摘要:

Editorial Steady growth in a new publication era JEM's growth in its second year is evident from the increase in submissions (from 136 in 1999 to 220 in 2000) its diverse mix of high quality papers and authors and its widening readership. The 20 or so submissions now received monthly are primarily (y90%) from bio/ medical chemistry environmental science materials/engineering environmental health and occupational health departments within either academic or government institutions. The remaining papers originate from industrial establishments. All three sectors continue to be well represented among JEM's institutional subscribers which increased nearly two-fold in the past year. As pointed out in a recent assessment of JEM,1 the average turnaround time between submission and publication of 110 days may be considered ``impressive''.This reØects a cadre of dedicated referees and editorial staff as well as improvements in communications and production procedures. The quality of submitted papers is the primary reason for the rather low rejection rate of 31%. In terms of subject breakdown for Volume 2 41% of the articles dealt with assessments of human exposure (indoor outdoor workplace and dietary) including biological monitoring; 33% were concerned with monitoring aspects of the natural environment (air soil water sediment and biota); and 26% with the development of new monitoring methodologies. Consequently the aims of the journal in terms of a This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 multidisciplinary scope and content continue to be met although some areas remain under-represented.An example is remote sensing/measurement of for instance ocean surface temperature and microscopic plant biomass; ocean± atmosphere exchange; atmospheric monitoring and ozone measurement greenhouse gases and aerosols; and longrange transport of contaminants. To keep abreast of the rapid developments in electronic publication JEM has initiated a number of new services further ones include the possibility of online reviewing. Authors may now submit new or revised manuscripts by using the RSC Æle upload system (http://www.rsc.org/is/ journals/submission/ detailedinstructions.htm).Alternatively manuscripts may be submitted to the Managing Editor as e-mail attachments (jem@rsc.org). Authors are also encouraged to take advantage of the Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) service. Deposited material is fully reviewed archived and is freely available via the World Wide Web (http://rsc.org/jem) as are issue contents lists in advance of publication. Free sitewide access to Advance Articles and the electronic form of JEM is provided with a full-rate institutional subscription (see www.rsc.org/ejs). Print versions clearly show the date articles were Ærst published on the web. Finally authors are sent free of charge electronic Æles (in PDF format) of their papers instead of reprints thus allowing copies to be printed on demand.The board is pleased to report a number of developments that are certain to enhance the impact of JEM. First JEM articles are now abstracted by the following agencies ISI Science Citation Expanded (Sci Search); ISI Alerting Services; Current Contents/Agriculture Biology and Environmental Science; EMBASE the Excerpta Medica database; Elsevier BIOBASE (Current Awareness in Biological Sciences); Elsevier GEO Abstracts; FISHLIT Database; Environmental Abstracts; Cambridge ScientiÆc Abstracts; Analytical Abstracts; and Pollution Abstracts. A decision for inclusion in Index Medicus MEDLINE is pending. Second at the last meeting of JEM's Editorial Board the appointment in 2001 of an Advisory Board was approved. Members are to be selected based on subject-speciÆc expertise geographical location and scientiÆc eminence. The Advisory Board's role is to augment and expand JEM's international proÆle especially in terms of securing articles that reØect regional research activities of world-wide relevance and signiÆcance. We take this opportunity to thank our authors and subscribers for helping us in our mission to stimulate and publish research exploring the interface of analytical science with disciplines concerned with the natural and human environments. We invite your continued participation and support. References 1 G. Wood Nature 2000 407 294. On behalf of the Editorial Board Evert Nieboer Chairman 1N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b100127m

出版商:RSC    

年代:2001

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

The science of the unclean One tries not to think about sewage sludge. But while most people would prefer this by-product of modern life to be out of sight for utility operators and regulators it is seldom out of mind. With sea disposal now outlawed and landÆll costs rising increased use of sludge on agricultural land is seen as an attractive option. Regulators in the US and the EU seem broadly happy with this. Should they be? Sludge the inevitable by-product Sewage sludge is an inevitable byproduct of municipal sewage treatment. In the treatment plant bacteria metabolise the solids in municipal wastewater through both aerobic and anaerobic processes.1 The Ænal byproduct resembles animal manure containing (in dry weight composition) around 3% nitrogen (N) 1.5% phosphorus (P) as well as being rich in sulfur calcium magnesium potassium and other elements.2 In North America this dried by-product is often referred to as biosolids to distinguish it from raw untreated forms of sewage.If human wastes were the only materials entering the sewage system then sewage sludge would be a relatively benign nutrient-rich by-product. However sewage treatment plants also receive industrial and residential efØuents containing toxic wastes. Thus as well as vital nutrients sewage sludge may contain heavy metals and inorganic ions volatiles and toxic organic compounds and pathogenic organisms such as bacteria and viruses.3 Sludge production is directly related to the population and the quantity of industrial efØuent discharged in the catchment of a sewage treatment facility.In the UK for example average per capita production is estimated at around 54 grams per person per day.4 Figures from the US suggest a per capita production of 76 grams per person per day–equivalent to 7 million dry metric tonnes per year.5 However the magnitude of the waste management issue can be seen from the fact that these 7 million tonnes are mixed in roughly 700 million tonnes of wastewater. This 2N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 compares with around 210 million tonnes for total municipal solid waste production in the US. Clearly this is one waste stream for which zero emissions is not an option.Water utilities face a monumental problem in how to dispose or reuse sewage by-products. Historically a key disposal route has been ocean dumping which as recently as 1997 accounted for 18% of sludge disposal in the UK.4 Disposal at sea is now banned on both sides of the Atlantic; in the US since 1992 and in the EU since 1998 under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive. The main disposal routes are now recycling to agriculture incineration and landÆll. Other outlets include land reclamation horticultural compost forestry and use within treatment works themselves. Sewage sludge has long been applied to agricultural land. Originally the application was in untreated forms but more recently has tended to be as dried biosolids.When applied to land (a process generally known as soil amendment) the organic matter in sludge improves the soil's structure increases its water-holding capacity and feeds essential soil micro-organisms.2,3,5 Agricultural use has beneÆts for both producer and user. For farmers it can increase crop yield and save on fertiliser costs. For water utilities recycling provides a relatively low cost disposal route and may even enable them to offset part of the wastewater costs through the marketing of biosolids products.6 Regulating sludge In the EU the use of sludge in agriculture is regulated under a 1986 directive (86/278/EEC). This sets limits for metals and some nutrients and requires regular compliance reports detailing sludge composition and disposal routes.4 It also speciÆes maximum annual quantities of potentially toxic elements which may be applied to the soil.Adherence to the directive has been patchy. In November last year the European Commission warned that several member states did not monitor sewage sludge correctly as a result of Focus which contaminated sludges could be being spread on agricultural land.7 Legal proceedings have been started against Æve countries (Belgium Ireland Italy Portugal and Sweden) to force them to tighten up on their procedures [see News section this issue]. The Commission has already embarked on an overhaul of the sewage sludge directive a process that is likely to lead to the introduction of limits on dioxins and much tougher thresholds for heavy metals.In a working paper issued early last year the Commission said that its review was intended to ``maintain or improve'' the present rate of recycling nutrients back to land while addressing consumers' concerns over safety.8 However EU governments objected to the introduction of progressively tighter limits in 2005 and 2010 as the Commission had originally proposed. Under the present plan these have been downgraded to ``medium-term'' and ``long-term'' objectives respectively (see Table 1). The proposed limits on organic compounds are particularly controversial with some member states opposed to legal standards. The Commission is likely to bring forward a formal proposal within the next few months and is due to Ænalise the new rules by the end of the year.In the US federal regulations on sludge management were Ærst introduced under the 1972 Clean Water Act.5,6 These have been amended several times since most notably in 1987 when Congress established a timetable under section 405 of the Act for developing biosolids use and disposal guidelines. This amendment directed the EPA to identify toxic pollutants at concentrations that may affect the environment or public health and to issue regulations specifying acceptable management practices and numerical concentration limits for these pollutants. The result was EPA's 1993 regulations entitled Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge generally referred to as the ``Part 503 Rule''.9 Part 503 speciÆes limits for pathogens total hydrocarbons and nine heavy metals (so-called Round 1 contaminants) in sewage sludge for land application surface disposal or incineration (see Table 2).10 It also speciÆes requirements for the production and use of biosolids Table 1 EU sewage sludge proposals Current and proposed limits on heavy metals (mg kg21 dry matter) Current limits Proposed initial Proposed medium-term Proposed long-term Cadmium 20±40 1000±1750 16±25 300±400 750±1200 2500±4000 Copper Mercury Nickel Lead Zinc Proposed limits on organic compounds AOX LAS DEHP NEP PAH PCB Dioxins Furans angTE kg21 dry matter Adapted from Working Document on Sludge European Commission 2000.for which there are no detectible levels of pathogens (Class A ``EQ'') and those treated to a lower standard (Class B). The Part 503 regulations were based on detailed risk assessments conducted on EPA's behalf by environmental consultants and academics and included a three-year review by the National Research Council (NRC). Under the original 503 Rule EPA was required to review the regulations by the end of 1999 and to implement any necessary actions by the end of 2001 (socalled Round 2).5 In November 1995 the Agency announced that based on risk assessment further regulations were to be considered only for dioxins. The necessary amendment was presented in December 1999 and is still subject to consultation.11 It proposes a limit of 300 part per trillion (ppt) toxic equivalents (TEQ) for dioxin and dioxin-like Table 2 Pollutant limits in US EPA Part 503 regulations Max.pollutant concentration in EQ sludges/mg kg21 (~ppm) Pollutant Arsenic Cadmium Copper Lead Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Zinc Applies to 41 39 1500 300 17 – 420 100 2800 Bulk sludges and bagged sludges Adapted from ``The Case For Caution'' ref. 17. 10 1000 10 300 750 2500 5 800 5 200 500 2000 Limit value/mg kg21 dry matter 500 2600 100 50 6 0.2 100a 100a compounds in biosolids applied to land.Associated requirements for monitoring record keeping and reporting are also to be introduced. EPA has also recently updated its guidance on the control of pathogens.12 The revised 1999 regulations clarify many of the sampling and monitoring issues and the deÆnition of Class A processes. They also reØect improved understanding of analytical issues and operational guidelines. The regulatory squeeze The coupling of sludge production to population already makes sludge an intractable environmental problem. But two conØicting regulatory trends are set to increase the pressure even further. Firstly water quality legislation requires a greater proportion of Cumulative pollutant loading rate limits/ kg ha21 Max. ceiling conc.in sludges applied to land/mg kg21 41 39 1500 300 17 – 420 100 2800 Bulk non-EQ sludges bagged 75 85 4300 840 57 75 420 100 7500 All sludges that are land applied 2 600 2 100 200 1500 municipal waterwater to be treated and higher treatment standards to be applied. This is principally in relation to removal of phosphorus and other nutrients a key factor in eutrophication.13 The treatment technologies used result in increased quantities of sludge for disposal or utilisation. In the UK for example compliance with the EU's Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive is expected to increase annual sludge production (on a dry weight basis) from 1.1 million tonnes in 1999 to 1.5 million tonnes by 2005 a 40% increase in just Æve years.14 Similar rises are expected in other European countries.But at the disposal end the dumping of biodegradable waste (sewage sludge and the degradable component of MSW) is being discouraged. The EU's 1999 LandÆll Directive requires progressive J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 Focus Annual pollutant loading rate/kg ha21 year21 2 1.9 75 15 0.85 – 21 5 140 Sludges not meeting ``EQ'' limits 3N Focus cuts in the dumping of biodegradable waste to 35% of 1995 levels by 2016 for most member states (with others following by 2020).14 As landÆll standards and disposal costs increase landÆlling of sludge will become increasingly unattractive.And the directive establishes a clear preference for biological treatments over incineration. Hence over the next few years volumes of sludge will be rising at the same time that landÆlling of such wastes is becoming more expensive. Disposal to land either with or without anaerobic treatment is likely to increase signiÆcantly. In the EU only four member states currently reuse over half of sewage sludge on agricultural land which the 1986 directive holds to be the best environmental option. In the US too agricultural use only accounts for around 40% of sludge disposal.5 A health risk? While recycling sewage sludge has notable beneÆts some still question the environmental and health impacts. On the face of it the scientiÆc evidence suggests there is little cause for concern.EPA maintains that there is no documented case of health effects attributable to the land application of biosolids in accordance with existing regulations.6 And searching in the National Library of Medicine's Medline database one reviewer failed to Ænd any scientiÆc articles linking sewage sludge with disease.5 Nevertheless as a haven for a cocktail of inorganic organic and microbial contaminants suspicions about the health impacts remain. Concern focuses on three main issues heavy metals pathogens and organics. Heavy metals For heavy metals the central question is the extent to which metal species are available in a form in which they get taken up by crops. Regulations in the US and the EU are speciÆed in terms of numerical standards for metals in sludge.In practice however the movement of metals from sludge/biosolids to soils and then on to groundwater surface water and plants is poorly understood. It is fairly well accepted that biosolids form a matrix in the soil binding up the heavy metals and effectively reducing their bioavailability.6 But the long-term consequences of this are still hotly disputed. Some scientists believe that 4N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 once this organic matrix breaks down all the metals will be released en masse leading to a sharp increase in available contaminants (``the time bomb theory''). Others argue that if there is any increase at all the availability of metals in the soil will stabilise well below critical levels if applied at proper agronomic rates (``the plateau theory'').The methodologies used to derive current limits are also being disputed.15 The Rule 503 risk assessment uses uptake coefÆcients (UCs) to express the amount of metal taken up by a crop relative to the amount applied to the soil. McBride and Bouldin have claimed that this approach is biased toward low UC values by a number of factors including systematic analytical or contamination error in control crops; failure to use probabilistic methods in estimating UCs; and inadequate accounting of soil acidity which is known to have a major affect on the availability and transport of toxic metal species. The NRC was particularly concerned on this point noting that land application of biosolids was appropriate ``as long as º acidic soils are agronomically managed''.5 Wider questions are also being raised about EPA's overall risk assessment framework.16,17 Under the Part 503 Rule EPA postulated 14 pathways by which humans other animals and plants could be at risk from these pollutants.For each contaminant the Agency determined which pathway would be most hazardous and then used that to set a lifetime soil ``loading rate'' for each metal. Application of biosolids must cease when the loading rate is reached. This contrasts with the approach used in many European countries where regulations are based on precautionary limits which aim to balance pollutant inputs and outputs in the long-run.Some researchers claim that the cumulative pollutant loading approach could eventually result in contaminant levels in the US up to an order of magnitude higher than those allowed in the EU.16 Pathogens The most signiÆcant health hazard for biosolids relates to the wide range of pathogenic microbes carried in sewage.3,5,6,12 These include Salmonella and Shigella bacteria viruses such as Vibrio Yersinia Campylobacter hepatitis A rotavirus and coxsackii and the Cryptosporidium and Giardia protozoans. Also present are helminths (parasitic worms) that cause roundworms tapeworm and hookworm. The NRC study raised concerns about pathogens and called on the EPA to continue to develop and evaluate effective monitoring regimes for speciÆc types of pathogen.Since the Part 503 regulations rely heavily on treatment processes rather than pathogen tests the NRC noted that ``reliability must be a critical element in the design and operation of wastewater treatment plants''.5 Due to difÆculties in the direct monitoring of such a wide variety of pathogens organisms such as fecal coliform are commonly used as indicators of the effectiveness of treatment processes. But the reliability of these as an indicator of survival and transmission rates for anaerobic treatment is in doubt.18 DifÆculties with standard culturing techniques also represent a barrier to a better understanding of pathogen risks.19 Epidemiology also needs to be considered here.18 Existing regulations set maximum allowable pathogen concentrations based on epidemiological data indicating quantitative relationships between exposure levels and infection rates.While this approach reØects the resistance of the population as a whole it takes no account of the increased susceptibility of at-risk groups such as children agricultural workers and those with chronic respiratory diseases. This would require further restrictions on acceptable pathogen levels in sludge and monitoring of indicator organisms within these immunocompromised groups. Organics Regulators in both the EU and the US are moving towards limits on dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (speciÆcally furans and co-planar PCBs) in sewage sludge as part of wider efforts to reduce dioxin-related risks.As noted above the EU is proposing to set a limit of 100 ng TE kg21 dry matter for both dioxins and furans. In the US the proposal is expressed in terms of total toxic equivalents of 300 ppt TEQ. Ellen Harrison of the Cornell Waste Management Institute (CWMI) has presented a detailed critique of the risk analysis underlying the EPA's current proposals.11 She found that many key assumptions were ``not well explained or justiÆed'' and noted several deÆciencies in the methodology. These included issues relating to background exposures, soil concentrations exposure pathways probabilistic methods health endpoints and exposure in at-risk groups.In particular Harrison questions whether cancer is themost relevanthealthend-point in this case fetal orinfantexposuresmaybe much more sensitive. The EPA analysis assessed the impact of the application of sludges at the 300 ppt TEQ dioxin level. Earlier analyses for Round 1 pollutants had taken a different approach working back from an acceptable risk level to derive a corresponding pollutant concentration in sludge. Applying this approach to dioxins and taking cancer as an end-point an analysis in Wisconsin arrived at ``acceptable'' dioxin concentrations in soil signiÆcantly lower than those under the current proposals. The CWMI review concluded that EPA's risk assessment seemed ``geared towards rationalizing the acceptability of application of all but the most dioxincontaminated sludges since 95% of US sludges would meet the 300 ppt level''.11 Research issues and needs Research into sewage sludge is hardly the most glamorous area of science.But clearly important scientiÆc issues remain to be explored here many related to environmental analysis and risk assessment. Key areas for further research include the following. Improved data sets. Better data is needed on sludge and other biodegradeable wastes including amounts produced geographic distributions and the physical and chemical properties of each material.2,20 Such data would allow farmers to select by-products that will best beneÆt their particular soil±plant system based on criteria such as pH nutrients and trace elements.The databases would also contribute to the development of improved risk assessment models and analytical methods. Improved treatment processes. Sludges are complex heterogeneous mixtures with compositions of pollutants nutrients and pathogens that vary signiÆcantly over time and from one facility to another. We need to analyse and understand this variability and where possible improve processes and management practices at sewage treatment plants so as to achieve a more uniform product.2,19,20 Bioavailability and environmental pathways. We urgently need a better understanding of nutrient and trace element transformation in biosolids and in amended soils.2,5,6,20 Key questions include the rate at which nitrogen in sludges and biosolids becomes available as a plant nutrient and how the bioavailability of N and P varies over time (based on the Improved data sets above).For contaminants important questions remain about environmental fate and bioavailability. How signiÆcant is the leaching through soils of heavy metals nitrogen and pathogens? How is movement to groundwater affected by complexation of contaminants with organic matter? Which groundwater Øow models can best be applied to contaminant mobility? Models and monitoring programmes need to assess exposure to aerosols and VOCs from land applications of biosolids and the resulting health risks. Food is also a potential pathway for human exposure.Improved analytical methods. The focus here is on more rapid and effective analytical methods and protocols.2,20 These include improved methods for detecting and quantifying viruses and other pathogens and for modelling the environmental fate and bioavailability of nutrients and soil contaminants. In water quality monitoring tests for soil threshold levels of N and P could be developed to identify areas at risk from further nutrient overload. Endocrine disruption. Sewage sludge and the resulting biosolids are being suggested as key sources of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) primarily through the presence of surfactants from detergents and cleaning products.17,19,20 Further research should aim to determine the levels at which surfactants and their metabolites are present in sludges and on amended soil and their ultimate fate within the environment.With increasing interest in composting it will be important to know whether surfactants are volatilised during sludge composting and other treatment processes. Risk assessment. A number of more general issues in risk assessment remain to be addressed.11,17,19±21 These include the long-term impacts of sludge additions in terms of trace element concentrations and the soil microbial system; risks from dioxins and dioxin-like compounds; multiple exposure pathways; and impacts on wildlife. Sewage sludge is also known to Focus concentrate certain radionuclides whether from man-made or natural sources.The nature of these risks is also unquantiÆed although some initial work is underway.22 Animal manures and co-utilisation. Virtually all of the issues described here in relation to sewage sludge and its byproducts apply equally to animal wastes.2,6 While having lower levels of heavy metals animal manures are high in N P K (potassium) and pathogens and yet are subject to much less stringent regulations than biosolids. They warrant at least the same degree of research and risk assessment. Such assessment will be important in the context of informing policy on eutrophication of inland waters. It is also a requirement for the co-utilisation of municipal and animal by-products which some see as essential for increasing overall recycling rates for biodegradeable wastes.Alternative uses. Finally it is opportune to look at other uses and disposal options.2,14,17,20 What other uses might be made of sludges that would pose fewer risks? Composting is seen by many as an attractive option. It reduces the weight and volume of waste material while destroying pathogens reducing odours and converting nutrients to forms plants Ænd more suitable. Energy production also offers signiÆcant potential either through incineration methane generation or conversion to other fuels. Most of these processes require further development and optimisation however. Other potential applications include in forestry animal feed (with suitable treatment) and even the manufacture of building materials.Towards a holistic approach So what are we to conclude about this most unsavoury of environmental issues? Firstly given the inescapable nature of production and the pressures on existing disposal routes it is clear that the sludge issue is not going to go away. The problem is growing both in absolute terms (volumes of waste arisings) and in relative terms (people's awareness of possible risks). Public perception seems to owe much to sludge's negative image–``the yuk factor''. However environmental and community groups and some scientists raise genuine concerns that we do not know as much as we ought to about the risks. The health case is still highly 5N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 Focus contentious.ScientiÆc investigation to date has failed to Ænd any clear links between agricultural disposal and health effects. On the other hand with so many gaps in the environmental and health assessments can we be sure that the risks from agricultural practices are within societal norms? On some issues at least wider and deeper assessments are needed especially in the light of targets for increased agricultural reuse. In the meantime policy-makers utility operators and the public face some hard choices. Namely to accept signiÆcant increases in the volumes of sludge going either to agricultural land or to composting or most controversial of all to incineration. Most likely we will require all three. The science suggests that we should be guided by the following three key principles.(1) A lifecycle approach. With such a diverse range of potential disposal options we need to take a holistic approach based on lifecycle assessments of overall risk.2,17,21 Further investigation is required for each of the three main options; in the case of agricultural use within the research framework outlined above. Better agricultural management practices also have an important part to play. (2) The precautionary principle. Given the uncertainties in the risk analysis it seems sensible for all concerned to follow a precautionary approach.17 In the UK for example such an approach is being adopted under the Safe Sludge Matrix an informal agreement between the water industry the food industry and other stakeholders.14 The agreement includes a commitment to phase out all use of untreated sewage sludge on agricultural land by the end of 2001 together with stricter criteria and performance monitoring for sludge treatment processes and stricter postapplication controls.Certain uses have already been eliminated. (3) Openness and partnership. With sludge disposal an increasingly ``hot'' environmental issue utilities farmers and regulators need to listen to the concerns of community and environmental groups and work more closely with them. In the US the National Biosolids Partnership 6N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 (NBP) a not-for-proÆt consortium comprising the water industry EPA and other stakeholders is promoting an environmental management system (EMS).23 Facilities who sign-up to the EMS agree to follow community-friendly practices in addition to complying with applicable state and federal regulations.Such practices cover areas such as odour trafÆc noise and dust as well as the management of nutrients. References 1 For a full description of treatment processes see Sludge Treatment and Disposal Management approaches and experiences ISWA Working Group on Sewage & Waterworks Sludge European Environment Agency 1997. Available at www.etc-waste.int. 2 R. J. Wright et al. Agricultural Uses of Municipal Animal and Industrial Byproducts Conservation Research Report No. 44 Agriculture Research Service US Department of Agriculture 1998.3 W. Priesnitz The Real Dirt on Sewage Sludge in Natural Life November 1997. See www.life.ca/nl/58/sludge.html 4 State of the Environment Online. See www.environment-agency.gov.uk/senviro/ 5 D. Tenenbaum Environ. Health Perspect. 1997 105 1. 6 M. Vassallo Kitcher Gardener 2000 No. 20. See www.taunton.com/kg/ features/ 7 Press Release IP/00/1292 European Commission 14th November 2000. Available at http://europa.eu.int/rapid/ 8 WorkingDocument on Sludge,Directorate- General Environment European Commission. January 2000. See http:// europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ 9 For full explanations of the rule see A Plain English Guide to the EPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule and A Guide to the Biosolids Risk Assessments for the EPA Part 503 Rule.Both available at www.epa.gov/owm/bio.htm 10 The nine metals are As Cd Cu Pb Hg Mb Ni Se and Zn. 11 E. Z. Harrison Review of the Risk Analysis for the Round Two Biosolids Pollutants Cornell Waste Management Institute 2000. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/ wmi/Sludge/review.html 12 Control of Pathogens and Vector Attraction in Sewage Sludge (1999 Edition) EPA/ 625/R-92/013. Available at www.epa.gov/ ttbnrmrl/625/R-92/013.htm 13 Managing Aquatic Eutrophication Environment Agency 2000. See www.environment-agency.gov.uk 14 Waste Strategy 2000 for England and Wales Department of Environment Transport and the Regions May 2000. See www.environment.detr.gov.uk/ waste/strategy/cm4693/index.htm 15 M.McBridge and D. Douldin Total Metals in Sludge-Grown Crops; Misunderstanding Rooted in Analytical Error paper presented at Science and the Unpleasant Risk Assessment and Urban Sewage Sludge American Association for the Advancement of Science 14th February 1998. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/ wmi/Sludge/AAAS/ 16 U. Krogmann and E. Harrison Understanding the Difference Why European and US Sludge Standards Differ paper presented at Science and the Unpleasant Risk Assessment and Urban Sewage Sludge American Association for the Advancement of Science 14th February 1998. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/ wmi/Sludge/AAAS/ 17 E. Z. Harrison M. B. McBride and D. R. Bouldin The Case for Caution Recommendations for land application of sewage sludges and an appraisal of the US EPA's Part 503 sludge rules Cornell Waste Management Institute 1999. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/wmi/ 18 D. Lewis Microbes in the Environment Challenges to Exposure Assessment paper presented at Science and the Unpleasant Risk Assessment and Urban Sewage Sludge American Association for the Advancement of Science 14th February 1998. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/ wmi/Sludge/AAAS/ 19 A. Medvitz Sludge Sludge on the Range Unresolved Science in the 503 Regulations paper presented at Science and the Unpleasant Risk Assessment and Urban Sewage Sludge American Association for the Advancement of Science 14th February 1998. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/wmi/Sludge/AAAS/ 20 E. Z. Harrison Evidence to the House Committee on Science Hearing on EPA and Sludge Rules 22nd March 2000 Cornell Waste Management Institute. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/wmi/Sludge/ researchneeds.html 21 Michael Baram UnÆnished Business Managing the Risks Posed by Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge paper presented at Science and the Unpleasant Risk Assessment and Urban Sewage Sludge American Association for the Advancement of Science 14th February 1998. See www.cfe.cornell.edu/wmi/ Sludge/AAAS/ 22 Radionuclides in Sewage Sludge Dose Assessment Radiation Advisory Committee EPA Science Advisory Board 2000. 23 For further information on the NBP see www.biosolids.org Mike Sharpe

