摘要:

Editorial Taking stock As most of us have recently experienced it is difÆcult to separate end-of-year stock taking from the identiÆcation of new challenges. The intent of this editorial is to do both. The Editorial Board the Managing Editor and editorial staff are heartened and pleased with the favourable feedback received from JEM readers and authors concerning the effective assistance available to prospective authors by the information on the website; the promptness of communications with authors; the calibre of the reviewers; the relatively short publication time; the merits of the layout and presentation; the scientiÆc quality of the papers; and the wide appeal of the news section. Indeed all JEM issues were published on time and the average duration between submission and publication date was approximately 4 months (mean 123 days; minimum 94 days; maximum 132 days).Even though a signiÆcant number of the articles were solicited to facilitate the launching of JEM the rejection rate was twenty-six percent. Fifty-Æve percent of the 86 published articles dealt with measurements of human exposure which in some cases included biological monitoring (indoor 12%; outdoor 20%; and workplace 23%). Most of the remaining articles focused on monitoring of the natural environment. Our objective of interfacing analytical science with disciplines concerned with the natural and human environments appears therefore to have been achieved. Advancements in monitoring technology measurement of diverse exposure matrices and contaminants sampling strategies quality control and assurance issues and exposure standards have also been featured.Indeed the expansive and multidisciplinary scope of JEM and the quality of the refereeing appear to have attracted top scientists to contribute their work. Consequently it may be concluded that the Ærst six issues do reØect the planned scope and content. Environmental monitoring as a subject appears to be relatively new to many academics industrialists and regulators alike. It is therefore encouraging to report that to date all three sectors are well represented among JEM's subscribers and contributing authors. The Ærst issue of volume 2 features a slightly revised ``Instructions to Authors'' section. Under ``Scope and Content'' new emphasis is given to contaminant measurement in order to assess exposure in the context of environmental impact; and to network design.Prospective authors are advised to review the notes on the ``Writing of Papers'' as a number of alterations have been made in the recommended sectioning of articles the use of units and the formatting of references. It should be emphasized that authors can enhance the impact of their papers by taking advantage of the RSC's electronic supplementary information (ESI) service. Deposited material is freely available via the World Wide Web (http://www.rsc.org/esi) and might include extensive tables of supporting data programs 3D models colour diagrams and movies. Many challenges remain. From the scientiÆc perspective it is important to improve our ability to attract and draw high quality publications from the many sectors relevant to JEM's goal to become a premier multidisciplinary research and educational resource.SpeciÆcally our target constituencies include the natural sciences; the life sciences; analytical science; geography; environmental sciences; engineering; toxicology; epidemiology; occupational hygiene; environmental occupational or public health; the socioeconomic sciences; and the regulatory community. Areas of study currently under-represented are the measurement and monitoring of radiation noise and electric and magnetic Æelds as well as molecular biomarkers of acquired and genetic susceptibility exposure and outcome. We believe that if successful in these scientiÆc pursuits we will facilitate the achievement of the economic challenge to increase JEM's subscribers. We invite your input and comments on our progress. On behalf of the Editorial Board Evert Nieboer Chairman 1N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b000034p

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

New Feature–Pesticides in Perspective The article on the facing page is an introduction to a new regular feature in JEM dedicated to Pesticides that will be entitled Pesticides in Perspective. Dr Terry Clark Group Leader of The Dietary Exposure Team at Zeneca Agrochemicals (Jealott's Hill UK) will be the Column Editor (see above for 2N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 mini-biography). Dr Clark will invite acknowledged experts to present articles that provide a balanced view on various aspects of pesticide use including (amongst other things) regulation sustainability risk assessment and monitoring in food. In the article below he presents an outline of the features he has planned for forthcoming issues of JEM and their signiÆcance. I hope that you will all enjoy reading this new column and appreciate the new dimension it adds to the journal. Harp Minhas Managing Editor

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b000885k

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Pesticides in Perspective–An Introduction Over the last 30 years or so pesticides have become an essential part of our lives due to the demand by today's consumer for a wide range of high quality healthy food produce all year round at a reasonable price. Pesticides have been one of the key components which has made it possible to satisfy these growing demands. During the same time span there has been an ever increasing pressure to ensure that the pesticides we use are safe and also that they pose no signiÆcant risk to the environment. This pressure has come from three prime directions. First the consumer whose concerns over food safety have been heightened in recent years by a number of food industry scares such as listeria salmonella BSE etc.which have undermined consumer conÆdence. Second environmental pressure groups have kept pesticides in the limelight especially concerning pesticide residues in food and water. Third there has also been a dramatic increase in the requirements from international regulatory authorities. Today it is probably fair to say that the pesticide industry is one of the most highly regulated of the chemical industries if not the most highly regulated. The number and scope of guidelines is ever increasing and they are often politically not scientiÆcally driven. We all face the problem of feeding an ever-increasing world population which some predict will grow by over 50% in the coming 30 years with little scope to increase the available land for cultivation.Additionally without crop protection it has been estimated that This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 losses in crop production