ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050102

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050103

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050104

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe following considerations are not of a historical but of a systematic kind, i.e., without mentioning other historical theories, I would like to contribute my ideas on the problems of purpose in scientific thought.The first part concerns itself with the definition of science/knowledge. This will not involve a complete definition but only parts thereof, namely science/knowledge is a sort of theoretical acting which satisfies certain criteria and is therefore consciously or unconsciously always directed by aims and purposes.On the basis of this minimal definition, the relationship between aims and methods is described in the second part as a relationship between purpose and means: methods are more or less effective means for the realisation of certain aims. The third part contains some distinctions of the problems of purpose, which entail in particular the difference between aims intrinsic and extrinsic to science/knowledge and aims of action and nature.

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050105

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractNature and significance of the ‚final cause’︁ in Aristotle. − 1. In Aristotle's treatment of the tissues and the organs of animal body the search for their final cause is nothing but the search for their function. There are no speculations about theoriginof the purposive organisation of biological species, because species are eternal for him. − 2. When Aristotle is describing the production and propagation of an animal as goal‐directed, he does not exclude a causal explanation. He gives causal explanations at great length inDe generatione animalium: Against widespread views it is not the future goal that controls the development as a retroactive cause. In animal blood a sort of genetic code is included, which is represented by impulses (which you can imagine as undulatory motions). By these genetic impulses the form of the parent will be transported to the semen (or the menstrual blood in the case of woman) and from the semen to the germ of the offspring. − 3. The biological use of the concept of purpose or goal is quite different from the use in physics and cosmology. In ignorance of the law of inertia Aristotle tries to explain the continuous movement in the world metaphysically, by assuming a tendency of the stars towards the immaterial god. Terminologically he strictly distinguishes this tendency from the ‚final cause’︁ in biology. − 4. In policy man aims at welfare and ‚good life’︁. In history Aristotle deni

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050106

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe paper aims at defining the „nucleus”︁ of alchemy as an inseparable combination of chemical and spiritual characteristics. The alchemical process always reflected teleological thinking as the alchemists believed that nature itself strives for perfection. The symbol of perfection was gold as gold — like the Gods or God — is not affected by time. Critics of the alchemists in the Middle Ages (p. e.Chaucer) did not criticize the notion of an inherent teleology in nature, but they mistrusted the ability of the alchemists to succeed in their teleological strategy. To prove this it has often been pointed to the fact that no alchemist really obtained thelapis philosophorum: in other words the art of alchemy seems to have been completely unsuccessful. On the other hand, alchemy has had a long history which suggests that alchemy may not have been as unsuccessful as one might suspect. There might well have been a personal „reward”︁ for the individual alchemist, who worked in the laboratory, but this reward was a psychological, not a material one. Striving to perfect matter the alchemist subconsciously perfected his own soul. It should be added that the epistemological aims of the alchemists were totally different from those of the

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050107

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractNeben dem Unterschied zwischen einer ‚internen’︁ Finalität, die den Einzelprozeß deterministisch bestimmt, und einer ‚externen’︁ Finalität, die als allgemeine Zweckmäßigkeit die gesamte Natur durchwaltet, besteht auch ein Unterschied zwischen Zielgerichtetheit/Zweckmäßigkeit (in der Natur) und (subjektiver) Zielsetzung. Eine Wissenschaft als sprachliche Handlungsform kann demnach nur eine Zielsetzung durch den Menschen erfahren, sie entwickelt sich nicht auf ein inneres Ziel hin (ist also auch nicht von einem bestimmten Stand wie dem der Gegenwart her als Ziel zu verstehen).Eine allgemeine Zweckmäßigkeit (externe Finalität) kennt Aristoteles im Gegensatz zum christlichen Aristotelismus noch nicht, wohl aber eine ‚interne’︁ Finalität des natürlichen Einzelprozesses. Erst der Versuch einer christlich orientierten Umformung der aristotelischen Physik läßt die Idee einer von Gott gesetzten ‚externen’︁ Zweckmäßigkeit aufkommen. Auf diese Weise entsteht bei Philoponos die Impetustheorie für ‚natürliche’︁ Bewegungen (die für ‚gewaltsame’︁ Bewegungen schon seit mehreren Jahrhunderten diskutiert worden war).Die Vorstellung von der externen Finalität unterdrückte die genuin aristotelische von der ‚internen’︁ Finalität des Einzelprozesses, dessen streng determinierter Ablauf der Allmacht Gottes widerspreche. Dieser Verdrängungsprozeß wird am Beispiel der Theorie vom ‚horror vacui’︁ und des Weges von der Impetus‐Theorie zur Idee der Allgemeinen Gravitation dargestellt. Die danach dominierende Vorstellung von der ‚externen’︁ Finalität (als der durch Gottes Vorsehung zweckmäßig gemachten Schöpfung) geht im Laufe des 18. Jahrhunderts dann wegen der Transzendierung auf etwas Außernatürliches (Gott) deshalb verloren, weil einzelne Phänomene, die noch nicht als natürlich entstanden erklärt werden konnten und daraufhin auf Gottes weisen Ratschluß zurückgeführt wurden, nach und nach eine natürliche (kausal‐mechanische) Erklärung