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b100128k

出版商:RSC    

年代:2001

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Legislation Success for POPs talks Long-running negotiations for a global treaty to reduce the environmental impact of key persistent organic pollutants (POPs) were concluded successfully at a meeting in Johannesburg in December. The agreement will form the basis of a treaty to be signed in Stockholm in May. As usual in international negotiations the agreement required a good deal of compromise between different interest groups. The EU's insistence that the treaty incorporate the precautionary principle was accepted by the US and Australia. Developing countries' concerns over the cost of implementing the reduction measures were also addressed. While no exact budget is mentioned the agreement makes clear that adequate Ænancial and technical assistance should be made available to help developing countries meet their compliance obligations.The POPs treaty has been under negotiation for three years. It provides for the banning of eight POP chemicals aldrin chlordane dieldrin endrin heptachlor mirex toxaphene and hexachlorobenzene. It also commits the parties to work to eliminate DDT PCBs dioxins and furans. PCBs are to be phased out gradually by 2025 and for dioxins and furans signatories are required to draw up national action plans. Tropical countries have been granted an exemption in the use of DDT to control malaria until a suitable subsitute is found. UN Environment Programme http://irptc.unep.ch/pops/ Phthalate tests get political Efforts by EU scientists to develop reliable tests for phthalates in children's toys have moved into the political spotlight following endorsement by European Commission President Romano Prodi.In a visit to the EU's Joint Research Centre in November Commissioner Prodi cited the tests as a key area of the JRC's work alongside higher proÆle This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 issues such as BSE and GMOs. He called on JRC scientists to develop methodologies applicable to real toys as well as reference materials. Defending the EU's earlier decision to abandon migration-based protocols in favour of a product ban he said that there had been a political imperative to Ænd at least an interim solution. In the meantime the emergency prohibition on phthalates has been extended for a fourth time to March 2001 and is likely to be extended for at least a further year.The ban covers six types of phthalate softeners used in PVC toys designed to be sucked by children under three [JEM 2000 2 8N]. The measure has been highly controversial and in November a third member of the EU's scientiÆc committee broke ranks to criticise the Commission's decision. Speaking to a Danish newspaper Dr Ole Ladefoged of the Danish Veterinary and Food Administration said that new evidence for DINP the main phthalate used in PVC toys suggested that health effects were much less than claimed. He added that there was no basis for a ban provided ``ºwe can manage to develop analytical methods to ensure that toys do not release it in quantities exceeding permissible limits''.Even assuming satisfactory migration tests can be developed which is far from certain the matter would then have to pass through the EU's notoriously complex legislative procedure before being passed into a directive. The European Parliament is known to favour far stricter controls than those proposed by the Commission while member states are split between those who argue strongly for reinforcing the ban and others who favour migration-based tests [JEM 2000 2 95N]. Joint Research Centre www.jrc. cec.eu.int EPA moves against mercury EPA has conÆrmed it is to introduce new regulations under the Clean Air Act to cut mercury emissions from coal-Æred power plants.The move follows News extensive scientiÆc studies and regulatory reviews which concluded that of all the toxic emissions from power plants mercury poses the greatest risk to public health. Exposure to mercury has been associated with both neurological and developmental damage in humans. The developing fetus is the most sensitive to mercury's effects which include damage to the nervous system. People are exposed primarily through eating Æsh that have been contaminated with mercury deposited from power plants and other sources. Once mercury enters the water biological processes can transform it into methylmercury a highly toxic form that builds up in human and animal tissues. For this reason EPA recommends that subsistence Æshermen pregnant women and others should always take note of state Æshing advisories.Under the announcement made in December EPA will propose new regulations by the end of 2003 and will issue Ænal regulations by December 2004. Aggressive actions have already been taken by the Clinton Administration to reduce mercury air pollution targeting primarily incinerators for municipal medical and hazardous wastes. When fully implemented in 2005 the existing rules will reduce total mercury emissions in the US by nearly 50% from 1990 levels. EPA OfÆce of Air Pollution www.epa.gov/mercury Commission acts over sewage sludge The European Commission has started legal proceedings against Æve countries which it says have inadequate controls over the application of sewage sludge on agricultural land.Reporting on the results of a national reporting exercise required under EU law the Commission said the exercise revealed serious deÆciencies in national monitoring programmes. Warnings have been sent to Belgium Sweden Ireland Italy and Portugal telling them that they will face action in the European Court of 7N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 News Justice if surveillance systems are not improved. The Commission is currently working to revise EU limits on heavy metals and organic pollutants in sewage sludge including the Environmental quality Evidence grows for climate change A record series of autumn temperatures in North America and below average water levels in the Great Lakes provide yet further evidence for the reality of climate change.According to Ægures from the Canadian Meteorological Service autumn temperatures across Canada were slightly above normal with last autumn the 17th warmest on record. It continues an uninterrupted series of above normal temperatures during the last 14 seasons from summer 1997 through to autumn 2000. The greatest variation was in the Nunavut Territory in arctic Canada where autumn temperatures were 1.1 �C above normal. However the autumn was also abnormally dry–the 14th driest on record with precipitation around 2% below average. The effect can be seen in the Great Lakes. Water levels on three of the Great Lakes are at their lowest autumn levels for decades.Lake Superior is at its lowest level since 1925–21 cm lower than it was one year ago and only 16 cm above its record low for this time of year. Lakes Michigan andHuron are at their lowest winter levels since 1964 and only 22 cm above the lowest levels of the last 100 years. Water levels in the Great Lakes usually drop during the autumn and early winter primarily due to high rates of evaporation. However with the lower than average rainfall to replenish the Lakes thiswinter's fall has been faster than average and shows no sign of being reversed. The continuing decline in water levels is disrupting shipping on the Great Lakes causing commercial ships to carry lighter loads.Environment Canada www.ec.gc.ca Celtic tiger under pressure Ireland's rapid economic growth is creating increasingly acute 8N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 introduction of limits on dioxins [see Focus article this issue]. In the meantime EU member states are bound by a 1986 directive. This sets limits for metals and some nutrients and requires regular compliance environmental pressures according to a review of the country's environmental performance by the Organisation for Ecomic Co-operation and Development (OECD). While energy and material intensity have been reduced over the last decade economic restructuring has increased many consumption-related issues such as greater waste generation vehicle pollution and land use.Air pollution is a particular problem accordingtotheOECD,withIrelandfacing great difÆculties in meeting EU and international deadlines for several air qualityparameters.Anationalair pollution strategy is recommended including measures to improve energy efÆciency retro-Ætting of pollution controls at power stations phase out of peat-Æred power stations and expansion of the integrated pollution control licensing system. Waste management is also a critical area. Actions urged by OECD include closure of sub-standard landÆlls; implementation of a national hazardous waste management plan; local implementation of waste management legislation; and more widespread application of the polluter-pays principle. OECD ``Environmental Performance Review Ireland'' www.oecd.org/env/ performance/index.htm; Irish government press release www.environ.ie/press/ oecd.html UK counts waste streams A major waste management study published by the UK Environment Agency provides the most comprehensive picture to date of waste generation and management practices.The study comprises a series of ten regional reports covering England and Wales with detailed breakdowns by reports detailing sludge composition and disposal routes. European Commission www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ waste stream. The assessment is intended to provide a baseline for efforts to meet the national waste strategy which in turn aims to meet the requirements of the EU's landÆll directive.Total waste production in England and Wales in 1998/9 was 175.5 million tonnes of which 28 million was municipal solid waste (MSW) 72.5 million construction and demolition waste and 75 million industrial and commercial waste. A total of 5 million tonnes of special and hazardous waste was also generated. Recycling rates varied considerably from 45% for construction and demolition waste to around 17% for MSW. Future scenarios emphasise a greater use of both recycling/composting and incineration a suggestion that will prove controversial with environmental campaigners. Environment Agency www.environment-agency.gov.uk Acid rain cuts The United States and Canada have gone beyond legislative requirements in successfully reducing emissions of the major contributors to acid rain according to a new study on crossborder air pollution.As a result of these emission cuts rainfall acidity in the eastern United States has been reduced by up to 25% compared to the 1980s. Additionally some ecosystems in New England are beginning to show signs of recovery from acidic damage. The study is the Æfth in a series of biennial reports under the 1991 US± Canada Air Quality Agreement. It includes data on the signiÆcant progress both countries have made in expanding co-operative efforts to reduce air emissions of groundlevel ozone and particulates. The report also cites new co-operative efforts in both countries to assess the impact of particulate transport across the border and to develop a joint workplan to address the problem.EPA ``US±Canada 2000 Air Quality Agreement Progress Report'' available at www.epa.gov/acidrain Oil industry could do better The offshore oil and gas industry has pledged to continue efforts to reduce its environmental impact following the publication of data on its environmental record on both sides of the North Sea. Volumes of oil-bearing waters released into the marine environment have increased steadily over recent years Chemical hazards Europe charts dioxin risks Regulators in Denmark have published what they claim is the most comprehensive analysis of dioxin origins and environmental paths for any European country. It followed earlier reports by two EU scientiÆc committees the ScientiÆc Committee on Food (SCF) and the ScientiÆc Committee on Animal Nutrition (SCAN).The EU experts warned that a ``considerable proportion'' of the EU population is exposed to high levels of dioxin and related toxic compounds and that new measures are needed to better understand and control the risks. Covering all known sources the Danish study estimates total dioxin production in 1998/9 as being between 90 and 830 g toxic equivalence (TEQ). The largest single source is municipal waste incineration accounting for 11± 42 g TEQ through air emissions and 35±275 g TEQ through the landÆlling of ashes. The next largest source is non-industrial boilers and stoves which account for between 0.73 and 41 g TEQ.This will become increasingly signiÆcant as pollution controls reduce emissions from other sources. The leaching of dioxins from wood leather and textiles according to Norway's State Pollution Control Agency largely as a result of the ageing of offshore installations. However the use and release of most chemicals has been relatively stable over recent years and marine discharges of the most toxic chemicals have declined. The Agency also noted that 1999 was the Ærst year with no reported increases in releases of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Figures from the UK sector of the North Sea presented by an industry body show improvements across a range of measures. In its latest annual environmental review the UK Offshore Operators' Association (UKOOA) reports reductions in the use of chemicals the number of accidental oil spills and the amount of oil in produced water as well as lower emissions of volatile organic compounds and methane.Little change is reported treated with pentachlorophenol (PCP) is also a potential cause for concern according to the Danish EPA. In its report SCF estimates that around 90% of human exposure to dioxins comes from food. The highest contamination levels are in wild and farmed Æsh followed by eggs milk and milk products and meat. Despite sharp falls in exposure over the last 10 years mainly as a result of controls on municipal incinerator emissions human exposure levels remain too high SCF says.The Committee recommends even tighter emission limits for industrial sources combined with maximum limits and threshold levels in food. SCAN's report which was prompted by the Belgian dioxin scandal notes that reducing dioxin contamination in animal feed would be an important step to cutting human dioxin exposure. A variety of changes in manufacturing agricultural and administrative practices are recommended. The reports are the latest in a series of studies across Europe characterising the environmental and health risks of dioxins [JEM 2000 2 11N and 79N] and follow a major reassessment of dioxin risks in the United States [JEM 2000 2 89N]. News for carbon dioxide emissions gas Øaring or production of drill cuttings.Meanwhile Greenpeace has claimed that the future for offshore oil and gas installations lies in wind energy. Releasing the results of a study commissioned from Germany's Wind Energy Institute the environmental group demanded an end to new oil and gas licences and called on North Sea countries to invest in offshore wind energy instead. Norwegian State Pollution Control Agency ww.sft.no; UKOOA www.oilandgas.org.uk; Greenpeace ``Offshore Wind Energy in the North Sea'' www.greenpeace.org/y climate/climatecountdown/ offshorewind.pdf Danish EPA Study www.mst.dk/udgiv/ publications/2000/; ScientiÆc Committee on Food www.europa.eu.int/comm/ food/sc/scf/out78_en.pdf; ScientiÆc Committee on Animal Nutrition www.europa.eu.int/comm/food/sc/scan/ out55_en.pdf Denmark pushes ahead on lead ban Denmark has reafÆrmed its reputation for being in the vanguard of European environmental policy by pressing ahead with highly controversial moves against industrial uses of lead.First mooted in late 1998 the plan requires a virtual phase-out of lead by 2004 in key industries such as PVC plastic and some automotive components and processes. According to the government the proposal will increase the recovery of lead-containing wastes by around 4000 tonnes per year mostly PVC construction waste. The volumes of such products going to landÆll and incineration will be cut by more than half. Several aspects of the original plan have been modiÆed in response to objections from industry and other EU 9N J.Environ. Monit. 2001 3 News countries. However industry is still extremely unhappy with the proposals. Representatives said that the plan had no scientiÆc justiÆcation and that criticisms raised by CSTEE the EU's expert committee in June last year had not been answered [JEM 2000 2 60N]. CSTEE said that the ban would not signiÆcantly reduce lead burdens in the general population and could not be justiÆed scientiÆcally. But responding to the objections Environment Minister Svend Auken claimed the plan met all legal requirements under the EU's internal market rules. Danish EPA www.mst.dk; Lead Development Association International www.ldaint.org Europeans differ on MTBE Very different assessments of the risks from the fuel additive MTBE are emerging within the EU as evidenced by recent actions in Denmark and the UK.Launching the results of a study of MTBE risks to water supplies in England and Wales the Environment Agency said that current practices constituted no threat to public water supplies. In the UK MTBE usage is relatively low by EU standards and only 30% of drinking water comes from groundwater (although the Ægure rises to 70% for the densely-populated South East of England). However the Agency warned that if MTBE concentrations in fuel rise to 5% or more as is likely under current fuel quality regulations then the risk would be signiÆcantly increased.The situation is more critical in Denmark where a much greater proportion of drinking water is derived from groundwater sources. In November the Danish oil industry announced that the deadline for a phase out of MTBE in fuel was being brought forward to May 2001. This is almost four years earlier than originally envisaged in an agreement with the government last August [JEM 2000 2 79N]. Under the umbrella of the Danish Petroleum Industry Association nine companies have agreed to remove MTBE entirely from 92- and 95-octane petrol. Supplies of 98-octane which is essential for some older cars and accounts for about 3% of the total market are to be cut by 90%. 10N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 The industry is also embarking on an intensive remediation programme targeting petrol stations with known or potential MTBE contamination.However the initiative potentially conØicts with existing plans to reduce hydrocarbon content in petrol across the EU by 2005 under the 1998 Fuel Quality Directive. The higher quality fuels will be impossible to produce without MTBE which means that the Danish phase-out could be short-lived and is unlikely to be followed by other European countries. The European Commission has already ruled out early action [JEM 2000 2 48N]. The UK study too warns that the forthcoming fuel quality measures could severely exacerbate MTBE risks. It recommends annual monitoring leak prevention measures at petrol stations near drinking water sources and a European study into underground petrol storage tanks.Environment Agency www.environment-agency.gov.uk; Danish EPA www.mst.dk; Danish Petroleum Industry Association www.oil-forum.dk Germany considers BPA controls A leading scientist has called for precautionary action against the plastics additive bisphenol-A (BPA) in the light of new evidence that it is an endocrine disruptor. BPA is an oestrogen mimic but evidence for endocrine disrupting behaviour is highly controversial. Speaking at a scientiÆc workshop on BPA in Berlin Dr Andreas Gies of Umweltbundesamt (the German Environment Agency) said that several studies have found hormonal effects in amphibians and molluscs through exposure to BPA below the current no observed effect level (NOEL).According to Dr Gies in view of these Ændings it is unacceptable to use uncertainty over the environmental and health risks as justiÆcation for a lack of protective measures. Dr Gies remarks were criticised by representatives of the chemical industry. But as a key adviser to the German Agency they suggest ofÆcial thinking is moving in favour of precautionary restrictions. Umweltbundesamt www.umweltbundesamt.de; Bisphenol-A Industry Research Programme www.bisphenol-a.org No more soft soap Authorities in Norway are proposing a ban on the surfactants NP and NPE following what they say is a reneging by industry on previous voluntary agreements. Nonyl phenol (NP) and nonyl phenol ethoxylates (NPE) are used in a wide range of industrial applications but are toxic to aquatic life and are suspected endocrine disrupters.Under a 1996 agreement with the government Norwegian industry committed to phase out the chemicals by 2000. However a recent survey by the National Institute of Technology found that this was far from the case. While in some instances usage was down by 93% since 1997 in other applications use had fallen by less than a third. Though certain controls exist in several European countries Norway is the Ærst to opt for an outright ban. A controversial risk assessment published by the EU in late 1999 recommended marketing restrictions. Key industries that would be affected by a ban if introduced include manufacturers of paints adhesives and cleaning products as well as the paper-making and metallurgical sectors.National Institute of Technology www.teknologisk.no End of the road for pesticide EPA has announced the phase-out of diazinon one of the most widely used pesticides in the United States beginning in March this year. Diazinon is widely used on lawns and as an ingredient in pesticide applications used around the home and in gardens to control insects and grub worms. Under an agreement between EPA and the pesticide manufacturers around 75% of the use will be eliminated amounting to more than 5 million kg of the pesticide annually. The ban will be phased in between March 2001 (for indoor household use) and June 2003 (for lawn garden and turf uses).The agreement also begins the process to cancel around 20 different uses on food crops. Public and occupational health Estrogens targeted as carcinogenic Steroidal estrogens have been shortlisted as known carcinogens by an expert advisory panel convened by the NIEHS. The recommendation arose as part of the development of the Tenth Report on Carcinogens a periodic regulatory report required by Congress. While acknowledging that steroids have important medical uses and clear medical beneÆts the panel noted a long association with a risk of uterine and breast cancers under certain conditions. The panel agreed 8 to 1 that these hormones cause an elevated risk and should be considered not merely as associated with increased cancer but as substances that are ``known to be a cause of human cancers''.There is no suggestion that medical use of estrogen be restricted or eliminated however. The panel also considered a number of other substances and treatments. Common wood dust such as produced in furniture manufacture and broad spectrum ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or artiÆcial sources were both recommended for listing as ``known'' human carcinogens. However the individual classes of UVA UVB and UVC radiation were recommended in the lesser category of ``reasonably anticipated'' because of difÆculties in distinguishing overlaps. Also recommended in the ``reasonably anticipated'' category were methyleugenol a naturally occurring ingredient in herbs and spices the antibiotic chloramphenicol and metallic nickel.The panel rejected an upgrade to the ``known'' category for trichloroethylene (a metal degreaser) and a proposed initial listing for various forms of talc. NIEHS will Ænalise the Tenth Report following further consultation and review. The Ninth Report which listed or reclassiÆed 20 chemicals including Diazinon is the second household pesticide EPA has acted against in the last 12 months following an earlier ban on chlorpyrifos [JEM 2000 2 60N]. tobacco smoke was approved last July [JEM 2000 2 61N]. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences ``Tenth Report on Carcinogens'' http://ntpserver.niehs.nih.gov/NewHomeRoC/ AboutRoC.html Further evidence on EM risks? Researchers at the University of Bristol have released what they claim is further evidence that living near high voltage electrical pylons increases the risks of contracting cancer. The potential health effects of the electromagnetic (EM) Æelds generated by high voltage cables has been a highly controversial area for more than 20 years. To date most studies have focused on direct effects of electric and magnetic Æelds on the body. The size of the electric Æeld is related to the voltage and the magnetic Æeld to the strength of the electric current. Both diminish rapidly with increasing distance from the source and by about 100 m away are no longer measurable.However new research by Dr Alan Preece and colleagues at the University of Bristol Medical School claims that electrical cables can have effects at up to 400 m distance. He has found evidence of a 29% increase over the expected rate of lung cancers in people living near pylons in South West England. But the increased mortality only occurs in people living downwind. These Ændings provide support for the theory proposed by Professor Denis Henshaw of the Department of Physics at the same university [JEM 2000 2 12N and 23N]. He believes that the Æelds cause changes in the properties of pollution particles in the atmosphere which increase the likelihood that they News EPA OfÆce of Pesticide Programs www.epa.gov/pesticides are deposited on the surface of the skin and lungs.PBBs caused hormone abnormalities Foods that were contaminated with polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) have been associated with an early onset of puberty in some daughters of the women exposed. The incident happened in Michigan in 1973 when a Ære retardant containing PBBs was accidentally mixed with animal feed. Writing in the journal Epidemiology scientists funded by the NIEHS and the EPA reported on a study of the longterm effects of the incident. The researchers contacted female offspring 5±24 years of age born to mothers who had been exposed to PBB in the Michigan incident. The most highly exposed group were those whose mothers had the highest estimated serum levels of PBBs during pregnancy and who were also breast fed as babies.Girls in this most highly exposed group were found to begin menstruation on average before they reached their twelfth birthdays–around a year earlier than for less-exposed girls. These Ændings follow an earlier study associating early puberty with exposure to a speciÆc chemical. Research published in Environmental Health Perspectives in September 2000 found a correlation between phthalate plasticisers and the early onset of puberty in young girls in Puerto Rico. The results come in the light of an increasingly bitter debate in Europe over proposals to ban the use of brominated Øame retardants [JEM 2000 2 47N]. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences http://ntpserver.niehs.nih.gov 11N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 News Mortality link for ultraÆne particles Researchers in Germany have published what they say is the Ærst evidence that ultraÆne particles are associated with premature deaths. Epidemiological studies have shown an association between airborne particles and mortality data but uncertainty persists as to which aspects of the particle mixture are the driving force underlying observed observations [JEM 2000 2 71N]. Furthermore only a small number of studies have investigated the role of Research activities New forum needed for health and environment A Health and Natural Environment Forum should be set up to ensure that health considerations are placed at the forefront of environmental policy.That was one of the key recommendations of the Healthcare Panel of the Foresight Programme a UK government initiative to probe research needs over the next twenty years. By 2020 the complex interdependences between changes in the natural environment and human health will be better understood. But by that time it may well be too late the report says. Research modelling and policy development on environment±health links is of crucial importance but is often at the margins of mainstream funding interests and policy-making. A more coherent and co-ordinated effort is needed the report says so that policy decisions that will affect the longer term can be taken now. The proposed new Forum should aim to understand how human activities impact on the environment and how environmental changes exert adverse effects on human health.It would be a broadly-based body drawing on inputs from each of the Research Councils and other stakeholders. It would examine issues such as air pollution landÆll and energy-efÆcient technologies. As well as the direct pollution issues health considerations should also provide an impetus for policies against global warming including the development of 12N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 ultraÆne particles (those of less than 0.1 mm diameter). These are suspected to be especially toxic because their small size allows them to be deposited deep in the lungs. Dr H.-Erich Wichmann and colleagues at the National Research Centre for Environment and Health (GSF) in Neuherberg Germany prospectively studied the association of daily mortality data with the number and mass concentrations of ultraÆne and Æne particles in Erfurt Germany.Using a time-series approach they looked at short-term changes in particle concentration and renewable energy sources. The Forum should also cover the built environment such as hospitals schools homes and places of work. UK Foresight Programme ``Healthcare 2020 Report of the Healthcare Panel'' OfÆce of Science and Technology. Available at www.foresight.gov.uk Mini-aerial explores ozone layer Dutch researchers using a superconductive detection system have discovered new details of the hole in the ozone layer over the Arctic.Measurements by the Dutch team showed that the ozone layer contains much more chlorine monoxide–which breaks down the ozone–than models predicted. The system was developed by Space Research Organisation Netherlands and the University of Bremen. It uses a mini-aerial to detect the signals emitted by atmospheric molecules and then looks for the speciÆc signals characteristic of chlorine monoxide. The system makes use of waveguide detectors which are superconductors at a temperature of almost absolute zero (2273 �C). Only a few micrometres in size the detectors are contained in a piece of equipment the size of three refrigerators. Measurements are currently carried out from a plane Øying at an altitude of the concurrent deaths due to cardiovascular and respiratory causes.The investigators found comparable effects for ultraÆne and Æne particles. They also report a suggestion of a delayed effect for ultraÆne particles versus an immediate effect for Æne particles. ``Daily Institute Effects Health Mortality and Fine and UltraÆne Particles in Erfurt Germany'' HEI Research Report 98 available at www.healtheffects.org 12000 m but in future could be undertaken frosatellites. Space Research Organisation Netherlands www.sron.nl Boost for ocean research A major expansion of research and monitoring programmes for the open ocean was announced at a recent international meeting in Paris.Launched under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) the Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) is an ambitious plan to combine terrestrial oceanic and atmospheric surveillance. It draws together several UN bodies a group of international scientiÆc institutions and funding units EUMETSAT (the European weather satellite system) the US and French space agencies and the US's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The new programme aims to monitor the temperature and salinity of the top 2000 m of the ocean using 3000 freedrifting buoys. When fully deployed in mid-2002 the network will be used to gather the high quality data needed to improve and validate climate change models.The IOC is also sponsoring research into the submarine fate of CO2. In the political arena the oceans are widely seen as a suitable ``sink'' for CO2 emissions but ocean scientists have pointed to the need to understand the Publications Water quality standards EPA has updated scientiÆc guidelines underlying national water quality standards. Revisions in the methodology for developing water quality criteria incorporate signiÆcant scientiÆc advances in key areas such as cancer and no-cancer risk assessments exposure assessments and bioaccumulation in Æsh. EPA states and tribes will use the new guidelines to update existing water quality criteria in the future. In a separate measure EPA is maintaining the current standard for radionuclides in drinking water which has been in effect since 1977.The Agency has added a new standard for uranium in drinking water and has set new monitoring requirements for the combined radium standard. The Ænal standards are available at the EPA OfÆce of Water website. EPA OfÆce of Water ``Methodology for Deriving Ambient Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Human Health'' impacts on submarine ecosystems before pursuing this as a policy option [JEM 2000 2 41N]. www.epa.gov/ow and www.epa.gov/ waterscience/humanhealth Benchmark dose review EPA has issued for external peer review the draft benchmark dose technical guidance document. The purpose of this document is to provide guidance for the Agency on the application of the benchmark dose approach in determining the point of departure (POD) for health effects data whether a linear or nonlinear low dose extrapolation is used. The guidance includes discussion on computation of benchmark doses and benchmark concentrations and their lower conÆdence limits data requirements dose±response analysis and reporting requirements. This guidance is based on today's knowledge and understanding and on experience gained in using this approach. News Oceanographic Intergovernmental Commission :http://ioc.unesco.org National Center for Environmental Assessment ``Draft Benchmark Dose Technical Guidance Document'' EPA/ 630/R-00/001 available at www.epa.gov/ ncea/bnchmrk/ European water overview A non-technical overview of the status of European inland waters has been published by the European Environment Agency. Covering water issues in both eastern and western Europe the report highlights key issues of concern as well as background information and data on the current status of water resources. Much of the data is presented in graphical form and the document is available in all 11 ofÆcial EEA languages. EEA ``Sustainable Use of Europe's Water'' available at http:// themes.eea.eu.int/toc.php/state/ 13N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b100129i