would rise by some 25±30%. Some Æve years ago it was estimated that chemically supported high yield farming was saving about 10 million square miles of wild life habitat from being used for food production. The risk to wildlife from modern pesticides is small compared to the risk posed by habitat loss if we attempted to feed the rising population by conventional farming systems. Thus the challenge is to increase food production without increasing the area of land under cultivation. Therefore the use of pesticides must in the foreseeable future be an integral part of the strategy for sustainable agriculture; the question is how.In other words how do we ensure that the use of pesticides is safe to the consumer and the environment? A series of articles in this column will address this question. To answer the question of ensuring safety to the consumer and the environment there has in recent years been a signiÆcant move towards risk assessment particularly in the areas of consumer dietary exposure environmental fate and ecology. Such risk assessments involve the generation of speciÆc data which is then incorporated into predictive models the output of which indicates whether or not there is an acceptable risk to the consumer or the environment. The assessments follow a tiered approach with ever increasing reÆnements or which often require the input of further data.Three articles will address each of these areas individually in much greater detail explaining the objective of the assessment the data required the models themselves and how the output from the models can be interpreted. From an industry perspective certain issues are critical as to whether a pesticide can be successfully marketed over a prolonged period. One key aspect in the USA is obtaining so called `Safer Status' with the EPA which means the compound would get an expedited review and hence would come to market signiÆcantly quicker. For some compounds this can be critical as far as the business case is concerned. An article will be featured which will outline the process and the key elements in obtaining safer status classiÆcation.Another key consideration is whether or not a pesticide is ICM (Integrated Crop Management) compatible. This like obtaining safer status is a complicated process and is not a black or white decision but is made up of a number of related issues. An article will explain the importance of being ICM compatible and how it is attained. The series will begin with an article giving details of the UK and European Food-Monitoring Programme who is involved how it is conducted and the important Ændings will also be summarised. For the consumer and of course the government this type of survey is extremely important since this is a true measure of the success of the strategies put in place to minimise the exposure and hence the risk to the health of the consumer. Dr Terry Clark Zeneca Agrochemicals E-mail Terry.clark@aguk.zeneca.com 3N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b000886i

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Phthalates a ban too far? Science and politics often have an uneasy relationship. Never more so than when it comes to the interpretation of risk. Is the EU's ban on phthalate plasticisers the latest example of scientiÆc advice becoming the casualty of political decision-making? Readers of JEM's news pages over the last year will have noticed a new word within the environmental lexicon phthalates. Virtually unknown two years ago phthalates–an important component of many plastics–have emerged as a burning issue in environmental health. Add in the fact that those with the highest exposures are children and medical patients–society's most vulnerable groups–and the issue becomes a political powder keg. Thus governments are waking up to yet another potential health and environmental threat that hinges on questions of risk.European authorities have been the most proactive culminating in last December's EU-wide ban on phthalates in certain applications. But while these compounds are certainly harmful to rats and mice evidence that they are detrimental to human health is less clear cut. Critics claim that the scientiÆc case for the EU ban is weak at best. How did we get to this turn of events? Is prohibition really justiÆed? Box 1 Environmental effects of phthalates Extensive research has been conducted into the environmental effects of phthalates over recent years. These show that while phthalates are widely distributed in the environment background levels are low because they easily degrade by photochemical and biological means.Aerobic nutrient rich environments are particularly conducive to biodegradation. For the aquatic environment the data show that higher molecular weight phthalate esters (those with six or more carbons in both side chains) pose no aquatic toxicity due to limited water solubility.4 For lower molecular weight phthalates water quality limits can be calculated as a basis for protecting aquatic species. EPA recently published an update to its recommended national water quality criteria that includes recommendations for phthalate esters. For DEHP (a high molecular weight phthalate) EPA says ``there is a full set of aquatic life toxity data that show that DEHP is not toxic to aquatic species at or below its solubility limit''.For lower molecular weight phthalates (DMP DnBP and BBP) EPA is to review recent data with a view to establishing national water quality criteria. 5 A recent review of phthalate exposure in the waters of North America and Europe found concentrations one to several orders of magnitude below those posing a risk to aquatic life.6 Similar studies show that phthalate esters pose no toxicity risks to organisms living within sediments.7 4N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 The essential additive Phthalates are a group of colourless odourless liquids produced by the simple reaction of alcohols with phthalic anhydride and the elimination of water.1 They have low volatility and do not readily dissolve in water.The most common of the family of phthalate esters are di-2-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP also known as di-octyl phthalate DOP) di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) and diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP). Others with more specialist applications include dibutyl phthalate (DBP) di-isobutyl phthalate (DIBP) benzylbutyl phthalate (BBP) and di-isoheptyl phthalate (DIHP). Phthalates' principal use is as plasticisers for softening polyvinyl chloride (PVC) one of the most widely used plastics. Plasticised PVC has a wide range of applications such as medical tubing and bloodbags footwear stationery goods Øooring and wall coverings electrical cable insulation clothing and