement of his attention too exclusively to stinks and nuisances, to the exclusion of the more proper medical aspect,s of his office, which has brought the medical oficer into disrepute and led him to be regarded as a stink doctor. The parish of which I was formerly medical officer of health is a very large one, but has not ni;tiiy n tiismices caused by manufacturers, and the nuisances which wise are not those which cleniand any great manipulative ktiowledge.The best medical officer, I think, is not one who performs those superficial duties, which ought to be considered as belonging to the inspector of nuisances ; his general dut.ies are those which apply to the cessation and prevention of disease-such disease as can be prevented by the Legislatire Acts. As regards stinks from drains or water -closets, the medical officer requires no special chemical knowledge, and therefore a chemical oficer cannot be appointed where a medical officer can, as there is but little for the former to do. I am not speaking of special districts, where there are a number of ma,nufactories, for in those cases officers with special knowledge of the Alkali and other Acts should be appointed.Instead of having chemical officers ap- pointed for every district, I think it would be far better if local authorities were to call in the assistance of skilled chemists in cases where the medical officer cannot act, and pay them special fees for special duties. It would be more advisable to have chemists of special knowledge of the matters requisite to be inquired into, than to depute the whole duties to the medical officer. Dr. Wright seems to think it would require the estab- lishment of a special medical department, and he proposes that the Medical Department of the Privy Council should take some of the duties of the Local Government Board, and be augmented into a sanitary department, being further sub-divided into two more, the medical and chemical.But it is doubtful whether such a body would fulfil its functions in the way Dr. Wright claims for it. The bodies appointed to carry out the Food and Drugs Act certainly do not perform their functions in an altogether satis- factory way ; not in consequence of lack of powers, but rather in consequence of the dislike to administer them. In all cases the local wants must be considered, and the officers must be appointed by the local authorities, in the same way as the medical officer, and the question of salary and duties would be subject to super-vision by the Local Government Board. But in the present state of public feeling such supervision is ineffectual. If we look to the cases where medical officers hare been appointed by local authority, as it often happens these perform their duties better than those appointed by the Local Government Board.I think, however, that by this discussion, we shall clear the way for the future recognition of the chemist in regard to sanitation, although if, under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, as in the case of the piiblic analysts, a special sanitary officer, a chemist, be called upon to fulfil duties which at the present time he is incompetent to perform, it would be a detriment to ourselves as well as to the public. Until we can go a little further by special sanitary edu- cation in t5e department of the chemist, and until we can point out what are the chemical changes concerned in the propagation of disease, and what those diseases are which originate in such changes, it is useless to go to Parliament and ask that we should be appointed chemical sanitarians.MR. KINGZETTsaid, in his opinion there could be no doubt that chemists could discharge sanitary duties quite as efficiently, if not better than, medical officers of health, except in regard to matters requiring a knowledge of the diagnosis of disease. Con-sidering the intimate and essential relations existing between chemical science and matters affecting the public health, he was convinced that chemists ought, in the future, to assume and maintain a very strong and important position before the public. It was quite true that the existing knowledge of disease and its causes was of a meagre and uncertain nature, and hence it was not rare to meet with Tery many operations intended to combat unsanitary conditions, which had but a scanty, if any, scientific basis.Dr. Redwood had given an instance of this kind, and from his (Mr. Kingzett’s) own experience, he might confirm this so far as to say that he believed at least fifty per cent. of the quantity of disinfecting materials commonly used, effected no satisfactory purpose, being used, as they undoubtedly were, without proper judgment. For all this, the chemical study of animal and vegetable matters more intimately concerned smi tary science, and wGuld probably guide its proceedings more than any other branch of science. He was sorry he could scarcely agree with Dr.Tidy as to the view to be takenof chemical teaching in medical schools, 99 for, instead of this being occupied with animal and vegetable chemistry, it was mainly directed to the mere qualitative ex- amination of substances having no or little connection with medicine and physiology. As instancing the desirability of chemists occupying a more important position in the eyes of the public, and even of other branches of scientists, Mr. Kingzett added that at a recent sanitary congress which he had attended, it civil engineer had expressed the opinion that, since chemists had so utterly failed to distinguish between safe and dangerous drinking water, it xas high time the matter was taken out of the hands of chemists and transferred to those of the engineers! This incident shows not merely the necessity of prosecuting chemical researches until the results obtained are beyond dispute by outsiders, but it also