出版商:RSC    

年代:2001

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Pesticides in Perspective Introduction Within the UK exposure of the consumer to pesticides via food is under the jurisdiction of the Pesticide Safety Directorate (PSD). However the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) also has an input into the pesticide approvals process and this is related to worker safety. In terms of agricultural use HSE has always had a watching brief as far as operator exposure is concerned either by doing work itself or by funding research. They also have a responsibility for assessing worker exposure from the so Assessing dermal exposure to pesticides from non-agricultural uses A UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) perspective{ 1 Background The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) has a number of roles to play in the assessment of applications for approval and registration of biocidal and pesticidal products.HSE advises on worker protection for agricultural pesticide products (see below). HSE is also the Competent Authority for authorisation of non-agricultural pesticide and biocidal products. The registration process includes a need to understand the potential for exposure. Risk assessment the name of the game compares exposure information with hazard data. Decisions can then be taken on the acceptability or otherwise of products reaching the market. The primary responsibility for risk assessment of agricultural pesticides (plant protection products) in the UK lies with the Pesticide Safety Directorate an Executive Agency of the Ministry of Agriculture.There are a number of well- {The opinions expressed in the following article are entirely those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of The Royal Society of Chemistry the Editor or Editorial Board of JEM Syngenta or the Column Editor. 14N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 called non-agricultural uses of pesticides such as timber preservatives and this article outlines HSE activities in this context. The author of this article Andrew Phillips is a chemist by training and has spent most of his career working for the HSE in the Æeld of occupational hygiene and has addressed a wide range of chemical exposure issues. He is currently a Principal Specialist Investigator working within the Biocides and Pesticides Assessment Unit of HSE's Health Directorate.He has speciÆc responsibilities for issues related to established models to derive exposure estimates for agricultural pesticides and these models are applied within the context of both domestic and European approval processes. HSE has an important input to the approval process for plant protection products arising from statutory responsibilities for worker safety. Understanding the nature of exposure is something HSE asks of its occupational hygiene specialists within the Biocides and Pesticides Assessment Unit part of the Health Directorate. There is a need to interpret industrygenerated exposure studies survey or study-based exposure models and information on the pattern of use to arrive at a view of exposure which is realistic enough yet embracing the correct degree of precaution to provide reassurance that products can be used safely.Although HSE has carried out work and is currently sponsoring research addressing operator exposures in the agricultural setting most of our work has addressed issues of exposure to biocides particularly in four product types previously described as ``nonagricultural pesticides''. There had never been anything other than sparse public domain data available. As a Competent Pesticides exposure assessment of pesticides and biocides in support of HSE's statutory role for worker safety and other regulatory activities.Articles to be featured in forthcoming issues include topics such as Genetic Manipulation the work of WHO/FAO in the pesticide arena USA food survey programmes and consumer attitudes to pesticide use. Dr Terry Clark Column Editor Syngenta UK E-mail terry.clark@syngenta.com Authority HSE needed to know about the proÆle of exposures to make estimates relevant to average (central tendency) and worst case situations. Recent work has allowed us to develop ideas aimed at creating a generic dermal exposure model which has potentially wide applicability and which has generated interest within the European context of general chemical risk assessment. HSE has prepared empirical (database) exposure models for product types that are immediately relevant to the Control of Pesticide Regulations and associated approval and registration process.These models address . public hygiene insecticides . timber preservatives . remedial biocides . antifouling preparations The advent of the Biocidal Products Regulations (BPR) has meant that HSE needs to be prepared to assess exposure estimates for a much wider range of biocidal preparations such as preservatives and disinfectants that had not been regulated within any permissioning scheme. The BPR deÆne 23 separate product types. HSE data are both qualitative and quantitative. HSE has gathered exposure data some information on patterns of use and conducted validation work to ensure the quality accuracy and precision as far as possible.The empirical exposure models appear to fall into a pattern based on rates of contamination of the operator and a concept of ``indicative distributions'' has developed from this. We are currently pursuing options to develop a userfriendly expert system underpinned by the results of our work. 2 Dermal exposure models The skin can often be an important route to systemic dose and may itself be a target organ. Risk assessment in respect of the dermal route for uptake needs to account for factors additional to those for the inhalation route data on the substance concentration and vehicle and the duration and frequency of exposure for example. An important additional factor is the material state solid or liquid or vapour and for solids and liquids other components of the mixture may inØuence the uptake rate or have effects on the skin.Many of the factors that inØuence exposure by inhalation such as the way the job is done environmental conditions and the human factors introduced by the interface between workplace and operator also inØuence dermal exposure. However the variability in dermal exposures can be very large indeed–the more variables that exert inØuence the wider the distribution of results. In the quantitative estimation of risk hazard is compared with exposure estimates to produce a decision on the adequacy of the margins between toxicological effects and predicted human exposure.Sparse or Øawed exposure information leads to inadequate estimates of risk. The risk from dermal exposure to chemicals has been well-deÆned in a few Æelds only such as agricultural spray applications. Gross over-estimates of exposure (and thus of risk) may deny an efÆcacious product its market just as underestimates are seriously misleading. Either error may result in the stipulation of inappropriate control measures. Historically quantitative dermal exposure assessment has supported applications for agricultural pesticide approval. Enough data have been collected to support the development of generic empirical (database) models.1,2 Examples of these are in the UK POEM (Predictive Operator Exposure Model); the German model; the US PHED model (Pesticide Handlers Exposure Database); and the developing European model EUROPOEM.These enable prediction of exposures in a range of agricultural and horticultural scenarios. But the very wide distributions of results that are a feature of Æeld dermal exposure studies require particular consideration in selecting the values used in risk assessment. Such values are usually selected to give a reasonable representation of average (central tendency) values; in HSE we also consider the realistic worst-case exposures. The adequacy of these values depends on the adequacy of the database. The selection of values from exposure distributions and the way the beneÆts of wearing protective clothing are factored in can vary; these have an obvious impact on the bottom line estimate of exposure.More recently studies have been reported that investigate the potential for dermal exposure during the use of industrial antimicrobial biocides3 and whilst applying commercial disinfectants.4 These studies have investigated a range of activities from high pressure spraying to mopping wiping and use of disinfectant aerosols with results reported for industrial commercial domestic and agricultural premises. There is also important information relating to the duration and frequency of tasks and the results are presented in a way that they may be interpreted generically. 3 The nature of dermal exposure Many tasks in using chemicals are dispersive in nature either by design or incidentally and some processes will be controlled better than others.The generation of an emission is linked to dermal exposure although no clear association between the emission rate and the deposition on the worker has yet been established. Workers will nearly always come into dermal contact with substances which are available as dislodgeable residues–a secondary but very important source of exposure. Secondary exposures often result from general contamination around the work area or through contact with previously Pesticides contaminated work clothing such as overalls gloves and boots. Two terms are used to describe dermal exposure. Potential dermal exposure (PDE). An estimate of the amount of contaminant landing on the outside of workwear and on exposed skin.Actual dermal exposure (ADE). An estimate of the amount of contamination reaching the skin. It is moderated by the efÆciency and effectiveness of clothing assemblages and programmes to minimise transfer of contamination from workwear to the skin. Potential dermal exposure is the primary indicator used in risk assessment. Actual dermal exposure is often estimated though there are some techniques available to measure it. Dermal exposures merit particular attention where substances are rapidly or completely absorbed through the dermal layers orwhere they cause local damage or skin sensitisation. Until recently the only realistic methods available to gauge the adequacy of control where dermal exposure is a potential problem involved biological monitoring or for effects on the skin health surveillance.Measures of systemic dose through biological monitoring are of value but often cannot differentiate the contributions from dermal inhalation and ingestion routes of uptake. The proÆle of inhalation exposure has been the primary concern for many substances. Dermal exposure may be of limited consequence for example in exposure to inorganic dusts or some organic vapours. Dermal exposure may become the most signiÆcant route to systemic dose when substances are relatively involatile and have the right physico-chemical properties (possibly in combination with solvents etc.) to enhance skin absorption.To make any sense of dermal exposure studies enough data need to be collected to characterise the proÆle of exposure. Experimental work has suggested that dermal exposure distributions are approximately log-normal in much the same way as those found for inhalation but with a far wider spread. There are many results at the low end of the range with a long tail extending to several orders of magnitude higher. How many results are needed to determine the proÆle of results? Generally 20±30 potential dermal exposure data points will produce a proÆle of exposure from which central tendency and reasonable worst-case values can be derived. 15N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 Pesticides However far more data would be needed to prove any speciÆc distribution and to quote statistical indicators (e.g.a geometric standard deviation). A single datum for potential dermal exposure indicates very little and is easy to misinterpret. Rarely will it be practical or economically viable to produce this distribution for a single substance dermal exposure data are very expensive to acquire. It is necessary to select a metric for dermal exposure that allows speciÆc substance data to be used generically. Examples of such metrics are quantity of in-use product depositing per unit time e.g. mgmin21; amount per unit area of skin e.g. mgm22; or quantity of chemical depositing per amount of chemical handled e.g. mg kg21. HSE sponsored research and Æeldwork5±7 has produced a series of empirical distributions for generic dermal exposure data based on workplace surveys and relating to deÆned tasks.The results of thiswork have been published in an HSE Exposure assessment document EH74/3 ``Dermal exposure to nonagricultural pesticides''.8 Other sponsored work has generated data that have a relevance to the small scale user and within the domestic or consumer setting.9,10 This latter work has helped to deÆne exposures from activities such as brushing amateur spray-painting and from use of a range of trigger spray and aerosol products. 4 Dermal exposure data and risk assessment The HSE expresses potential dermal exposure data as the rate at which workers become contaminated with an in-use product in doing a task or tasks in the course of their job.Exposure data for any individual have to be put into the context of . the task . how they do the task . how often they do it . how long they take . how much chemical they handle The resultant data allow estimates to be made of the likely range of contamination that may result for the use of any chemicals in speciÆc ways. It may be possible to draw conclusions about the appropriate control strategies to be adopted if enough is known about dermal absorption characteristics and the likely consequences for health. The empirical models that have been 16N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 generated apply speciÆcally to the categories of job from which the data were drawn.However the usefulness of these models may be extended by applying judgement to other exposure scenarios. In this way it is possible to conclude that the range of painting exposures derived from application of antifouling paints may have similarities to other spraying tasks and certainly to other high-pressure spray painting tasks. Similarly handling of timber treated with copper chrome arsenic preservative solutions may provide for similar rates of contamination with formulation to those experienced when intermittently handling any water-wet objects. 5 The HSE exposure models Exposure There are two descriptors of potential dermal exposure data distributions the spread (as expressed by a standard deviation) and the amount (as expressed by a central tendency indicator such as the median value).Some simple conclusions emerge. First relating to spread discrete welldeÆned tasks give rise to `narrow' distributions. The more variables that affect the distribution the wider it becomes. The more dispersive the task the greater the spread. Second relating to amount:water-based formulation lead to higher rates of contamination than those produced by organic solvent-based formulations (surface tension and volatility are possible important factors). Fine low pressure aqueous spraying processes lead to lower rates of contamination than those derived from medium pressure aqueous spraying processes. High-pressure solvent-based spraying processes produce similar rates of contamination to those derived from mediumpressure spraying (but withalower spread).The values for the amount – the rate of contamination with in-use Øuid for a range of workplace scenarios are given in Table 1. From these Ægures it is possible to construct estimates of exposure if enough is known about typical duration and frequency of use. Other key pieces of information include a knowledge of the concentration of the substance in the preparation and the inuse formulation and the way in which the preparation is used. The work of HSE may have provided a basis for construction of a very simple dermal exposure assessment model described according to tasks and determined by the rate of deposition and to proÆles of emission.Coupled with data from other sources it is hoped to develop a concept of ``indicative distributions'' of dermal contamination applicable to the exposure assessment of a wide range of preparations to meet equally wide ranging regulatory needs. These concepts have been discussed and partly developed within the context of a European Union Steering Group on Assessment of Human Exposure to Biocides and a 1998 report (project 97/ 505/3040/DEB/E2) presents the conclusions of that group (available at the web-site of the European Chemicals Bureau at http://ecb.ei.jrc.it/biocides). Measuring exposure Without going into much detail there is a range of well-established techniques for measuring dermal exposure.Potential dermal exposure measurement requires surrogate skin methods such as the use of sampling patches and sampling overalls. Actual dermal exposure measurement included methods for directly removing contaminants from skin and analysing the resultant washings. Visualisation techniques have also been developed and through the highly original work of Roff,11±13 Øuorescent tracers have been successfully used to provide quantitative estimates of exposure for consumers. Surrogate substances such as strontium chloride have proved useful in conducting laboratory studies with the purpose to address issues of consumer exposure on a generic basis for a range of typical tasks such as spraying aerosols painting by brush or applying liquids by trigger spray.Mechanisms of exposure The mechanisms leading to actual dermal exposure are very complicated. There is the direct impingement arising from immersion or deposition following dispersive use of a substance and dislodging through contact with a coated surface. There is penetration of work clothing. Secondary contamination arises from contact with contaminated surfaces such as dirty paint containers or recently treated materials and handling personal protective equipment. Contaminated personal protective equipment can also act as a signiÆcant source of exposure through transfer of residues. Contamination will rarely be evenly distributed over the body. In some cases it will deposit on well-protected areas in others it may be rubbed through work clothing and in yet other cases the contamination may result in occluded Table 1 Summary data for empirical models (summarised from EH 74/3) No.of data points Rate of deposition (as in-use formulation) Process 102 Public hygiene insecticide application (low pressure spray) 76 55 Remedial biocides (medium pressure spray) 50 17 45 Industrial timber treatment (water-based average cycle time approx. 3 h) (intermittent handling of water-wet objects) 43 29 43 19 Industrial timber treatment (solvent-based average cycle time approx. 1 h) (intermittent handling of solvent-damp objects) 23 14 24 27 Antifouling painter (high pressure airless spraying) 6 19 30 Antifouling ancillary (pot man z other jobs) (handling paint containers and ancillary objects) 24 exposures to parts of the body where resistance to dermal penetration is low.Contamination may also deposit directly onto unprotected skin.Aknowledge of the likely distribution of contamination on the body should lead to a more effective dermal contamination control strategy. the in-glove exposure distribution appears independent of the task or substance handled. Essentially it doesn'tmatterwhat you do gloves will always get contaminated inside if you re-use them! Similar mechanisms play an important part in determining the Æeld-effectiveness of personal protective clothing–our work continues in this area. It may be possible to draw conclusions about individual exposure if enough is known about the tasks involved.Studies for speciÆc substances perhaps backed up by judicious use of biological monitoring may lead to a good understanding of the mechanisms of exposure and the importance of skin as a route to total systemic burden. Protective clothing In conclusion we are at an early stage of understanding the topic of dermal exposure and its interpretation for risk assessment purposes. The work of HSE has provided a new insight into the rates of contamination expected through work with chemical substances. The risk assessor needs access to data and models that allow realistic predictions. How these values are actually used in risk assessment is another matter.References 1 The development maintenance and dissemination of a European predictive operator exposure model (EUROPOEM) database draft Ænal report BIBRA International Carshalton UK 1997. 2 J. J. Van Hemmen Ann. Occ. Hyg. 1993 37(5) 541. The role of clothing–be it normal clothing a coverall or formal personal protective equipment–in providing a barrier to permeation and penetration through to the skin is also complicated. Human factors play a large part in determining the magnitude of exposure. Ostensibly impermeable materials will fail to prevent skin exposure if good occupational hygiene procedures are not followed. The HSE data on ingress of formulations into gloves demonstrates this point where for involatile components 24 mg min21 250 mg min21 0.1±120 mg min21 (median 1.3 mg min21) No data Median on clothing 95th % on clothing Inside gloves Socks Median on clothing 96 mg min21 95th % on clothing 9800 mg min21 (arising from poor work practices) 0.1±358 mg min21 (median 2.4 mg min21) 0.15±260 mg min21 (median 3.05 mg min21) 3990 mg cycle21 (22 mg min21) 32200 mg cycle21 (180 mg min21) 42±7570 mg cycle21 (median 783 mg cycle21) 10±2330 mg cycle21 (median 135 mg cycle21) 0±2670 mg cycle21 (median 125 mg cycle21) 95 mg cycle21 (1.5 mg min21) 450 mg cycle21 (7.5 mg min21) 0.5±1328 mg cycle21 (median 14 mg cycle21) 0.5±106 mg cycle21 (median 24 mg cycle21) 0±65 mg cycle21 (median 3.1) 103 mg min21 745 mg min21 22±119 mg min21 (median 76 mg min21) 0.01±4.2 mg min21 (median 1.0 mg min21) No data 49 mg min21 250 mg min21 0.01±93 mg min21 (median 0.6 mg min21) No data Inside gloves Socks Median on clothing 95th % on clothing Inside gloves (old) Inside gloves (new) Socks Median on clothing 95th % on clothing Inside gloves (old) Inside gloves (new) Socks Median on clothing 95th % on clothing Outer gloves Inside gloves Socks Median on clothing 95th % on clothing Inside gloves Socks Pesticides 3 W.J. Popendorf M. Selim and M. Q. Lewis Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 1995 56 993. 4 W. J. Popendorf and M. Selim Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 1995 56 1111. 5 D.M. Llewellyn A. Brazier R. H. Brown J. Cocker M. L. Evans J. Hampton B. P. Nutley and J. White Ann. Occ. Hyg. 1996 40(5) 499. 6 A. N. I. Garrod D. A. Rimmer L. Robertshaw and T. Jones Ann. Occ. Hyg. 1998 42(3) 159. 7 A. N. I. Garrod M. Martinez and J. Pearson et al. Ann. Occ. Hyg. 1999 43(8) 543. 8 Health and Safety Executive Exposure Assessment Document EH74/3 Dermal exposure to non-agricultural pesticides HSE UK 1999. 9 A. N. I. Garrod R. Guiver and D. A. Rimmer Ann. Occ. Hyg. 2000 10 M. W. Roff Ann Occup. Hyg. 1997 11 M. W. Roff 1993 HSE internal report 12 M. W. Roff Ann. Occ. Hyg. 1994 38(6) 44(6) 421. 41(3) 297. No. IR/L/DF/93/6. 903. 13 M. W. Roff Ann Occup. Hyg. 1997 41(3) 313. Andrew Phillips Health Directorate HSE Bootle UK 17N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b100133g