toys. In addition phthalates are used in non-PVC applications such as paints rubber products adhesives and some cosmetics.In Western Europe around one million tonnes of phthalates are produced each year of which approximately 900,000 tonnes are used to plasticise PVC.1 DEHP accounts for around 50% of all plasticiser usage a reØection of its favourable technical performance and cost-effectiveness. For Focus some Øexible PVC products plasticisers account for more than half the weight. Since they are not chemically bound to the PVC polymer itself phthalates may leach out of PVC products.2 Phthalates vary in toxicity and several widely used forms such as DEHP and DINP have been linked in animal studies to a variety of illnesses including reproductive damage and damage to the kidneys and liver.2 The US EPA and other agencies have classiÆed DEHP as a probable human carcinogen.3 Studies suggest that phthalates or their metabolites may be endocrine disrupters and can interact with other common chemical contaminants.They have also been linked to asthma and adverse effects on blood pressure and heart rate. However nearly all this evidence is drawn from animal experiments; studies of health effects in human populations are lacking. Exposure routes Phthalates enter the environment during production and distribution and through use within PVC processing.1,2 They also arise from disposal in industrial and municipal landÆlls and incineration and leaching from consumer products during use or after disposal.DEHP is known to sorb strongly in sediments and aerosol particulates and to bioaccumulate in invertebrates Æsh and plants (see Box 1). However degradation by photochemical and biological means is also rapid. Overall the evidence suggests that environmental exposures are minor compared to speciÆc dietary occupational and medical exposures. For the general population the greatest exposures are through the diet and through indoor air.8 Dietary exposures result both from bioaccumulation in certain foods and from leaching of DEHP during processing packaging and storage. Fatty foods such as dairy Æsh meat and oils show the highest concentrations. Infants and children are particularly vulnerable because of their different metabolism and diet.Health Canada estimates that exposure to DEHP from food is around 8 mg kg (body weight)21 d21 for children age 1±4 and 2 mg kg (body weight)21 d21 for adults age 20±70.8 For the general population overall exposures from all sources excluding medical and occupational is estimated to be in the range 3±30 mg kg (body weight)21 d21. Certain groups may have higher exposures due to routine medical treatment.9,10 This can be as a result of the transfusion of blood or blood components stored in PVC containers. Inhalation from ventilators or ingestion via nasogastric tubes are also potential exposure paths. The magnitudes of these medical exposures are highly variable and have not been studied in detail. By way of comparison with the general exposures mentioned above the literature suggests an adult undergoing long-term hemodialysis treatment would have an exposure of around 100± 140 mg kg (body weight)21 d21.The body's exposure route could be an important risk factor. Within the body phthalates are metabolised into other compounds such as mono ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) which are thought to be the most active toxic agents in phthalate exposure.8,10 The enzymes that break down DEHP into MEHP are found mainly in the intestines but also in the liver kidney lungs pancreas and plasma. Thus exposure through digestion may be more harmful than intravenous exposure. Particular concern has been expressed over the risk of phthalates to children.11,12 This is partly because their somatic systems are less mature and partly because they have a unique exposure path through toys and children's products.Many of the toys and teething products on which babies and small children suck and chew as well as childcare items such as feeding bottles and sterilisers are made from PVC. This has led to concern that children under three may be at particular risk as a result of phthalates leaching from toys and other items placed in the mouth. With children's health being a highly sensitive issue it is this that has focused the political debate. Europe's phthalate circus Phthalates Ærst appeared on the regulatory agenda in Europe in 1997 when the Danish authorities notiÆed the Commission of the ``serious and immediate risk'' presented by certain soft PVC teething rings containing DINP DEHP DBP DIDP DNOP and BBP.The Spanish government made a similar notiÆcation in February 1998. Austria went further and in August 1998 unilaterally introduced a law prohibiting use of phthalates in toys intended for children of less than three years old. The Commission responded by proposing an EU-wide ban on the chemicals under product safety legislation. However a majority of the Member States rejected this proposal on the basis that a ban was too draconian. The Commission then asked its ScientiÆc Committee on Toxicity Ecotoxicity and the Environment (SCTEE) to look into the issue. Reporting in November 1998 the Committee recommended setting limits on the migration of phthalates used in children's toys and childcare items.13 The issue continued to gather steam and by the time the Commission presented its proposal for restrictions based on migration tests in February 1999 a majority of the Member States had moved in favour of prohibition.By the summer eight EU countries had adopted or were introducing unilateral restrictions on toys and other PVC products. The Netherlands and UK held out against a ban each championing instead a migration-based test developed by its national laboratory (TNO and the LGC respectively). Industry became increasingly concerned about this fragmented approach which it said eroded conÆdence in Europe's whole chemicals policy.Conscious of the increasing rift the Commission asked SCTEE to look again at the issue. In its report published last September the Committee concluded that evidence from TNO LGC and the US's CPSC (see below) showed that none of the migration-based test methods could be relied upon as a basis for risk reduction actions.14 SCTEE also Focus said there was no way of testing if alternative plasticisers–citrates and adipates–would be any safer. With prospects of reliable tests ruled out the Commission decided on an EUwide ban and Ænally introduced the measure last December.15 But this was not before SCTEE's chairman publicly criticised the Commission for ``misquoting'' the Committee and ``misinterpreting'' its advice (see News section this issue).Industry accused the Commission of Øying in the face of its scientiÆc advisors and of putting ``politics before science''.16 Phthalates