illustrated the necessity of the Institute of Chemistry taking means to urge the value of chemical evidence in all questions of sanitation.MR. GROSJEANthought that, without waiting for the excellent arrangements sketched by Dr. Wright, chemistas might do much to establish a better relation for their profession to public sanita- tion, and particularly in two ways. First, they might take more opportunities of teaching, not so much the lower, but the higher, classes, the necessity for sanitary measures. He gave two instances of the ignorance and opposition to sanitary measures of these classes which had come under his own notice.In one case typhoid fever had proTed fatal in one of the best districts of London. The drains were found to be in a disgraceful state in the whole street, and yet it took a year to induce, not the Vestry, but the inhabitants themselves to put down new drains. In another case a lady had spoken approvingly of a new cure for whooping-cough, which consisted in holding the patient’s head over a water-closet, until “ the ammonia brought on sickness.” The kind of teaching the speaker would wish to see given, could not, as a rule, be given by mere medical men. He infitanced one doctor who attempted to test the salubrity of a room by exposing a tumbler of lime-water in it for three hours, The second may to establish a better relation to public sanitirtion, was by payiag 100 more atteiition to private sanitation.In the mind of the public nothing could be more unsanitary than a chemist’s laboratory, and carelessness with regard to ventilation, &c., went far to neutralise all the advice on the subject given by chemists. PROFESSORCORFIELD: I have not had the advantage of hearing the paper, nor of hearing much of the discussion, but so far as I have heardit,ii gave me the impression that I was present at a conference of Medical Officers of Health. What we want to know is-What relation is the chemical profession to bear to sanitation ? Sanita-tion has hitherto done without much chemistry, but the time has come when it can no longer do without it, and it is more necessary every year to see what relations have obtained between the two.It is quite clear there are three ways in which we may look at it. Either certain chemists will take up sanitary chemistry as a specialty, and do little else ; or zertain sanitarians will take up the chemistry of sanitary work-and all teachers of hygiene ought to be sanitarians in this widest sense ; or chemists may take up sanitary chemistry with their other work. Speaking generally, chemists are not likely to devote thcmselres to sanitary chemistry and do nothing else, at present, at any rate ; but there are a large number of men who will devote themselves to sanitary work in all its bearings, without any intention of doing any chemical work but that relating to sanitary matters.Then there are a large number of sauitarians who would do what might be called (for want of a better name) sanitary work proper, and would employ a chemist to be associated with them and to do the chemical work of the department. It seems to me that on the whole it is desirable things should be left to work themselves out naturally, especiaIly as a large number of men, and especially the younger men, are working with a view to take a position not only as sanitarians, but as specialists in certain brunches. Such men will nut interfere with other chemists, as they will only undertake chemical work in its relation to the public health. They will make it their special object to be sanitarians in the broadest sense of the term.Of course, it will always happen that sani- tarians will call in the assistance of expert chemists who do not 101 profess to be expert sanitarians. There is, however, one thing which occurs to me, that it is extremely desirable from a public point of view, in order that the public may see the advantage of chemistry and sanitary science-I may stis of course that the public do not see the advantage of sanitary science, and not only the public generally, but even many so-called sanitarians-it is exceedingly desirable that chemists should be united amongst themselves. It is exceedingly undesirable there should be such widely divergent views as to what is pure water, to take the first example that occurs to me, or what process should be used to determine what is pure water, or that there should be a great divergence in connection with many points of sanitary chemistry. It is quite clear that these differences must be a source of bewil-derment, and people will say, if chemists are divided among themselves, let us go on as we have always done; a good deal of sanitary work is done without chemists, let us do without them altogether.PROFESSORATTFIELD: I have been much interested in Dr. Wright’s paper, and I go with him in several of his propositions, of which more than one is self-evident. I have also been especially interested in hearing what various gentlemen have had to suggest in answer to Dr.Wright’s requests. The Conference has struck me as particularly well showing the advantage of thus assembling together. I have been listening, too, in hope of learning what it is desirable for us actually to do in this matter, that is, whether it would be possible for us to take any action, as a body. The suggestions made by Dr. Wright seem to have two points in view, namely, to codeayour to get future sanitarians so to train them- selves as to pass an examination, either connected with some one of the examinations of the London University, or of this Institute; and, secondly, to have a double set of sanitary officers. Dr. Wright takes exception to the University Public Health exami- nation, because it does not include quantitative analysis. suppose it would be quite within the scope of this Institute to suggest