出版商:RSC    

年代:2001

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Foreword The Fourth International Symposium on Speciation of Elements in Biological Environmental and Toxicological Sciences This issue features selected papers presented at The Fourth International Symposium on Speciation of Elements in Biological Environmental and Toxicological Sciences. Previous meetings were held in Loen Norway in 19911 and 1994,2 and Port Douglas Queensland Australia in 1997.3 Institutional sponsors were The Institute of Community Medicine University of Troms¢� (Troms¢� Norway) National Institute of Occupational Health (Oslo Norway) the Department of Biochemistry and Institute of Environment and Health McMaster University (Hamilton Canada) and the Department of Chemistry the University of British Columbia (Vancouver Canada).As for previous symposia the aim of the Whistler meeting was to facilitate interdisciplinary and intersector discussion about all aspects of elements requiring an understanding of speciation including analytical chemistry geochemistry biochemistry environmental sciences essentiality and nutrition medical uses occupational hygiene human toxicology and regulatory aspects. The scope of the programme was de�¡ned by the working de�¡nition of speciation endorsed in 1994 by the participants of the Second Speciation Symposium in this series Speciation is the occurrence of an element in separate identi�¡able forms (i.e. chemical physical or morphological state2). Although the number of registrants (85) and accompanying persons (15) was somewhat lower than in 1994 and 1997 18 countries and �¡ve continents were still represented.Over the four day symposium a total of 53 invited and submitted oral contributions were presented in six sessions (1) Recent Developments in Speciation Analysis; (2) Trace Element Speciation at Interfaces; (3) Bioavailiablity Uptake and Toxicity; (4) Speciation of Elements in the Natural Environment; (5) Exposure Assessment and Biological Monitoring; and (6) De�¡nition and Scope of Speciation of the Elements. The previously established tradition of assigning a prominent and central role to poster presentations was continued. Thus the research described in 33 posters was discussed further after the 18N J. Environ.Monit. 2001 3 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 formal viewing period in one of four concurrent sessions with the following themes (1) Recent Developments in Speciation Analysis; (2) Speciation of Elements in the Natural Environment; (3) Speciation Analysis of Foods; and (4) Miscellaneous Aspects of Speciation of the Elements. The range of topics covered by the oral and poster presentations was diverse. In addition to hyphenated techniques involving mass spectrometry as the ultimate method of detection developments in speciation analysis also included af�¡nity chromatography atomic absorption spectrometry capillary electrophoresis isotopic fractionation microextraction and XAFS spectroscopy among other techniques.Determination of species of iodine arsenic mercury and iron in foods was the subject of one poster group as well as a number of oral presentations. Studies of species at interfaces examined bio�¡lms on mineral surfaces plant root cells and cell membranes while papers on bioavailability/uptake/toxicity dealt with �¡sh gut and gills microbes unicellular algae amphipods higher plants human enterocytes and aerosols. Reports on the speciation of elements in the natural environment focused on air (e.g. volatile alkyls) water and sediments (e.g. toxic metals). Human exposure studies concentrated on metal-containing aerosols (e.g. manganese lead uranium nickel and copper) while biological monitoring papers summarized studies on species measurement in body �ªuids of germanium arsenic(V) and (III) methyl derivatives iridium and other elements.Toxic endpoints described were platinum hypersensitivity and the possible involvement of stibenes in sudden infant death syndrome. The relevance of speciation to risk assessment was also emphasized. A very spirited discussion of the de�¡nition of speciation closed the symposium's scienti�¡c activities.Although the view was expressed that the working de�¡nition cited above could be improved linguistically therewas a consensus that its inclusiveness was to be preferred over the more restricted chemical speciation version proposed by IUPAC. The Symposium Dinner constituted the �¡nal event. The highlight of the evening was the recognition given to young scientists who were the winners of the best oral and poster presentations.The winners were Catherine Jumarie (Universite¡� du Que¡�bec) and Alexis S. Templeton (Stanford University) as the runner up for oral presentations; and for the most exciting posters Russell Handy (University of Alberta) and Anita E. Geiszinger (University of Southern Denmark). The dinner capped a week of meaningful scienti�¡c exchange collegiality and the development of new friendships between researchers representing many disciplines and cultures. These experiences as well as the memory of the sheer natural beauty of the Province of British Columbia will linger for some time to come. The Organizing Committee gratefully acknowledges �¡nancial assistance in support of invited speakers and graduate student travel bursaries from the following organizations Falconbridge Ltd.Toronto ON Canada; International Copper Association (ICA) New York NY USA; International Council on Metals and the Environment (ICME) Ottawa ON Canada; McMaster University Institute of Environment and Health (MIEH) Hamilton ON Canada; Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA) Durham NC USA; Rio Tinto Melbourne Victoria Australia; and the Royal Society of Chemistry Cambridge UK. Plans have been set in motion to hold the Fifth Speciation Symposium in September 2003 in Spain. References 1 E. Nieboer Analyst 1992 117 550. 2 E. Nieboer and Y. Thomassen Analyst 1995 120 30N. 3 E. Nieboer Y. Thomassen H. M. Crews and J. P. Matousek Analyst 1998 123 765. On behalf of the Organizing Committee M. W. Blades P. G. C. Campbell H. M. Crews W. R. Cullen H. S. Minhas E. Nieboer (Chair) and Y. Thomassen. Evert Nieboer M