in the US Whereas many environmental issues arise Ærst in North America and are then taken up in Europe on this occasion the transatlantic trafÆc has been East±West. In the US the phthalates debate has been less heated and driven at least in part by developments in the EU. Following the Danish and Austrian actions of 1998 the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) undertook its own study of DINP in PVC toys and children's products. Its report published in December 1998 concluded that ``few if any children are at risk from the chemical because º the amount that they ingest does not even come close to a harmful level''.11 The CPSC based its risk estimations on tests involving human adult volunteers who chewed and sucked PVC items to determine how much of the chemical was released.The tests produced a wide range of results and have been criticised as unrepresentative of children's actual exposure.14 Another inØuential actor the American Council on Science and Health commissioned its own report from a panel of experts led by former Surgeon-General C. Everett Koop. This focused on exposure to phthalates through medical treatment. Reporting in June 1999 the panel concluded that ``DEHP in medical devices is not harmful to even highly exposed people those who undergo certain medical procedures such as regular hemodialysis or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO)''.10 Noting that the literature on DINP is less voluminous the panel said that much of the animal toxicity evidence ``has little relevance for humans'' and that ``DINP in toys is not harmful for children in the normal use of these toys.'' Federal health agencies have yet to 5N J.Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Focus give an ofÆcial view. The Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR) part of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) is currently undertaking its own review of possible risks.8 An expert panel of 15 scientists is assessing health risks for workers and consumers from phthalates commonly used in consumer products.The panel's Ændings in the form of consensus summary statements for each of seven phthalates are due to be published in early 2000. US industry has lobbied hard against the EU's ban and the Clinton administration has generally been sympathetic to trade interests. But with EPA having recently launched a new initiative on children's health the CERHR due to report in the Spring and the presidential election imminent 2000 may well see similar commitments in the US. Risk assessments So in both Europe and the US the weight of scientiÆc opinion is that PVC toys and medical items are safe. What then is the scientiÆc justiÆcation for the EU's ban on phthalates? The most contentious issue is the relevance of animal models to assessing human health risks.As yet there are very few data regarding the toxicity of phthalates in human populations; data on reproduction and development are non-existent. Therefore evaluations of phthalate risks must be extrapolated from studies on laboratory animals; extrapolations that are subject to considerable uncertainties. The lack of human epidemiologic Box 2 Research needs for phthalates Despite the huge number of papers published on phthalates over recent years further research is required to Æll important gaps in our knowledge. Research needs fall into three broad areas (1) Animal studies Even with laboratory animals there are important data gaps–in particular regarding the longterm effects of phthalate exposure.For example there are no comprehensive studies of the effects of phthalates on reproduction and fertility in rodents across multiple generations. Little is known of non-oral routes in species other than rodents. (2) Epidemiological studies The lack of reliable evidence for human populations is a major barrier to assessing potential health risks. Extensive studies are required to better characterise and understand human exposures especially for potential high risk groups such as babies medical patients and pregnant females. These should also focus on developmental toxicity as a result of both digestion and intravenous routes. Inter-species differences in pharmacokinetics and developmental toxicity also need to be extended to humans.(3) Analytical methods Currently there are no reliable analytical methods to assess the migration of phthalates from PVC during use. Further work is urgently required to develop laboratory test methods that could provide better estimates of phthalate release from children's toys medical devices and other products. 6N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 studies is at least partly explained by the difÆculty in following high risk groups such as premature infants because of long latent periods between exposures and possible effects.8,9 Some potential effects of DEHP exposure such as partial loss in sperm production are subtle and difÆcult to detect. Human exposure levels can vary considerably making it difÆcult to measure human exposure adequately.And the ubiquity of phthalate exposure in the environment can make distinguishing exposed and unexposed groups problematic. Taking exposure levels alone studies suggest that human exposures are signiÆcantly below those observed to cause harm in animals. One recent contribution on the plasticiser DINP widely used in children's toys concludes that current exposure levels are ``essentially without risk''.12 Reviewing evidence from the EU the CPSC Health Canada and Greenpeace the authors say previous evaluations of children's risk used ``overly conservative'' estimates of hazard and exposure. Infants of 3- and 12-months old were found to have DINP exposures 11±42 times below the acceptable daily intake (ADI). This is 1100- to 4200-fold lower than the noobserved-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) in laboratory animals.