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050108

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe importance of the physico‐theological literature is underlined as its influence expands with Ray and Derham, flooding continental Europe in the first half of the 18th century. Until now the history of science, philosophy, and theology have either ignored or tended to underplay the influence of the concept of nature presented in the physico‐theological writings. The development of this concept, however, was a major historical precondition for the empirical investigations of nature which followed in the early Enlightment. Physico‐theology is characterized by the combination of belief in God's creation of the world, a rationalistic model of nature, an epistemology grounded in sensual perception and the primacy of observational science. It popularized a mechanical model of nature and reconciled this new model with the religious needs of the age by interpreting nature as the perfect order of a perfect Maker and by shifting emphasis from the construction of the machine to its functions by means of its search for and description of the wonderful utility of nature. The example of Albrecht von Haller helps clarify these c

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050109

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractLe darwinisme favorisa le développement de la pensée mécanistique. Son interprétation de l'utilité déterminée par des variations, le hasard et la sélection enleva souvent tout fondement à la pensée vitaliste. Il semble que par la suite, une téléologie théiste n'était plus défendable. Pourtant, vers la fin du 19ème siècle, les principes du darwinisme furent souvent critiqués. Les principes de la création (le facteur de perfection, l'entéléchie, l'élan vital, la dominante etc.) ou les principes biomécaniques de l'organisme engendrèrent des positions contraires et des possibilités d'interprétations décisives. Plusieurs savants comme Driesch, Bergson, Pauly et bien d'autres (leur tendance: le néovitalisme, le néolamarckisme, le psycholamarckisme, la biomécanique, etc.) s'évertuèrent à donner une explication définitive de l'utilité, sans pouvoir autant mettre fin à la

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050110

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY

摘要:

AbstractThe Hamionical Fundamental Research leads to teleological results in a twofold respect. On one side, both historically and methodically, it ties up with Johannes Kepler's proof of harmonical laws in the orbits of the planets, in which respect the research also extends it's formulation of the question to other sciences. Becoming evident, the present findings, that is, the occurance of interval proportions, appear predominately in end results of developments, not however in the origin of facts. They are related to forms, shapes, and entireties which cannot be explained analytically and behave more complementary to a causal type of approach.On the other side with respect to teleological consequences, an area of the Harmonical Research leads to another very special aspect. It deals with the investigation (begun about thirty years ago) of the psychophysical effectiveness of the human hearing; in this investigation it was made clear that important fundamental elements of music are traceable to the corresponding dispositions of hearing. For example, there are the following elements: the difference between consonances and dissonances, the preference of simple numerical proportions in the construction of an interval, the twelve numerals of music, especially the occidental, progressed teleologically in an unconscious manner, namely with the goal of pleasing the inclinations of hearing aesthetically as much as possible.

ISSN:0170-6233    

DOI:10.1002/bewi.19820050111

出版商:Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH&Co KGaA    

年代:1982

数据来源: WILEY