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b100134p

出版商:RSC    

年代:2001

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Legislation New era for EU water law The water quality regime in the EU is set for a major overhaul in the next few years following the formal implementation of the new water framework directive. The long-delayed directive was published in the Official Journal late last year and must now be transposed into national law by each of the member states by December 2003. The new law aims to achieve a high quality for all surface and groundwater within the EU by 2015. All polluting discharges must be controlled through a combination of best available techniques and emission limit values as well as best environmental practices for diffuse pollution by December 2012. Each river basin district will have to prepare a river basin management plan and all plans must be reviewed by December 2015.Use of economic instruments is also to be stepped up. Implementation of this important directive will replace much existing EU water legislation. The key directive 75/ 440 on quality of surface waters for use as drinking water will be repealed in December 2007. A second group is due for repeal in December 2013 including directive 76/464 on dangerous substances in water directive 78/659 on freshwater for fish life and 79/923 on the quality of shellfish waters. European Commission for full text of the water framework directive see http:// europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/dat/2000/l_327 Commission unveils water pollutant list Following the entry into force of the water framework directive the European Commission has published a list of 32 priority substances targeted for early regulation.The list is almost identical to the Commission’s first proposal presented last year which had to be withdrawn due to last minute changes to the framework legislation [JEM 2000 2 93N]. The proposal defers for two years until 2003 final selection of a subgroup of ‘‘priority hazardous substances’’ (PHSs) for which emissions are to be totally eliminated within 20 years. Designation as a PHS would effectively lead to elimination of the substances This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 concerned unless emission-free closedloop recycling systems can be developed. The list identifies an initial group of eleven PHSs with a further eleven under review.Chemicals listed as definite PHSs include mercury cadmium the flame retardant pentabromodiphenyl ether (PDBE) short-chain chlorinated paraffins tributyltin (TBT) and nonylphenols—all of which are already targeted by various EU environmental laws. Those under review include lead pentachlorophenol and the plasticiser DEHP. In a major change from the earlier proposal all brominated diphenyl ethers (BDE) with the exception of PBDE have been dropped from the list following what the Commission says is more detailed data from recent risk assessments. Though not formally under review other BDEs may be added to the new list later. The Commission has recently proposed a separate phase-out plan for PBDE following completion of a full EU risk assessment last year.The priority substances proposal is now subject to consultation with the European Parliament and the member states. Environmental campaigners and some MEPs are unhappy with the current list and are calling for additional substances to be added including lead and the brominated flame retardant TBBA. This is justified they say because the substances have already been identified for priority action under the Ospar agreement of 1998. The Commission has also published a key socio-economic study underpinning the proposals. Based on a worst case scenario it concludes that for some substances such as the PVC precursor 1,2-dichlorethane the costs of elimination could be ‘‘vast’’.European Commission www.europa.eu.int/comm; PBDE risk assessment http://ecb.ei.jrc.it/ Documents/Existing-Chemicals/ Risk_Assessment/ New face at EPA The election of the Bush administration has brought a new appointment at the top of the EPA. Christie Whitman was sworn in as EPA Administrator on 31st News January. Prior to joining EPA Mrs Whitman was the 50th Governor of New Jersey and previously headed the New Jersey Board of Public Utilities. In testimony before the US Senate on 17th January Mrs Whitman said she believed environmental and economic goals go hand in hand and that she would continue her record of working to forge strong partnerships among citizens government and business. Mrs Whitman claims a strong environmental record since she was first elected in New Jersey in 1993.For example the number of days in which the state breached air quality standards dropped from 45 in 1988 to four in 2000. New Jersey is also on target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels. She also championed ‘‘brownfield’’ development and established a pioneering watershed management program. Environmental campaigners were highly critical of the appointment however alleging that Mrs Whitman has strong links to the biotechnology industry. The appointment of Linda Fisher a former Monsanto executive as Deputy Administrator is also viewed with suspicion. According to Charles Margulis of Greenpeace USA ‘‘Christie Whitman is known for favouring dirty industries over scientific precaution and with Monsanto attached at her hip we’re sure to see more genetic food pollution’’.EPA www.epa.gov; Greenpeace USA www.greenpeaceusa.org/media Canada to back ozone plan The Canadian Government is to invest CAN$120.2 million in new measures to help meet its commitments under the Canada–US Ozone Annex signed in December last year [JEM 2000 2 93N]. The action plan focuses on a 10 year regulatory road map for cleaner vehicles and fuels initial measures to reduce smog causing emissions from industrial sectors improvements to the cross-border network of pollutant monitoring stations and expansion of the public reporting by industry on pollutant releases. The Ozone Annex negotiated last year under the Canada–US Air Quality Agreement includes commitments by 19N J.Environ. Monit. 2001 3 News both countries to dramatically reduce the smog-causing pollutants nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds. The Annex also contains commitments on monitoring and reporting measures. Environment Canada www.ec.gc.ca US revises arsenic standard EPA has set a new standard for arsenic in drinking water of 10 parts per billion Environmental quality UNEP confirms rapid global warming Evidence for human influence on the global climate is now stronger than ever and the economic costs of adapting to the change will be astronomical. That is the stark message from the latest assessments by leading climate change scientists and government officials presented in three recent reports.The first assessment by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirms the increasingly strong evidence for anthropogenic influence on the global climate. It projects a potentially devastating global warming of between 1.4 and 5.8 �C over the next 100 years. The IPCC’s Third Assessment Report was written and reviewed by hundreds of climate change experts on the basis of the most up-to-date peer-reviewed research available. In addition to the scientific case IPCC has published a second volume on impacts analysing how this general warming will affect individual regions. While highlighting remaining uncertainties it details expected changes in weather patterns water resources the cycling of the seasons ecosystems extreme climate events and much more.A third volume focuses on potential response strategies. Commenting on the findings UNEP Executive Director Klaus To� pfer said ‘‘Intensive climate research and monitoring over the past few years has given scientists greater confidence in their understanding of the causes and effects of global warming. The scientific consensus presented in this comprehensive reporould sound alarm bells in every national capital and 20N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 (ppb) down from the current 50 ppb level. Water systems in western states and parts of the Midwest and New England that depend on underground sources of drinking water will be affected most by the new standard.EPA estimates that roughly 5% or 3000 community water systems serving 13 million people will need to take corrective action to comply with the new measure. The standard will also apply for the first time to 20000 water systems in every local community. We must move ahead boldly with clean energy technologies and we should start preparing ourselves now for the rising sea levels changing rain patterns and other impacts of global warming.’’ Many of the physical changes that scientists have assessed as being consistent with global warming can already be witnessed today. The extent of Arctic sea-ice has shrunk by about 10– 15% while Antarctic sea ice retreated south by 2.8� of latitude from the mid 1950s to the early 1970s.Alaska’s boreal forests are expanding northwards at a rate of about 100 kilometres per 1 �C rise. Ice cover on lakes and rivers in the mid-to-high Northern latitudes now lasts for about two weeks less than it did 150 years ago. These effects on polar regions are particularly concerning. ‘‘What happens in the Arctic and the Antarctic have implications for everyone’’ says Svein Tveitdal Managing Director of GRIDArendal UNEP’s key polar centre. ‘‘The polar regions play a crucial role in driving the circulation of the world’s oceans which in turn affect weather systems and the climate on every continent.’’ Tveitdal and his colleagues have recently identified a new mechanism which may accelerate global warming even further.New evidence suggests the melting of permafrost is causing it to release greenhouse gases which had been locked away under the ice. Rising temperatures allow the organic material present in permafrost to be broken down by bacteria. An estimated 14% of the world’s carbon is stored in Arctic areas and its rapid release would add to the warming effect. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate that serve people only part of the year such as schools churches and factories. Approximately 1100 of these systems serving two million people will need to take corrective action. Most of the systems affected by the new standard serve fewer than 10000 people. EPA Office of Water www.epa.gov/ safewater Change All three volumes of the IPCC Third Assessment Report are at www.ipcc.ch.See also www.grida.no for downloadable maps and graphics; www.unfccc.int for official documents on the climate talks; and www.wmo.ch and www.unep.ch/conventions/ info for additional background information Health costs of climate change Meanwhile authorities in the UK have published what they claim is the first assessment in Europe of the implications of climate change for human health. The Department of Health says in a recent report that effects of climate change for the UK will be ‘‘significant’’ but that we have adequate time to prepare and the public healthcare system should be able to cope well.Assumingatemperature riseof between 0.8 and 2.3 �C by 2050 the report predicts that the number of winter deaths will fall by 20000 per annum while deaths from heat stroke will rise by only 2800 per year. But other heat-related ailments are expected to increase. Skin cancers will rise by around 5000 cases per year cataracts by 2000 and food poisoning by about 10000. Increased smog pollution would also cause an increase in respiratory illnesses and deaths. Insect-borne diseases suchasmalaria are alsoexpected to rise although their impact will be local. Department of Health www.doh.gov.uk Urgent action needed to protect Europe’s soils The degradation of Europe’s vital soil resources will continue and even accelerate unless prompt action is taken now according to a new report by the European Environment Agency.Soils are being over-stressed by Europe’s dense settlement patterns and intensive economic activities and by acidification erosion contamination and changes in climate. Growing demand for food production living space leisure and tourism facilities infrastructure and industrial production will only increase the pressure. In some parts of Europe the degradation is so severe that it has reduced the soil’s capacity to support human communities and ecosystems and resulted in desertification. Since it can take hundreds or thousands of years to regenerate most soils the damage occurring today is for all purposes irreversible. Launching the report Domingo Jime�nez-Beltra�n the EEA’s Executive Director said ‘‘Soil degradation is part of the systematic abuse of the European space its territory and the natural resources involved.This may become in particular in the EU area a main challenge for sustainability and requires a common approach.’’ Around one-third of Europe’s soil may be affected with over 150 million ha suffering high erosion risk. Deterioration is critical in the Mediterranean countries and around the Black Sea. Central Europe is also severely affected. Furthermore it is expected that water erosion risks will increase across 80% of the EU’s agricultural land by 2050. European Environment Agency ‘‘Down to earth Soil degradation and sustainable development in Europe A challenge for the XXI century,’’ Available at www.eea.eu.int US water industry calls for huge investment A massive increase in federal investment in drinking water sewerage systems and stormwater infrastructure is needed in the US to safeguard health and environmental standards according to an industry lobby.Water Infrastructure Network (WIN) is calling for a five year US$57 billion investment programme to replace aging pipes upgrade treatment systems and continue to protect public health and the environment. WIN is also urging Congress to create a long-term sustainable and reliable source of federal funding for clean and safe water. In the US water utilities are funded predominantly at municipal level. Cities counties and other local agencies supply the public with tap water and they collect treat and dispose of sewage and urban runoff.Local governments and their ratepayers currently cover 90% of the costs of building operating and maintaining public water and sewer systems. But as older systems deteriorate and water quality rules tighten local budgets simply cannot keep pace. According to WIN the funding increase is urgently needed to help close a US$23 billion per year gap between infrastructure needs and current spending. To bridge the investment gap the federal government should meet localities halfway—by authorizing an average of US$11.5 billion in capitalization funds over five years. States would receive the funds and in turn offer grants and loans to local agencies.In an era of unprecedented federal surpluses the US government can well afford this commitment to the nation’s water resources WIN says. Water Environment Federation ‘‘Water Infrastructure Now’’ available at www.wef.org/pdffiles/WINnow.pdf Anglo–French air quality Air quality in northern Europe continues to improve according to two recent reviews of air monitoring data in the UK and France. Looking back on ten years of air quality monitoring the report by the French Environment Ministry notes that the biggest success story between 1991 and 2000 has been a six-fold reduction in lead concentrations. This was primarily due to an EU-wide phase out of leaded petrol. Concentrations of sulfur dioxide dropped by an average of 10% per annum over the last five years.The record on nitrogen oxides is less encouraging with concentrations in most areas falling around 1–5% per year ind half of the reporting period. The Ministry is increasing the number of pollutants covered by the nationwide monitoring programme to include benzene hydrocarbons odours and ultra-fine particles (PM2.5). The UK report focuses on day-to-day air quality in 2000. The number of days showing moderate or high air pollution was 17 in urban areas and 25 in rural areas. As in the French study the report notes that regulatory success in reducing Coastal indicators NP in Spanish rivers News particulates and sulfur dioxide has left ground level ozone as the main cause of poor air quality.Ozone levels are heavily influenced by weather patterns however. French Ministry of Environment www.environnement.gouv.fr/dossiers/air/; UK National Air Quality Data www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airqual/aqma/ home.html The overall condition of America’s coastal waters is fair to poor according to a major monitoring report released by the EPA. The report draws together data from a number of federal agencies including EPA the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration the US Geological Survey and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the first attempt to provide the public with a comprehensive picture of the health of the US coastal waters and will be used as a benchmark for analysing the progress of coastal management programs.Reflecting the generally poor conditions detailed in the report EPA is also setting up four ‘‘Special Ocean Sites’’ in areas of outstanding environmental value. Water quality criteria for all ocean areas beyond the three mile offshore limit are also to be tightened. EPA Office of Water ‘‘National Coastal Condition Report’’ www.epa.gov/ow A study of the endocrine-disrupting chemical nonylphenol (NP) in Spanish rivers has found what are thought to be the highest levels ever recorded. Writing in the journal Environmental Science and Technology Spanish and Danish researchers report NP levels in two Spanish rivers of up to 644 mg l21. NP is a breakdown product of nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPE).It has been shown to induce hormonal changes in fish at concentrations as low as 20 mg l21. An international survey of NPE in 1999 found a maximum concentration of 180 mg l21. However some scientists have questioned the rate of degradation from NPE to the more toxic NP [JEM 2000 2,10N]. In the Spanish case the highest levels were found downstream of the outfalls from sewage treatment works but elevated concentrations of up to 21N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 News 51 mg l21 were also recorded upstream. The researchers attribute the high downstream levels to industrial effluent discharges and the upstream pollution to cleaning products or to run-off from sewage sludge or pesticides.Chemical hazards EU urges precaution on chemicals The EU’s system of chemicals regulation faces a major shake-up under proposals presented by the European Commission. In a White Paper tabled jointly by Industry Commissioner Erkki Liikanen and Environment Commissioner Margot Wallstro�m the Commission says a major overhaul of chemicals regulation is needed to address shortcomings in current knowledge. The Commission’s proposed solution is to create a single regulatory system for both existing and new substances passing more responsibility to manufacturers and downstream users. The system is based on a three-pronged approach of registration evaluation and most controversially a new authorisation procedure. Under the latter for substances of very high concern there would be a presumption against use unless industry could prove that certain applications were safe.At the insistence of Liikanen’s Industry Directorate the authorisation procedure will now apply only to carcinogenic mutagenic and reprotoxic chemicals together with a handful of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Further research is to be undertaken on substances considered to be persistent bioaccumulative or toxic before deciding whether to include them within the authorisation process. Regulations regarding registration of existing chemicals are to be tightened. Companies are already required to register new chemicals but existing chemicals which form the bulk of the market are largely unregulated.Under the proposals the same rules would be progressively phased in for the thousands of existing substances. Industry will have to provide more information and undertake more extensive testing of its products. 