``When appropriate ADI values and more realistic estimates of exposure are employed the exposure values for children exposed to DINP through mouthing of soft products is acceptable'' asserts the report. Further arguments revolve around differences in metabolic mechanisms between rodents and humans.2,9 DEHP belongs to a class of chemicals called ``peroxisome proliferators''. Peroxisomes are normal components of cells including liver cells which break down fatty acids and help synthesise cholesterol. When exposed to substances like DEHP peroxisomes multiply abnormally and are thought to become promoters of liver cancer. This effect is seen clearly in rats and mice although the causal mechanisms are still unknown.The observation that peroxisome proliferation occurs to a much lesser degree in humans than in rodents has led some researchers to question the relevance of animal studies to health risk assessments.10,16 However the toxic effects of phthalates in laboratory animals too are not fully understood.8,9 The mechanisms are likely to be multiple and variable depending on the health endpoint the organ and species studied. Recent studies show even mice bred to lack one of the receptors necessary for peroxisome development went on to exhibit toxic effects from DEHP. This suggests that much of the non-hepatic toxicity is at least partly independent of peroxisome effects.It is also possible that chemically induced peroxisome proliferation varies signiÆcantly between individuals.9 If so at least some fraction of the population may be as sensitive to peroxisome effects as the laboratory animals in which most toxicity studies have been undertaken. Moreover it is still not clear that peroxisome proliferation is absolutely necessary for malignant transformation. In its recent assessment of the carcinogenicity of DEHP the California OfÆce of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment noted that ``OEHHA does not Ænd this new body of evidence [on peroxisome proliferation] points toward a determination that human exposure to any level of DEHP is without carcinogenic risk. Rather the literature presents data that leave open the possibility of human sensitivity to DEHP's carcinogenic effects''.9 Proof or precaution? At the heart of the phthalates debate is the issue of how far we can and should be prepared to go to eliminate risk.For one group of scientists the evidence on human exposures provides conclusive proof that phthalates pose no risk to health even for vulnerable groups such as children and medical patients. For others exposures alone are not enough. They argue for a better understanding of the nature and relevance of the underlying biological mechanisms. Extensive further research will be required to get the full picture including analytical methods to determine migration effects (see Box 2).While we wait for the scientiÆc arguments to be resolved the key question is to what extent precautionary action should be taken in the meantime. EU policy-makers argue a precautionary principle justiÆes action now. Critics say this is just the latest example of a ``paralysing sensitivity to risk'' in the EU's approach to environmental policies.17 With the CERHR EPA's expert group due to report shortly pressure is mounting in the US too. PVC is a ubiquitous material with few substitutes and many beneÆts. As SCTEE acknowledged alternative plastisicers such as citrates and adipates are just as uncertain. In the absence of better data on human exposures and health risks banning phthalates now seems premature. But with the phthalate genie out of the bottle the regulator's axe is unlikely to stop at children's toys.References 1 Media background on plastisicers and phthalates at www.ecpi.org 2 C. Cray Experimenting on Children in Rachel's Environment & Health Weekly No 603 18th June 1998. Available at www.monitor.net/rachel/ 3 Toxicological ProÆle for Di-(2- ethylhexyl)phthalate Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Atlanta GA 1993. 4 C. Staples W. Adams D. Peterson T. Parkerton J. Gorsuch G. Biddinger and K. Reinert Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 1997 16(5) 875. 5 T. Parkerton and W. Konkel Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 1999 November 1999. 6 C. Staples T. Parkerton and D. Petersen Chemosphere 1999 in the press. 7 T. Parkerton Assessing the risks of phthalate esters to sediment-dwelling organisms.Presentation to the 1998 Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Meeting Washington DC. 8 Draft Monograph on DEHP Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction August 1999. Available at http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/ 9 DEHP in PVC Medical Devices Lowell Center for Sustainable Production University of Massachussetts 1999. Focus 10 C. E. Koop and D. R. Juberg A ScientiÆc Evaluation of Health Effects of Two Plasticisers Used in Medical Devices and Toys American Council on Science and Health 1999 Washington DC. Available on Medscape www.medscape.com 11 The Risk of Chronic Toxicity Associated with Exposure to Di-isononyl Phthalate (DINP) in Children's Products US Consumer Product Safety Commission December 1998 Bethesda MD. Available at www.cpsc.gov 12 C. F. Wilkinson and J. C. Lamb Regulat. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 1999 30 140. 13 Opinion on phthalates in toys ScientiÆc Committee on Toxicity Ecotoxicity and the Environment report adopted on 27th November 1998. Available at www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg24/health/ sc/ 14 Opinion on TNO LGC and US CPSC reports on phthalates migration test validation ScientiÆc Committee on Toxicity Ecotoxicity and the Environment report adopted on 28th September 1999. Available at www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg24/health/ sc/ 15 Commission Decision 1999/815/EC 7th December 1999 European Commission Brussels. 16 Ban on Phthalates in Children's Toys Contradicts EU ScientiÆc Opinion European Council for Plasticisers and Intermediates (ECPI) press release 1st December 1999. 17 W. Durodie� Poisonous Dummies European Risk Regulation After BSE European Science and Environment Forum 1999 London UK. Mike Sharpe 7N J. Environ. Monit. 2000

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b000057o

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Legislation EU proceeds with phthalate ban A controversial ban on the use of phthalate plasticisers in children's toys has Ænally been agreed by the EU. Coming after two years of acrimonious debate the decision has drawn sharp criticism from industry and the EU's own scientiÆc advisers. The scientists' criticism came in the form of a last minute intervention by Professor Jim Bridges chairman of the EU's scientiÆc committee on toxicity issues (CSTEE) and Erik Dybing of Norway's National Institute for Public Health who chairs CSTEE's phthalates working group. They said the scientiÆc evidence to support a ban was lacking. The Commission responded by reminding CSTEE that the boundaries between scientiÆc advice and risk management had to be clearly distinguished.In a statement the Commission said that it was ``trying in its role as a risk manager to protect the health of children'' and was ``basing its decision on scientiÆc data but assumes fully its own responsibility as a risk manager''. The statement continued ``It is important to separate clearly the scientiÆc advice on risk assessment and the appreciation of the need for immediate action which is the responsibility of the Commission''. The legislation bans six phthalates rather than the two actually used in toys to avoid manufacturers switching to different compounds. A last minute offer by the European toy industry for a voluntary phase out was rejected by the Commission on the basis that it could not achieve the same objectives as a legal ban.Industry reacted angrily to the move saying the issue had been driven by ``alarmist and totally misguided stories'' by Greenpeace and that the decision had long-term implications for chemicals management and product safety. It may consider legal action against the Commission. The background to the phthalates debate is discussed in the Focus article in this issue. 