that quantitative analysis should be included in the examination referred to.I think, myself, oiir own examination 102 is the more prefkrable, and we should do what we can towards inducing Medical Officers of Health to pass this examination. It is extremely desirable that chemists should, as Dr. Corfield has said, be united in these public matters. It is to be regretted there is more than one body of analytical chemists in England, and I never ceam to hope that the Institute of Chemistry and the Society of Public Analysts may, sooner or later, combine. Dr. Wright also suggests that, in connection with his double set of officers, that a whole army of inspectors should pounce upon unsuspecting tradesmen.Here I cannot agree with Dr. Wright, and I would ask him if such a state of things existed as really to render necessary his army of officers, whether life would be worth living by anybody, but especially by tradesmen. It seems to me, from the paper and discnssion, all we can do is to go on doing what we have been doing, that is, prosecute our researches, especially in the direction of improved methods of a.nalysis, for I am not quite mre that all our processes are yet perfect as regards the detection of what adulteration there may be in food, drugs and drinks. As to Dr. Wrighh’s twofold sanitary system, the existence of medical officers of health and public analysts, point to its development in due time.Rut we must not move too fast. Not only must we beware of nauseating one great sectionof the public with chemistry, but be careful not to force upon the public generally more chemistry than they are capable of absorbing. DR. WRIGHT, in reply, said, I do not know if I have a very great amount left to say. Most of the speakers, I think, have agreed that it is desirable that aomething should be done in the way of producing a greater desire for chemical sanitation in the minds of the public than at present exists. That there is room for im-provement in this seems to be admitted, although Dr. Attfield and Dr. Stevenson seem to think that the time has not yet arrived when the chemist should be put forward as prominently as the medical officer.Dr. Tidy considers,and Dr. Corfield agrees with him, that if you can get a man who possesses the qualifications of a tnedical and chemical sanitarian combined, he is the best man. Undoubtedly, but how many men are there who possess these two kinds of 103 qualification ? Some such are in this room and have spoken to- night, but how many more can be found ? It is true that within my knowledge, two or three gentlemen have joined the Institute with the express intention of taking up both chemistry and medicine, and of cultivating both these branches, but these are rare instances. There are several men now going up for a diploma in Public Health in the London University, and other kindred institutions, but if these gentlemen mere compelIed, in addition to their medical education, to go through a regular curriculum and co~irse of training in quantitative analytical chemistry, I do not see how they could well spare the considerable additional amount of time requisite to be spent in the laboratory.In many cases the small amount of analytical chemistry that most students acquire during their curriculum exemplifies the saying, ‘‘ a little learning is a dangerous thing.” Dr. Attfield thinks it is undesirable that anjthicg should be done at the present time in the way of endeavouring to improve the position of chemical sanitation, and Dr. Stevenson maintains that the chemical sanitarian must be sabservient to the medical officer. I fail to see why. The canons which guide the administration as to whether such and such a thing is injurious to health, are in many cases as available for the chemist as for the physician or surgeon.There are some things which ~-ouldrequire to be dealt with by common sense, others which, I take it, could only be mastered by the chemist, and others diich require special medical training. I do not see why the chemist and the medical oficer should not be equal in position. As to the impossibility of getting local boards, vestries, and the like, to agree to any such utopian proposals as those I have suggested, I quite think it is eminently improbable. My own experience of such boards is not of the most favourable character, especially in regard to the election of officers by vestries.Great as is the objection to the Government appointing officers, I am not quite sure it is not, on the whole, the best way. It is by no means certain that the best man is selected by vestries,as the suc- cessful candidate is often elected, not because he is the best, but because he has taken the most pains to curry favour with the 104 members by personally canvassing and requesting ‘‘to be honoured by their vote and support.” I know of a case vliere, on the banks of a canal, in tlie heart of a tliicltly-populatpd part of London, is a large deposit of refme, consisling oi dust, ashbin contents, and the like. Women and childi4en are engaged in sorting and sifting out the several coustittren ts, broken crockery, cinders, cabbage leaves, &c., most offensive odour issues frequently from it, when the mdse portions are from time to time burned, the smell being perfectly diabolical.J iiiquired what the medical officer mas doing to aJlow snch a tiiiismve, and was told that the reason why he did not interfere, was that, if he did, certain members of the colonlittee, personally interested in the matter, would make it so hot for hiin, that lie would ralhcr not stir in the matter. The question which Dr. Attfield has put-What can the Institute do ?