22N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 An EU scientific committee is expected to publish a review of the human health implications of NP shortly. ‘‘Estrogenicity determination in sewage treatment plants and surface waters Deadlines for this are the end of 2005 for chemicals with production volumes greater than 1000 t 2008 for those above 100 t and 2012 for those above 1 t. The paper brought predictable reactions from industry and environmental campaigners. CEFIC the European chemical body said the authorisation process would create huge costs for industry much higher than the e2bn suggested by the Commission and ‘‘increase the number of chemicals that are restricted or banned arbitrarily’’.Greenpeace on the other hand said the paper had ‘‘serious shortcomings’’ such as a lack of sanctions for companies failing to comply. Greenpeace also criticised the proposed raising of the volume threshold for testing from 10 kg to 1 t which it said would still leave twothirds of chemicals unregulated. European Commission http://europa. eu.int/comm/; CEFIC www.cefic.org; Greenpeace Chemicals Policy Review www.chemicalspolicyreview.org UNEP focuses on heavy metals The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is to study the health and environmental impacts of mercury in the light of increasing evidence of the need for global action in reducing heavy metals.The study which will also include an assessment of the cost-effectiveness of mercury antipollution measures and technologies is expected to be completed by 2003. The review has widespread support including from the US and EU. EPA announced recently that it will propose new regulations on mercury emissions within 2 years [JEM 2001 3 7N]. Coming hard on the heels of the POPs treaty brokered by UNEP last December [JEM 2001 3 7N] it could be the precursor to an international convention from the Catalonian area’’ in Environmental Science and Technology 15th December 2000. EU Scientific Committee on Toxicity Ecotoxicity and Environment www.europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/sct/ index_en.html on mercury and other heavy metals such as cadmium.At the recent UNEP Governing Council meeting in Nairobi members also sought to strengthen the organisation’s role in global environmental governance. An intergovernmental working group has been created to assess the options in the runup to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio z10) to be held in Johannesburg next year. UNEP www.unep.org Industry publishes risk assessments The chemical industry has published initial hazard assessments for 11 substances scheduled for review under the OECD’s high production volume (HPV) chemicals programme. The assessments are the first to be produced by industry itself under the HPV programme which aims to assess the risks posed by 4000 chemicals made in volumes greater than 1000 t per annum.Under current rules all industrygenerated data must be vetted by independent authorities from a sponsor country before being published. Removing this sponsor review would speed up the assessment process. CEFIC the European Chemical Industry Council said the OECD experts’ acceptance of the first dossiers was a positive sign. Under a voluntary initiative industry is on track to produce hazard assessments for 1000 HPV substances by 2004. Of the 11 substances in this initial round five were judged as requiring further assessment. They are toluene o-chloro-; butane 1,2-exy-; 6,6-di-t-butyl-4,4'dimethyl- 2,2'methylenediphenol; 3,4-dichlorobut- 1-ene; and sulfuric acid.Six were designated ‘‘low priorities for further work’’ propylene glycol; dipropylene glycol; propan-2-ol 1,1'-oxydi-; citric acid; 1-methoxypropan-2-ol; and 1- methoxy-2-propyl acetate. The experts also reviewed and accepted 19 other hazard assessments produced by OECD member states bringing the total number of HPV chemical hazard assessments processed under the programme to about 150. OECD www.oecd.org; CEFIC www.cefic.be Nordics target biocides Environmental agencies in Scandinavia are becoming increasingly concerned about consumer uses of anti-bacterial chemicals which they say could potentially increase the risk of spreading antibiotic resistance in microbial populations.Anti-bacterial agents are added to a wide range of consumer products from washing detergents to household wipes. Organic chemicals such as triclosan are increasingly used in place of traditional inorganics. Now authorities in Finland are calling for restraint in their use. In a joint statement issued by food medicines health and consumer product agencies the authorities stress that the use of organic anti-bacterial agents is only justified in special cases. The move follows similar statements late last year from authorities in Denmark Norway and Sweden. The call came as the EU warned that eleven EU countries had yet to implement the 1998 biocides directive the key measure governing use of anti-bacterials.The directive also sets environmental and safety standards for substances such as wood preservatives and non-agricultural pesticides and introduces a harmonised EU approval procedure for new biocidal products. Member states should have implemented the law within national legislation by May last year. Also in relation to biocides the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority has brought forward proposals first mooted in September last year [JEM 2000 2 96N] banning or limiting the use of wood and timber products impregnated with preservative salts of copper chrome and arsenic (CCA). Finnish Environment Institute www.vyh.fi/eng/fei/fei.html; European Commission www.europa.eu.int/comm; Norwegian Pollution Control Authority www.sft.no Royal Commission seeks views on chemicals The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP) a statutory body reporting to the UK parliament is seeking input as part of a new study on chemical hazards.The study was launched last autumn to undertake a wide-ranging review of the long-term effects of chemicals in the environment and how these should be controlled. Developments in the chemical industry over the last decade have brought great benefits but the manufacture and use of chemicals has also created risks to humans and the natural environment. Doubts persist on the effectiveness of present policies in protecting humans and ecosystems from unintended long-term effects.The work will input to the growing international debate on the effectiveness of chemical assessment and control programmes. The Commission has identified three main themes for investigation scientific knowledge and further research needs; how chemicals are best assessed; and the principles that should be followed in regulating chemicals. Organisations and individuals can contribute via written evidence and a discussion forum on the RCEP website. Beginning in summer 2001 written and oral evidence will be gathered on particular issues identified from the scoping phase. The Commission expects to publish a final report next year. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution www.rcep.org.uk Scientists urge action on MTBE A long-awaited EU risk assessment on the petrol additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) has come out in favour of precautionary risk reduction measures.MTBE is already widely used in the United States and is starting to be used in Europe to meet the requirements of strict new fuel quality standards due to come into force in 2005. Leaking storage tanks can lead to MTBE contamination in groundwater imparting a foul odour and taste even at trace concentrations. Once in the environment it is very Fears rise on TBT News difficult and expensive to remove. Oil companies in Denmark have already announced a voluntary phase-out [JEM 2000 2 79N]. An assessment undertaken by Finland as part of the EU’s existing chemicals review process notes that while MTBE is not toxic the scale of the environmental risk merits early action.As Finnish scientists sent the report to their EU colleagues for peer review officials were working on proposals for specific risk reduction measures including possible end-use restrictions. EU Scientific Committee on Toxicity Ecotoxicity and Environment www.europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/sct/ index_en.html Tributyltin (TBT) is becoming an increasingly sensitive issue within the EU as authorities in Denmark drew attention to a new waste management problem for ports and Germany broke ranks by proposing tougher national legislation. In Denmark port operators warned that members were facing escalating bills to dispose of an estimated 106 m3 per year of contaminated sludge.As awareness of the toxicity of TBT has spread local authorities are insisting on disposal to landfill instead of the traditional and much cheaper dumping of the sludge at sea. Meanwhile authorities in Germany are pressing ahead with proposals which go far beyond existing EU rules. In addition to extending the ban to all vessels the authorities plan to prohibit use of TBT in treatment of textiles and in certain consumer products. Environmental groups welcomed the move but criticised the European Commission for failing to bring forward EU-wide legislation. TBT is used in the maritime sector as an antifouling agent on ships. An agreement last year between members of the International Maritime Organisation is likely to lead to a global ban on TBT use on all ships from 2003.The Commission is understood to be awaiting further talks with the IMO before proposing its own directive. Danish EPA www.mst.dk; Association of Danish Ports www.danske-havne.dk; WWF Germany www.wwf.de 23N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 News Research activities Public and occupational health NTP reaches study milestone The US National Toxicology Program has published its 500th two year safety test of chemicals in rodents—a landmark in an analytical series that has had a major influence on the regulation of food drugs consumer products environmental quality and occupational health and safety. NTP Director Dr Kenneth Olden said ‘‘We are proud of this milestone of health protection.These 500 tests have had a profound effect on our health and the length of our lives. In 1997 and 1998 alone nine of these studies were the basis for regulatory decisions by the EPA FDA and Occupational Safety and Health Administration.’’ Since NTP was established in 1978 its reports have changed how substances are handled in occupational and home settings and in the more general environment. Examples of chemicals that have been found to cause tumours in laboratory animals and have subsequently been regulated or eliminated include the home cleaning fluids tetrachloroethylene and carbon tetrachloride; Mirex a pesticide and flame retardant; dichlorvos an insecticide used in flea collars; and phenolphthalein formerly an active ingredient in laxatives.NTP’s 500th report is on naphthalene the principal ingredient in mothballs and the familiar odour in millions of home closets. It is also used as a deodorizer. The laboratory study found clear evidence that naphthalene causes cancer a finding that scientists and regulators must wrestle with to determine if as commonly used it presents a risk to humans as well. An abstract of this and all the other studies is available on the NTP web site. National Toxicology Program http:// ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/ Revised listing for TCDD In an unusual move the National Toxicology Program has published an addendum to its Ninth Report on Carcinogens that adds 2,3,7,8- tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) to the list of substances classified as ‘‘known to be human carcinogens’’.This addendum follows the recent ruling by the US Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit dismissing a request for an injunction to prevent the listing of TCDD in this category. The change in the listing of TCDDfrom the ‘‘reasonably anticipated’’ to the ‘‘known to be a human carcinogen’’ category had been planned for the Ninth Report but the designation was delayed by litigation. The plaintiffs in the lawsuit claim that the Department of Health and Human Services and National Toxicology Program had improperly applied the listing criteria. The Ninth Report was published in May 2000 with TCDD listed as a ‘‘reasonably anticipated’’ human carcinogen [JEM 2000 2 61N].However a statement indicated that an addendum may be published following the Court’s ruling on the litigation.The NTP’s upgrading of TCDD to the ‘‘known’’ category is based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans involving a combination of epidemiological and mechanistic information which indicates a causal policies for the environment health and safety. The science of measurements has contributed significantly to increasing people’s awareness of pollution. It has brought a better understanding of the The future for measurements A major European conference will bring together scientists government and industrial representatives to consider the challenges for environmental metrology in supporting European 24N J.Environ. Monit. 2001 3 relationship between exposure to TCDD and human cancer. National Toxicology Program Ninth Report on Carcinogens http://ntpserver. niehs.nih.gov/NewHomeRoc/ AboutRoC.html UK counts air pollution deaths Premature deaths due to air pollution are up to six times more frequent than road accident fatalities according to a new study by economists at the University of St Andrews. The research is the first to test the accuracy of UK government estimates published in 1998 based on US and European data. Using data from 13 British cities the researchers conclude that between 12700 and 19500 early deaths in the UK can be attributed to air pollution each year.The figures are based on a pollution index for five key pollutants small particulates ozone nitrogen oxides sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. The Department of Health’s 1998 estimate of 24000 deaths per year included a certain amount of double counting. While the report does not attempt to attach a monetary value to these deaths it notes that mortality from air pollution ‘‘should obviously be included in the cost– benefit analysis of future transportpolicy’’. This UK study follows similar work in the US and Germany recently which has drawn attention to the hidden health costs of pollution-related deaths [JEM 2000 2 71N; JEM 2001 3 12N]. University of St Andrews ‘‘Air pollution and mortality in a sample of British cities’’ www.st-andrews.ac.uk mechanisms leading to air water and soil contamination and has helped in the evaluation of changes to local or regional ecosystems.Progress in measurements has generated many new insights which have led to further questioning on potential risks and fed the debate on the precautionary principle. Metrology is also contributing to the development of a new approach to risk management. Questions which will be addressed by the Conference include What are the real possibilities opened by measurements? What are their present limits? How should we react when results show a low-risk level but concern large geographical areas or large populations? Beyond the famous assessment that ‘‘a zero-risk does not exist’’ how should we interpret these results and when should we use the precautionary principle? How do we communicate our views to the general public? The conference website is at www.envconference.net RSC backs new chairs The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) are funding three new research professorships aimed at strengthening the UK’s position in analytical science. Awards have been made to the University of York (High Throughput Profiling) University of Sheffield (Nanoscale Analytical Science) and UMIST IUPAC draft recommendations on the use of the term ‘‘selectivity’’ The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has made available for public comment a draft document entitled Selectivity in Analytical Chemistry which can be downloaded from the IUPAC website at the following address http:// iupac.chemsoc.org/reports/provisional/ abstract01/vessman_300901.htm.The correct use of the term selectivity in analytical chemistry and its clear distinction from the term specificity are discussed. Recommendations are made (a) with regard to the definition of selectivity and (b) that the use of the term selectivity be promoted. A paper copy can be obtained from Alan McNaught at the Cambridge office of the Royal Society of Chemistry [tel +44(0)1223 432119 e-mail adm@rsc.org]. The deadline for receipt of comments (address to Prof.Dr. Jo�rgen Vessman) is 30th September 2001. (Bioanalytical Science). Each of the universities will be appointing worldleading scientists to these new posts over the next few months. The awards are a direct response to Foresight which described analytical science in the UK as ‘lagging’ and to the review of the EPSRC’s Analytical Science Programme (1994–2000) which called for fundamental long-term strengthening of the research base in analytical science. The scheme which is jointly funded by the EPSRC and the RSC was brokered by the UK Analytical Partnership (UKAP). UKAP also formed in response to Foresight is a collaboration of the key stakeholders in analytical science including many sectors of industry the research base government research councils and learned societies. EPA switches on to e-reporting The US EPA is planning to establish a model system for electronic reporting and record keeping across all Agency programs. The system will be an optional means of fulfilling any reporting or record-keeping requirement with EPA that will result in a more efficient process and reduced paperwork in the implementation of regulations. Under the proposed Cross-Media EPA Cross-Media Reporting www.epa.gov/cdx News Electronic Reporting and Recordkeeping Rule electronic reporting could potentially be introduced across all Agency environmental compliance reporting including delegated states programs. Environmental link in Parkinsons? The role of environmental factors in Parkinson’s Disease were considered at a special session hosted by the Society of Toxicology during its annual meeting in San Francisco in March. While the causes of Parkinson’s are not known recent experimental and epidemiological evidence suggests interactions between environmental exposures and genetic susceptibility. The meeting heard amongst others presentations on the challenges in identifying genetic markers for susceptibility to environmental risk factors the combined effects of agrochemicals on the risk of PD and interactions between alphasynuclein and environmental agents. 25N J. Environ. Monit. 2001