8N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 EPA strengthens air pollution plans The Environmental Protection Agency has unveiled a series of measures aimed at accelerating improvements in air quality. In December the Agency moved to strengthen smog-reduction plans in nine major urban areas with the most challenging air pollution problems.EPA says although current plans show a strong commitment to reducing smogcausing pollutants further work is needed to ensure public health and the environment are protected. The metropolitan areas affected are Atlanta Baltimore Chicago Greater Connecticut Houston Milwaukee New York City Philadelphia and Washington DC. EPA will be working with each of the areas to update the plans primarily with regard to transportation and air quality planning. In a related move the EPA has also granted clean air petitions to four states against pollution produced elsewhere. The states concerned–Connecticut New York,Massachusetts and Pennsylvania– had claimed that being upwind of facilities in other states prevented them from meeting EPA's smog standards.The petitions speciÆcally target reductions of nitrogen oxide emissions from large power plants and industrial sources at 392 facilities in 12 states and the District of Columbia. This is the Ærst time EPA has acted under the Clean Air Act to grant petitions for relief of pollutants that blow across state lines. These are the latest in a series of steps being taken by EPA to help states meet their air quality commitments. In October last year EPA proposed new emission standards for all heavy-duty trucks and is expected to propose even more stringent standards later this year. EPA is also due to issue its Ænal rule for revisions to emission standards for cars and trucks and to bring forward its new rule for cleaner fuels.EPA Airlinks www.epa.gov/airlinks Clean air pays The public health and environmental beneÆts of the 1990 Clean Air Act News Amendments outweigh their costs by a margin of four-to-one according to a recent study by the EPA. The report projects that the Amendments and their associated programs prevent thousands of premature deaths related to air pollution. Millions of asthma attacks as well as a wide range of additional human health and ecological effects are also avoided. This is the most comprehensive assessment to date of the health and ecological beneÆts of the 1990 Act. For those aspects that could be given an economic value EPA estimates that the beneÆts of CAA programs will be worth around $110 billion by 2010.This represents the value of avoided illness and premature death which the report says cost only around $27 billion to achieve. But a wide range of human health and environmental beneÆts could not be quantiÆed in dollar terms. These include the control of cancer-causing air toxics as well as beneÆts to crops and ecosystems from reducing pollutants such as ozone and particulate matter. An earlier retrospective assessment looking at the period 1970±1990 found that the beneÆts of past programs too greatly exceeded costs. EPA BeneÆts and Costs of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 available at www.epa.gov/oar/sect812 Environment programme ``a failure'' The EU's Øagship policy for improving environmental quality and achieving sustainable development has largely failed according to the European Commission's own review.Further progress is unlikely without greater efforts to integrate environmental considerations into other areas of policymaking and better implementation of existing policies the report concludes. The EU's Fifth Environmental Action Programme was introduced in 1992 in the wake of the Rio summit. The assessment says that only limited progress has been made towards sustainability goals in the intervening period primarily because other sectors and member states are not fully committed to its objectives. The high points include successes in reducing acidiÆcation air pollution and the release of ozone depleting substances.But climate change remains the most pressing problem. The EU will not meet its Kyoto commitments to Environmental quality Indicators enter the mainstream Developments on a number of fronts have put indicators at the centre of environmental policy in the EU. At the Helsinki summit last December the European Commission presented a new model for developing indicators of environmental progress and for measuring the integration of environmental considerations into sectoral policies. The Commission says good indicators should be limited in number relevant responsive simple and policy-related. Under the proposals progress against indicators will be reported through two means.The European Environment Agency (EEA) will cover up to 70 indicators in its annual report the Ærst of which is due shortly. In addition experts from the member states EEA and Eurostat will work together on a more focused set of ``environmental headline indicators'' and issue regular reports. Meanwhile the UK government has published the Ærst in a series of annual reports on the sustainable development indicators unveiled in 1998. The report focuses on a set of around 150 indicators plus a set of 15 key indicators on environmental social and economic issues. Although the report notes progress in some areas others show ``obvious warning signals''. For example average journey lengths have increased and more journeys are being made by car and quantities of household waste are increasing faster than recycling.In Sweden the EPA is considering how to measure progress towards the 15 environmental goals unveiled by national agencies last year (see JEM 1999 1 113N). EPA says some goals such as ``living lakes'' will be much more difÆcult to quantify than traditional pollution reduction targets but it is committed to formulating a methodology. The climate change goal will be the hardest to achieve requiring greenhouse gases the report says adding that EU schemes supporting renewable energy and energy efÆciency have ``had little impact''. However the Commission maintains that the overall approach is valid and is continuing with plans to bring forward a sixth action programme later this year.wide-ranging changes in lifestyle and public policy. European Commission Report on Environmental and Integration Indicators to