-seems to me to be auswered by the reply, that it must do its best to bring before the public the intimate connection which chemistry has Kith sanitary science. As to whether the chemical aspects of sanit8ation sliould be regarded as a branch apart from the ordinary duties of a medical officer, and requiring a wholly distinct kind of officer, this is a matter diich rnusl be settled by time ; and, I take it, that when tlie want of such an officer is demonstrated to the public, the office will be created.If the Institute thinks that chemistry shonld liave a closer connection with sanitary science tlim at presem, the point comes, how can we best educate the public to the neccssities of the case. Mr. Grosjean’s snggestions in t’hematter are, doribtless, very valuable, but I think they hardly go far enough. As to the chemist being called in as consultant, 2nd liaving a special fie paid him, my experience has shovii me tliat these fees are soiuetimes remarkably .TI limited in amount. This e, -of being ‘‘ penny wise and pound foolish ” on the part of the boards appointing chemical officers, such as public analysts, has already led, in wrioas instances, to disastrous consequences. It is often sbatcd that when the Food Adixlteration Acts first came into force, a sudden demand for men skilled in food analysis arose, and, the supply of snch men being limited, in many cases men were appointed who were hardly 1.05 competent for the work, and, in consequence, various mistakes were made by public analysts, and numerous fiascoe occurred. This is true enough, but to this should also be added that in rery many cases the appointing of unskilled and incompetenl men did not arise from the lack of' better trained chemists, vho, although not at first, specially skilled in food analysis, could speedily master the very simple methods reqL ,,, and whose adcyntitr tmining was in some sort a guarantee against the gross blunckrs made through utter ignorance, such as disgraced gome of the early days of the public analysts, and led to the creation of &popular impression, highly damaging to chemists in general and public analysts in particular. The true cause of such appointments being made was that in many instances a want of appreciation by the appointing authorities of the true nature and value of the services of a competent analyst, led to the offering of such miserable stipends that firsl class chemists would not undertake or apply for the offices, and, consequently, very impwfeutly trained men (often dear, even at the low prices oflered) succeeded in obtaining the appointments. Even wilhin the last €ew months, an application was made to me by a gentleman vho was both inedical officer of health and public analyst for his district, and who desired to sublet to me his analytical work ; the liberal fees offered to him were that, for erery analysis (which \Tas to include water) he was to be paid 7s.6d. ; his desire ms to sublet to me the same for 5s. apiece. If there is any method by which a water analysis, worthy of the name, could be made for the sum of 5s., or even 7s. 6d., I should be very glad to know it. THE PRESIDENT: In this long and very interesting discussion me have not, after all, met Fith rnr ' lifference of opinion.I do not think there is any doubt as to die steady development of sanitary science arising from State interference with matters con-cerning the public health, notwithstanding all the protests against such interference. Althorigh the applications have been, in some cases, crude, arid the resnlts somewhat uncertain, jet I think we must all admit that this action of the State has, on the whole, been beneficial, and the results hare shown, contrary to the ex- 106 pectations of some, that good can be thus effected. It has been urged, and with truth, that the average training of the medical man is insufficient for the combined duties of' a medical and sanitary inspector, and that there ought to be a division of the duties between a cheinical officer and a medical oficer.This will doubtless be effected in the future, but in the meantime I agree with Dr. Tidy, that there are ninny advantages in having the two offices concentrated in one man, so long as we halve tlic 1)rcsent lamentable state ofpnblic education. When, hoverer, we do attain to a better state of education, I hol~that it. will iiot be necessary to hare a,n army of inspectors to ponrice down upon tradesinen, for it may be reasonably expected that the niorslit]y of the tradesmen will be thereby improved, so as to render unnecessary any great increase in the number of inspectors. There is no doubt that the iiiefIicicnt carrying out of the Adulteration Sct by inefhicnt cliemists iias done more to retard progress in sanitation than a11 other hostile influences put together.We hare arrived then, at the coil-elusion that it is impossible to have in one and the sanie man, who is actively engaged in either profession, an oficer thoroughly acquainted with the niedical and c11emic;d aspects of the question which we have been discussing to-nigll t, and I tliereibre pi~esui~~ we must eventually come to a division of the labour iuto tn.o [)arts, as suggested by Dr. Wriglit. Eut I tliink this GI a11 will hay-: to be carried out cnrel'ully and n ith deliberation, otlierm-ise the mistakes made on the appointment of public analysts may again occur. Such a gradual erolution of the special clieniir officer will certtiirily be much more in harniony with nhat we fi going on around us in nature, and it is also in accordance with that great institution which m.e call the British Constitntion.KO more certain method of hastening such an evolution can be employed than the better training of chemists for their pro- fessional work, and this is one of the chief objects which oiir Institute seeks to secure. I am sure you will give a hearty vote of thanks to Dr. Wright for bringing this subject before us.

ISSN:0368-3958    

DOI:10.1039/PG879030B077

出版商:RSC    

年代:1879

数据来源: RSC