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b102036f

出版商:RSC    

年代:2001

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Pesticides in Perspective Introduction Currently there are intense debates at all levels of society around the world concerning genetically modified (GM) plants. The public in general is aware of GM crops but they are not sufficiently informed and do not have the knowledge to make rational decisions. This uncertainty is fuelled by the media although now more scientific debate is taking place. There are widely differing global views on GM. For instance in North and South America large areas are already planted with GM crops in third world countries GM is seen as a way of obtaining a more stable and increased crop yield in contrast in Europe the mood is extremely negative. Therefore the current article in the column is very timely and it sets about reviewing what is currently in place to ensure the safety of GM food and also the impact of GM crops on agrochemical use.Harry Kuiper is head of the Department of Food Safety and Health Environmental and food safety issues of genetically modified crops{ Introduction An intense public debate has emerged in Europe concerning the introduction of genetically modified (GM) plants and food crops. While cultivation of GM crops has become very popular in the US Canada and Argentina since 1996 (Fig. 1) in Europe commercial cultivation of transgenic crops is very limited till now. This is primarily due to cautious regulatory approaches taken by several Member States of the EU motivated among others by concerns expressed by environmental and consumer groups regarding potential long-term negative effects on environment and human health.The purpose of this contribution is to identify {The opinions expressed in the following article are entirely those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Royal Society of Chemistry the Editor or Editorial Board of JEM Syngenta or the Column Editor. and evaluate the relevant environmental and food safety issues associated with the cultivation of transgenic plants. This is a prerequisite for the acceptance of this relatively new technology but other issues must also be dealt with such as traceability guarantees for GM-free production labelling benefits for a sustainable agriculture and transparency of authorisation procedures before this new technology can play an important role in agriculture.Important traits are herbicide tolerance and insect resistance. 26N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 of RIKILT Wageningen University & Research Center Wageningen The Netherlands since 1984. He received his academic training at the Agricultural University Wageningen in food science and completed in 1976 a PhD study at the State University of Groningen Department of Biochemistry concerning the structure and function of hemocyanins and hemoglobins. He worked from 1976–1980 at the University of Rome Faculty of Medicine Department of Biochemistry as a postdoctoral researcher on oxygen binding of hemocyanins and hemoglobins.Harry is involved in safety assessment of residues of agrochemicals in food of health protecting compounds and of genetically modified foods. He is leader of various national and EU-financed projects concerning food safety. He is a member of the EU Scientific Committee on Plants the OECD Task Force on the safety of genetically modified foods the Italian Advisory Committee on Fig. 1 Cultivation of transgenic crops. Pesticides Biotechnology in Agriculture and the IUPAC-Committee on Agrochemicals and the Environment. He is co-ordinator of the European Network on Safety of Transgenic Foods (ENTRANSFOOD) funded by the European Commission. Furthermore he participated in the 2nd FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on the Safety of Genetically Modified Foods held in Rome in 1996 and chaired the 3rd FAO/WHO Consultation on Foods Derived from Biotechnology held in Geneva May 2000.He is (co)author of approximately 170 contributions in scientific journals proceedings and scientific reports and invited lectures at scientific Conferences and Workshops. I think that the readers will agree that Harry is more than qualified to contribute this article and I hope that you enjoy reading it as much as I did. Dr Terry Clark Column Editor Syngenta UK E-mail terry.clark@syngenta.com Herbicide tolerance (HT) is accomplished through incorporation of a mutant gene which codes for an enzyme 5-enolpyruvilshikimate-3- phosphate synthase (EPSPS) which is insensitive towards the action of glyphosate or of a bacterium-derived phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT or bar) which detoxifies the herbicide phosphinothricin through acetylation.Insect resistance is conferred through incorporation of genes coding for insecticidal proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Moreover tolerance for the herbicide bromoxynil was introduced in cotton. From 1996 to 2000 the global area of transgenic crops increased from 1.7 million hectares to 44.2 million hectares which is equivalent to twice the area of the UK.1,2 Approximately one quarter of the transgenic crop area was grown in 2000 in developing countries. Most of the transgenic crops are grown in 2000 in the USA (69% of the transgenic area) followed by Argentina (23%) and Canada (7%).Herbicide tolerant (HT) soybeans and Bt corn accounted for most of the global transgenic crop acreage followed by Bt cotton and HT canola. The transgenic corn area in 2000 is estimated to decrease by 8% equivalent to 800 000 hectares presumably due to lower pest infestation levels in 1999 but probably also due to the uncertain European market situation. Also a decrease in transgenic canola is predicted for 2000 in Canada due to an overall decrease in canola cultivation and replacement of HT canola varieties by mutation-derived varieties. The cultivation of transgenic cotton is still increasing over the years in particular in the US with an impressive increase in 2000 of 40% in global area.Potential benefits and risks of GM crop cultivation Potential benefits and risks of cultivating transgenic crops are summarised in Table 1. Before commercialisation a genetically modified organism must have been characterised thoroughly with respect to potential adverse effects on the environment and safety for human consumption. The safety of a crop must be established in the first place and must be acceptable before in certain cases a risk/benefit evaluation may be made by decision making authorities and not by risk evaluators. Since the release of transgenic plants in the environment Table 1 Potential benefits and risks of GM crop cultivation Potential benefits Less crop injury due to pests and diseases and increased crop yields Easier and more flexible weed control of herbicide tolerant crops Reduction of mechanical soil treatment Greater reliance on herbicides and increased use for weed control Selective replacement of the more harmful Build-up of resistance in insects due to continuous exposure herbicides/insecticides and reduced use Less harm on beneficial insects and non-target organisms Negative effects of herbicides/insecticides on non-target species To meet particular ecological/agricultural conditions beyond the pilot-scale may have large implications for the quality of the ecosystem e.g.through outcrossing or through the evolution of resistant pests stringent pre-market assessment systems and monitoring plans especially during the up-scaling phase must be put in place.Assessment of environmental safety issues Most countries have adopted rules for the environmental safety assessment of transgenic plants based on strategies developed by e.g. the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union.3–5 The environmental risk assessment takes the following aspects into account . biological properties of the host mechanism . source of the introduced gene(s) expression and nature of the gene product . characteristics of the genetically modified organism its performance and impact in the environment . potential ecological effects on wildlife and biodiversity The concept of familiarity is used to address environmental safety issues when the cultivation of modified crops is up-scaled.The concept is based upon the fact that most genetically modified plants are developed from plants of which the biology and inherent safety is well understood. OECD Consensus Documents are being developed that describe the characteristics of genetically modified organisms that have already entered in international trade.6,7 Environmental risks of the cultivation of GM crops depend strongly on the crop involved the type of herbicide/ insecticide used geographical conditions seasonal influences etc. and Potential risks Gene transfer and outcrossing increase in weediness Difficult handling of surviving volunteers Shifts in herbicide/insecticide application and negative consequences for the environment stacking occurs.Pesticides should therefore be assessed on a caseby-case basis. For instance the overall use of the herbicides glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium increases due to the increase in HT crop cultivation. These compounds are relatively short acting and may replace the more persistent ones such as atrazine. On the other hand these chemicals are broad spectrum herbicides and spray drift of these herbicides may affect the vegetation around a crop field more than currently used single spectrum herbicides. Other important issues are the continuous use of the same herbicide which may cause a shift in weed populations towards less sensitive species and outcrossing of tolerance for different herbicides which may seriously hamper the control of volunteers if gene Little is known about adverse effects of the cultivation of transgenic crops on non-target organisms.An example is the study by Losey et al.8 indicating adverse effects of Bt corn pollen to larvae of the Monarch butterfly feeding on pollen coated milkweed. This lab-study as such is not sufficient to quantify actual risks in the field and additional field studies should be carried out with particular attention to corn pollen release and environmental distribution toxicity of Cry proteins and of Bt corn for lepidoptera. Effects on ecosystems are generally poorly understood and may vary from one location to another.There is a need for monitoring of potential adverse effects and market approvals for the environmental release of transgenic plants should be limited. Another issue is the development of insect resistance to Bt crops. In order to delay such phenomena several strategies can be practised such as incorporation of the Bt crop into IPM programs high dose expression of the toxin creation of refuges etc. Because of the fundamental lack of experience in this field 27N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 Pesticides Box 1 Concept of substantial equivalence . Comparison of agronomical and compositional properties between the GM organism and its closest traditional counterpart . Identification of similarities and differences between the modified product and its counterpart .Starting point for safety assessment not an endpoint monitoring by the producer is an obvious activity which should be mandatory.9 Food safety assessment of genetically modified food crops Various international organisations such as the OECD the Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Health Organisation (FAO/WHO) and the European Union have designed strategies for the safety evaluation of genetically modified foods or food ingredients.3,4,10–15 The safety of genetically modified food crops is assessed using a comparative approach i.e. by investigating the agronomical morphological (bio)chemical and nutritional properties of the genetically modified food/food ingredient relative to those of an existing closely related traditional food.This approach called the Concept of Substantial Equivalence is part of a safety evaluation framework based on the idea that existing foods can serve as a basis for comparing the properties of the GM foods with the appropriate counterpart. The existing food supply is considered to be safe as experienced by a long history of use even though it is recognised that foods may contain many anti-nutrients and toxicants which at certain levels of consumption may induce deleterious effects in humans and animals. Application of the concept is not a safety assessment per se but helps to identify similarities and potential differences between the existing food and the new product which are then subject to further toxicological investigation.Application of the concept is a starting point of the safety assessment rather than an endpoint (Box 1). Food safety issues of genetically modified crops are . toxicological/nutritional properties of newly expressed proteins . potential alterations in levels of macro–micro nutrients anti-nutrients or toxicants (unintended effects) . gene transfer from plants to the gut microflora of humans or animals and health implications 28N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 . potential allergenicity . role of the new food in the diet . influence of food processing . altered metabolism of herbicides on herbicide tolerant crops . changes in residue patterns and levels of herbicides on herbicide tolerant crops .occurrence of genetically modified food constituents in animal derived edible products Safety evaluation of newly expressed proteins The safety of newly inserted proteins in food crops is tested on a case-by-case basis according to the characteristics of the new protein. Various types of studies are carried out with respect to acute oral toxicity in rodents digestibility and stability in in vitro simulated gastric and intestinal fluids and in vivo models and in some cases sub-chronic toxicity (30 day repeated dose feeding). In the case of new proteins with specific presumed toxicity e.g. lectins bacterial toxins protease inhibitors non-rapidly degradable proteins more extensive toxicity testing is required.Examples are the Bt toxins (i.e. Cry proteins) from Bacillus thuringiensis strains which possess insecticidal properties towards larvae of insect species such as lepidoptera and have been inserted in a number of food crops such as tomatoes corn and potatoes.16–19 In general these proteins exert specific toxicity towards target insect species but not to mammalians by lack of specific receptors in mammalians because of their rapid degradation behaviour under gastro-intestinal conditions and absence of specific systemic toxicity. Safety evaluation of whole genetically modified foods Animal feeding trials with whole foods may be part of the safety evaluation strategy. Such studies are not easy to perform.Amounts of foods to be administered to animals are limited due to effects on satiety and due to possible negative interference with the nutritional balance of the animal diet and feeding exaggerated dose levels may induce adverse effects which would mask potential adverse effects caused by alterations induced by the genetic modification. A few examples of such studies with whole genetically modified foods are (i) tomatoes containing CryIA(b) from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and NPTII fed to rats,17 (ii) potatoes expressing the CryI gene fed to mice,20 and (iii) potatoes expressing Galanthis nivalis lectin fed to rats.21 In the case of the Bt tomato experiment a semi-synthetic rodent diet was supplemented with 10% (w/w) of lyophilised genetically modified- or control tomato powder and fed during 91 days.17 The average daily intake was approximately 200 g of tomatoes per day per rat corresponding to a daily human consumption of 13 kg tomatoes per day.There were no clinical toxicological or histopathological abnormalities observed. Rats fed GM potatoes containing GNA lectin showed proliferative and antiproliferative effects in the gut.21 These effects were presumably due to alterations in the composition of the transgenic potatoes rather than to the newly expressed gene product. However various shortcomings of this study such as protein deficiency of the diets and lack of control diets make the results difficult to interpret.22 Detection and characterisation of unintended effects A key issue in safety evaluation of genetically modified foods is the identification and characterisation of unexpected changes which may have taken place in the organism as result of the genetic modification which could affect the safety or nutritional properties of the modified food (Box 2).It must be emphasised however that the potential occurrence of unintended effects is not unique for GM food crops and takes place in conventionally grown crops as well. In order to identify such effects an Box 2 Detection of unintended effects . Targeted approach single compound analysis chemical analysis . Non-targeted approach profiling/fingerprint analysis DNA analysis DNA/mRNA hybridisation proteomic metabolomics analytical comparison is made between the composition of the genetically modified organism and its parent grown under the same conditions.Compositional analysis is normally performed on single macro- and micronutrients and plant specific known antinutrients or toxins (targeted approach). This approach has limitations with respect to unknown anti-nutrients and natural toxins especially in less well known crops. An alternative (non-targeted) approach for the detection of unintended effects is the use of so-called profiling techniques.23 These methods allow for the screening of potential changes in the physiology of the modified organism at different cellular integration levels namely at the genome level during gene expression and protein translation and at the level of metabolic pathways.Localisation and characterisation of the place(s) of insertion in the genome is the most direct approach to predict and to identify possible occurrence of (un-) intended effects but knowledge of the genomes of plants is still limited but will become increasingly informative. Analysis of gene expression is another approach for probing unintended effects. The DNA micro-array technology is a useful tool to study gene expression. The method is based on hybridisation of mRNA to a high-density array of