Helsinki Summit SEC (1999) 1942; DETR ``Indicators of Sustainable Development A Baseline Assessment'' Canada reports pollution releases Environment Canada has published the latest National Pollutant Release Inventory summarising pollution releases to air water and land. The NPRI is a publicly accessible database of 176 pollutants released from facilities nationwide. The 1997 Summary Report indicates an absolute increase of 12.7% over reported releases for 1996. This breaks the downward trend in release levels for the Ærst time since reporting was made mandatory in 1993.However Environment Canada says a large proportion of this is due to better reporting rather than an actual increase in releases. The improvement is the result of greater efforts in monitoring compliance and improved methods for estimating releases by reporting sectors. For the Ærst time the assessment contains qualitative information on pollution prevention activites undertaken by reporting facilities as well as summaries of possible health and environmental impacts of NPRI pollutants released or transferred in large quantities. Environment Canada has also published its inventory of greenhouse gases showing emissions increased by 13% between 1990 and 1997. Environment Canada ``National Pollutant Release Inventory 1997 Summary Report'' and ``Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1997 Emissions and Removals with Trends'' both available at www.ec.gc.ca News This follow-on programme will have more clearly deÆned targets timetables and indicators.European Commission Global Assessment of Fifth Environmental Action Programme www.europa.eu.int/ comm/environment/newprg/global.htm The big picture on the Great Lakes A comprehensive set of environmental indicators needed to get the ``big picture'' on the state of the Great Lakes has been developed jointly by Canada and the United States. Environment Canada says this third biennial report marks a shift to a more consistent and understandable way of assessing the condition of ecosystems in the Great Lakes Basin.``By using a set of easily understood indicators it will become easier to assess how far we've come and how much farther we have to go to fully address the complex problems facing the Lakes'' said Dr. Harvey Shear Science Advisor to Environment Canada Ontario Region. The 19 indicators presented in the report were selected by scientiÆc experts from a set of 80 indicators that will be phased in and reÆned over the next 10 years. The governments intend to use the indicators as a basis for monitoring and future research. The scientists also presented recommendations for the protection and preservation of ``Biodiversity Investment Areas'' sensitive areas within the Great Lakes Basin that sustain rare and diverse plant and animal communities and landscapes of special quality.State of the Lakes Ecosystem Conference The State of the Great Lakes 1999 available at www.cciw.ca/solec or www.epa.gov/glnpo/solce/98/ New actions for Nordic environment The European Commission has unveiled plans for a new programme to combat environmental degradation in northern Europe. The move came as a comprehensive study provided a clearer picture of environmental issues facing the region. The programme will concentrate on 9N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 News water and air pollution nuclear safety and natural resource management and is part of a broader regional initiative towards cooperation between EU and non-EU countries.Major concerns in the region include pollution of the Baltic and Barents Seas continuing soil acidiÆcation from transboundary air pollution and the nuclear submarine ``scrap yards'' around Russia's Kola peninsula. The EU programme will invest in major pollution hotspots and in nuclear safety develop a regional programme for climate change and overhaul Helcom the Baltic Sea protection commission. Similar issues are highlighted in a review of Russia's environmental performance prepared by the OECD. Russia has failed to make progress in environmental protection in the ten years since the collapse of the Chemical hazards EU considers agency plans The European Commission is considering setting up a powerful new agency to oversee chemicals management in the EU.Addressing an industry meeting in December Environment Commissioner Margot Wallstro»m said the existing decentralised system was inadequate and would become even more so with future enlargement of the EU. Ms Wallstro»m indicated that the European Chemicals Bureau the EU's existing chemicals research agency could provide the nucleus for the new organisation. Although the Commission has yet to bring forward formal proposals the agency is likely to have wide ranging responsibility in risk assessment and product licensing. The EU is due to publish its new chemicals management strategy by the middle of the year. Nordics turn up heat on Øame retardants Denmark and Sweden are calling for EU-wide action against brominated Øame retardants (BFRs) which they say pose unacceptable threats to the environment and human health.In a paper submitted to EU environment ministers in December the two countries urge early action on the chemicals used in furniture and 10N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 USSR the OECD says. Despite a series of new laws since 1991 many environmental trends are still negative. As well as carrying health and other risks for the Russian population the crisis also has broader European and global implications. In particular the country remains a major contributor to regional and global environmental problems such as acid deposition and greenhouse gases. OECD ``Environmental Performance Reviews Russian Federation'' www.oecd.org Wetlands at risk Loss of wetlands along the Gulf of Mexico has reached an alarming rate according to a recent study.The report prepared jointly by the EPA and the US electronic equipment. Science ``does not allow the conclusion that releases of these substances into the environment will not cause harm in the future'' the report says. The move mirrors developments in the US where Øame retardants are already under close scrutiny from legislators (see below). The call came as Denmark was starting work on a national plan for controlling BFRs and publishing a national survey of product Øows and potential substitutes. The survey says the major source of BFRs to the environment is evaporation from products in use and underlines previous concerns about the effects of bioaccumultives.European manufacturers are Æghting back claiming that bromine is easily recovered from BFR-treated plastics and that plastics can be recycled. To prove its point the industry plans to launch pilot recycling plants soon. Danish EPA Brominated Flame Retardants Substance Flow Analysis and Assessment