immobilised target sequences each corresponding to a specific gene. The major advantage of the DNA microarray technology over the conventional gene profiling techniques is that it allows small-scale analysis of expression of a large number of genes at the same time in a sensitive and quantitative manner.24,25 The potential value of the application of the technology for the safety assessment of genetically modified food plants is currently under investigation.26 Analysis of differences in protein expression patterns may be performed by sodium dodecyl sulfate– polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by excision of protein spots from the gel digestion into fragments by specific proteases and subsequent analysis by mass spectrometry (proteomics).27 Information on possible changes in plants due to variations in environmental conditions or due to genetic modification can be obtained by using hyphenated analytical techniques.28 Differential LC-NMR spectra were obtained for water and organic solvent extracts from genetically modified tomato varieties and from their non-modified counterpart(s) and differences in concentrations of low molecular weight components could be traced.29 However these methods are not yet suitable for routine analysis standardisation of sampling and extraction procedures and validation of measurements must be further pursued.Allergenicity Genetic modification may increase the allergenic potential of a crop by introduction of a new allergenic protein by raising endogenous levels of allergens or by modification of endogenous proteins.Internationally agreed approaches have been designed to identify and characterise introduced gene products with respect to potential allergenicity.30 The proposed decision tree considers (i) the source of the introduced gene (common less common or unknown allergenic); (ii) the sequence homology with known allergenic proteins; (iii) the immuno-reactivity with sera from individuals who are allergic to the source; and (iv) the stability under gastro-intestinal conditions or under heat or other processing conditions. At the recently held FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Allergenicity,15 a new decision tree was developed with specific testing requirements for proteins derived from sources which are not known to be allergenic.An example of transfer of a gene that codes for an allergenic protein from one plant species to another is that of 2S albumin from the Brazil nut (Bertholietta excelsa) transferred and expressed in soybean.31 This protein is rich in methionine and would increase the nutritive value of soybeans for animal feed. It was found however that the transgenic protein was reactive towards sera from patients who were allergic to Brazil nut. The further development of this transgenic soybean was stopped which is in accordance with a generally accepted code that transfer of genes from known allergenic sources is not advisable unless there is proven evidence of absence of allergenic risk. Transfer of marker genes from genetically modified plants One of the most debated issues with respect to the introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is the possible transfer of newly introduced marker genes coding for antibiotic or herbicide resistance to gut microorganisms or cells of the gastro-intestinal tract of humans or animals.Marker genes coding for aminoglycoside or b- Pesticides lactam inactivating enzymes have been employed as well as genes coding for resistance against herbicides. The likelihood of transfer of a gene from genetically modified plants to microorganisms is remote but cannot be ruled out. In the case of the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes human and animal use of the antibiotic and the prevalence of resistance to the antibiotic in the gastro-intestinal microflora should be considered.11,14 In the case of the use of herbicide resistance coding genes risks for humans and animals are low given the specificity of enzymatic reactions involved and the nonprevalence of substrates in the GI tract of humans or animals.Residue assessment Application of plant protective compounds to transgenic crops may result in residues and metabolites. The question is whether residue and metabolite patterns would be different from the ones observed with traditional crop breeding. Frequency of occurrence and levels may be higher e.g. in the case of application of herbicides to HT tolerant crops but not necessarily so. With respect to metabolism glyphosate is slowly metabolised in HT plants to amino-methylphosphonic acid (AMPA) as occurs also in non-tolerant plants.In livestock animals glyphosate and AMPA are not or to a minor extent metabolised and residue levels in animal derived products are low or even below detection limits.32 Metabolism studies of glufosinate ammonium applied to transgenic plants carrying the gene which encodes phosphinothricin-Nacetyltransferase (PAT) indicate a rapid conversion of glufosinate to N-acetylglufosinate and depending on the plant variety and type of tissue to 3- methylphosphinico-propionic acid (MPP). Residue studies of transgenic feeds fed to ruminants and poultry indicated no detectable levels in animal derived products.33 Thus there are no indications that application of herbicides to herbicide tolerant plants leads to new metabolite patterns and increased risks for the consumer of these crops and of animal derived products.Impact of transgenic crop cultivation on the use of agrochemicals Various surveys have been carried out to investigate the impact of the cultivation of transgenic crops on its agronomical 29N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 Pesticides performance on the use of agrochemicals and on economical benefits.32,34–36 Results of these surveys are quantitatively difficult to compare since selection of participants methods for data collection and statistical analysis differ. Results indicate in general that cultivation of transgenic crops leads to a net decline in the overall use of herbicides and insecticides.Herbicide treatments on HT crops are more in the post-emergence phase of weeds. However the observed reduced use of agrochemicals different for the various types of crops may not necessarily fully be attributed to the adoption of transgenic plants since many other factors such as irrigation weather soils pest/weed pressure and nutrient and pest management practices play a role. Farm-level impact of transgenic crop cultivation in 1997 varied with the transgenic crop used.34 The survey included all major producing US states accounting for more than 90% of US crop acreage. Analysis of the data was undertaken using a two-stage multiple regression econometric model which takes systematic differences into account between adopters and non-adopters of the technology with respect to their general farming practices.Data collected in 1997 from areas with similar types of farms similar geographic soil and climatic characteristics indicated increases in yield for HT and Bt cotton and a much less clear increase in yield for HT soybeans while for this crop a clear increase was observed in the use of glyphosate at the expense of other synthetic herbicides. Regarding Bt cotton a decrease in insecticides could be observed (less than 5% at a change in adoption of 10%). Benefits associated with the cultivation of genetically modified crops have also been analysed by the National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy.32,35,36 In case of Bt corn the primary benefit in 1999 was an increase in yield due to less damage caused by the European Corn Borer and modest reductions in the use of insecticides.Small reductions in insecticide use were anticipated since conventional insecticides are only used on a small scale not being effective in controlling the corn borer which tunnels into the corn stalk. Comparison of 1995 data the year before Bt corn was introduced with 1999 data indicates a reduction in acreage treated with the commonly used pesticides (chlorpyrifos permethrin Bt and methyl parathion) of 6%. Of this reduction 3% may be attributable to the introduction of lamdacyhalothrin and the other 3% is due to changes in target 30N J.Environ. Monit. 2001 3 pest complexes; one half of this decline (1.5%) might have been due to the introduction of Bt corn which is not spectacular but still equivalent to 1 million less acres sprayed for ECB. Insect resistant and herbicide tolerant cotton varieties have been adopted much faster in the US than any other crop due to severe pest infestations in 1995 and to the development of resistant pests. In 2000 72% of the cotton acreage was planted with transgenic varieties 39% Bt 61% HT and 28% ‘stacked’ varieties. Bt cotton provides control of the tobacco budworm cotton bollworm and pink bollworm. The impact of the adoption of Bt cotton has been a great reduction in yield losses reduction in insecticide use and cost savings but effects vary largely according to region and pest infestation levels e.g.in Central Alabama the average yield loss due to budworm/bollworm was 55% (!) in 1995 and varied between 2–7% from 1996–1999. The USDA pesticide data base indicates for 6 US states a significant reduction in insecticide use 2.7 million pounds between 1995 and 1999 accounting for a 14% reduction in overall use. The number of pesticide applications has declined by 15 million in 1999 equivalent to a 22% reduction. On the other hand pesticide applications for other secondary pests were higher (14–40%). These secondary pests previously controlled by Bt-spray application may become more important. Cultivation of Roundup Ready cotton tolerant to glyphosate covered 54% of the planted US cotton acreage in 2000.USDA pesticide data show a declining trend in herbicide use in HT cotton. Overall reduction in cotton herbicide use since the introduction of HT varieties amounts to 3.8 million pounds from 1994 to 1999 and the number of applications dropped from 1.7 million to 1.3 million. Much of the decline in herbicide use is probably due to the adoption of Staple which is used at much lower rates than other herbicides and not due to the introduction of HT cotton. The use of many commonly applied herbicides declined since 1994. The use of glyphosate increased from 8% in 1994 to 36% in 1999. The decline in application numbers is more likely due to the introduction of HT varieties and the associated use of the broad spectrum herbicides like Roundup.Adoption of HT soybeans has caused a significant change in the use of herbicides. The mix of applied herbicides has changed the use of glyphosate increased from 20% of the acreage being treated in 1995 to 62% in 1999 paralleled by a decrease in the use of other herbicides such as imazethapyr pendimethlin bentazon and many others. USDA data indicate an increase in total amounts of herbicides being applied which is at least partially due to the increased soybean acreage of 18% between 1995 and 1999. The number of herbicide applications decreased between 1995 and 1999 by 19 million or 12% not withstanding the growth in soybean acreage. Data on shifts in herbicide use can be misleading because some herbicides are far more active than others thereby requiring less kg per ha while the toxicity and persistence may vary which makes an ultimate ‘environmental balance’ analysis difficult but interesting.In summary reasons to grow GM crops vary. Cultivation of transgenic varieties replace commonly used pesticides which apparently delivers benefits to the grower. Bt corn is very effective in controlling the European Corn Borer which before its introduction was difficult to control and which results in increased yields. Cultivation of cotton has resulted in a reduced pesticide use and increased yields while adoption of Roundup Ready soybeans has primarily become popular because of the increased flexibility and efficacy of weed control.Release of GMOs in Europe or continuing moratoria? The introduction of genetically modified organisms within the EU has been limited till now and in 1999 various Member States have adopted moratoria or precautionary measures which in fact prohibited further environmental release and market introduction. Public concerns and criticisms of environmental groups have certainly influenced these decisions. One of the arguments not to continue with the release of GMOs was the fact that the Directive 90/220 which regulates the deliberate release of GMOs was under revision and that a new Directive first should be adopted. After years of deliberation the European Council adopted on February 15 2001 with the French and the Italian delegations abstaining the new Directive which must be implemented by Member States 18 months after its publication in the Official Journal.37 The new Directive requires an environmental risk-assessment to be carried out and also phasing out of GMOs containing antibiotic marker genes by the end of 2004.For market introduction of GMOs all Member States are involved before a decision is taken after extensive broad consultation with the public and scientific committees. Moreover a 10 years expiration is associated with an authorisation which may be renewed again. Furthermore labelling is mandatory at all stages of introduction of the product and post-market surveillance plans must be designed by the manufacturer.The need for transparency in evaluation and assessment procedures is obvious and proposals for public consultation must be worked out. Public registers of GMOs released for research and commercial purposes is an idea that should be further pursued. The final adoption of the new Directive may mark a new start for the environmental release of GMOs within the European Union. Conclusions The adoption of transgenic crops with improved agronomical characteristics has been impressively fast and at large scale in the US and Canada while in Europe commercial cultivation has been very limited till now. With the revised EU Directive on the deliberate release of genetically modified organisms becoming effective commercial cultivation in Europe may change.However a greater transparency in assessment procedures should be aimed at and more efforts should be undertaken to improve the involvement of the public in the discussion on the issues of agricultural biotechnology. Results of various surveys indicate that cultivation of transgenic crops may offer advantageous environmental effects through a net decline in the overall use of herbicides and insecticides. The extent of reduction in the use of agrochemicals appears to be different for the various types of transgenic crops and may not necessarily fully be attributed to the adoption of transgenic plants since many other factors such as irrigation weather soils pest/weed pressure and nutrient- and pest management practices may play a role.The environmental impact of shifts in agrochemical exposure patterns with respect to toxicity persistence degradation and residue formation should be further investigated. Effects of cultivation of transgenic crops on ecosystems are generally poorly understood and may vary from one location to another. Since the release of transgenic plants in the environment beyond the pilot-scale may have large implications for the quality of the ecosystem e.g. through outcrossing or through the evolution of resistant pests stringent pre-market assessment systems and monitoring plans especially during the up-scaling phase must be put in place. Food safety assessment of genetically modified foods is based on the concept of substantial equivalence and is considered as a valuable tool to structure and guide the assessment procedure.The development of new profiling methods to detect unintended effects due to genetic modification should be encouraged. The concept of substantial equivalence is a pragmatic approach for the safety assessment and at present there are no suitable alternative safety assessment strategies available. Genetically modified foods which are now commercially available have been adequately tested and can be considered as safe as their conventional counterpart. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Dr. G. A. Kleter (RIKILT) for his contribution to this paper.References 1 C. James Global Status of Commercialised Transgenic Crops International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications Ithaca 2000 (preview). 2 C. James Global Review of Commercialised Transgenic Crops International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications Ithaca 1999 (preview). 3 OECD Safety evaluation of foods derived by modern biotechnology concepts and principles Paris France 1993. 4 OECD Food Safety Evaluation Paris France 1996. 5 EU Council Directive 90/220/EEC on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms Off. J. Eur. 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Taylor and R. L. Fuchs Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1996 36(Suppl.) S165. 31N J. Environ. Monit. 2001 3 Pesticides 31 J. A. Nordlee S. L. Taylor J. A. Townsend L. A. Thomas and R. K. Bush New Engl. J. Med. 1996 334 688. 32 L. P. Gianessi and J. E. Carpenter Agricultural Biotechnology Report 2000 National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy Washington DC 2000 http://www.ncfap.org/soy85.pdf 33 EU Opinion Scientific Committee on Plants notification C/UK/95/M5/1 genetically modified glufosinate-tolerant rape 1998 http://europa.eu.int/comm/ food/fs/sc/scp/out03_en.html 34 J. Fernandez Cornejo and and W. D. McBride Agricultural Economic Report No. 786 Economic Research Service US Department of Agriculture Washington DC 2000. 35 L. P. Gianessi and and J. E. Carpenter Agricultural Biotechnology Report 1999 National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy Washington DC 1999 http://www.bio.org/food&ag/ bioins01.html 36 J. E. Carpenter and and L. P. Gianessi Agricultural Biotechnology Report 2001 National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy Washington DC 2001. 37 Europarlement Daily Notebook 14 febr 2001 http://www.2.europarl.eu.int.omk/ OM-Europarl Harry A. Kuiper RIKILT Wageningen University and Research Centre Wageningen The Netherlands E-mail h.a.kuiper@rikilt.wag-ur.nl

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b102253a

出版商:RSC    

年代:2001

数据来源: RSC