of Alternatives www.mst.dk; Bromine Science and Environment Forum www.bsef.com; European Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel www.ebfrip.org NTP gears up for cancer review Experts from the National Toxicology Program are to hold public hearings Geological Survey assesses the condition extent and geographical distribution of ecological resources in river estuaries along the Gulf coast.The Gulf's many river estuaries serve as nursery grounds for Æsh habitat for a wide variety of wildlife shipping routes and sources of recreation. These diverse uses inevitably cause conØicts. The report says excess nutrients are leading to algae blooms and oxygen depletion. However relatively few sediments are contaminated by chemical pollution. Commercial landings of Æsh and shellÆsh are generally stable and gulf estuaries and wetlands continue to support large stable populations of waterfowl and other coastal birds. EPA OfÆce of Research and Development The Ecological Condition of Estuaries in the Gulf of Mexico available at www.epa.gov/ged into nine substances suspected of causing cancer.The scientiÆc review will consider whether the substances should have a possible listing in the tenth edition of the Report on Carcinogens due out in 2002. Three of the nine substances are used as Øame retardants 2,2-bis- (bromomethyl)-1,3-propanediol 2,3-dibromo-1-propanol and vinyl bromide. Beryllium and beryllium compounds used in Æbre optics aerospace and other industrial applications are also listed. The remaining chemicals are the dyes dimethoxybenzidine and dimethylbenzidine; IQ a substance found in cooked meat and Æsh; styrene- 7,8-oxide a chemical intermediate; and vinyl Øuoride used in making the plastic polyvinylØuoride. Public hearings were scheduled for January and a second group of chemicals for potential listing will be publicly reviewed later in the year.Background documents on each of the chemicals are available at the NTP website. National Toxicology Program http:// roc.niehs.nih.gov/rocpublic US slams surfactant controls European research on the environmental impacts of industrial surfactants has been criticised by the US chemicals industry. Manufacturers fear the increasing hostility to surfactants widely used in industrial and consumer detergents could lead to unjustiÆed EUwide product bans. A recent EU review of nonyl phenol ethoxylates (NPEs) highlighted potential toxic effects on aquatic organisms. NPEs degrade to nonyl phenol (NP) which is toxic and thought to be a hormone disruptor.Introducing marketing and use restrictions could eliminate 70% of the environmental burden the report says. NPEs could be substituted by less toxic and more biodegradable alcohol ethoxylates. APERC a US-based industry group said the study greatly overestimated the degradation on NPEs to the more toxic NP and was Øawed by use of modelling rather than real-world data. The APERC favours stiffer monitoring rather than product bans. A similar row has broken out between Danish authorities and CLER another US industry group. The focus this time is linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) the most widely used detergent surfactant. CLER says a Danish initiative to encourage consumers not to purchase products containing LAS fails to take account of the latest scientiÆc evidence (JEM 1999 1 114N).CLER maintains that extensive international research has concluded that LAS in sewage sludge poses no signiÆcant environmental risk. Alkylphenols and Ethoxylates Research Council (APERC) www.aperc.org; Council for LAB/LAS Environmental Research (CLER) ``LAS Risk Public and occupational health EU signals public health agency Far-reaching changes in European procedures on public health have been recommended by an independent investigation of how the EU handles scientiÆc advice. The proposed European Food and Public Health Authority would provide scientiÆc advice risk evaluation and crisis management on all public health environmental and food safety issues.The proposal arises from a panel of experts set up in May last year in the wake of the BSE crisis. In their report the scientists stress the agency would have a much broader remit than just Assessment for Sludge Amended Soils'' www.cler.com Pesticide problems persist EU environmental policies have failed to reduce the level of pesticide use over the last Æve years according to environmental groups. In a recent paper the Pesticides Action Network (PAN) says the EU has made ``no concrete steps'' towards fulÆlling commitments on pesticides under its Fifth Environmental Action Programme. The Commission has already conceded that the programme has failed to meet its sustainability objectives (see separate item this issue). PAN is calling for all member states to introduce pesticide reduction programmes within Æve years and for subsidies to farmers to be conditional on reductions in pesticide use in agriculture.As if to emphasise PAN's arguments the Austrian Environment Agency announced shortly afterwards that levels of the pesticide atrazine in Austrian rivers were actually rising. Although banned in Austria since 1995 an analysis of atrazine concentrations in eleven Austrian rivers showed levels between 0.2 and 0.3 mg l21. The Ægures are partly explained by atrazine's persistence and by inØows from neighbouring countries where the chemical is not banned. However the observation that the highest levels occur in April and May suggests some local farmers are Øouting the national ban.The Agency plans increased monitoring checks on soil and food safety. ``Other public health issues are in health terms a greater burden on society than the effects of poor food safety'' they say. As well as giving scientiÆc advice for product licensing the agency would have lead roles in monitoring policy analysis and research on European public health. A legal unit would ``evaluate implications of scientiÆc opinions relating to regulatory and legislation proposals''. Unlike the current system of scientiÆc committees overseen by the Commission the new agency would be independent and have links across the Commission as well as the Council of Ministers and European Parliament. The Commission is believed to favour News crops and greater surveillance at border controls.PAN Europe www.gn.apc.org/ pesticidestrust; Austrian Environment Agency www.uba.gv.at Swedes sniff out mercury Authorities in Sweden have identiÆed more than ten tonnes of hidden mercury under a programme to collect and remove the toxic metal from local communities. A total of 10±11 tonnes of mercury have been located of which 6±7 tonnes have been collected and 4 tonnes labelled. Around 1.3 tonnes was found in primary and secondary schools and a further 1.7 tonnes in universities and institutes of higher education. But the Swedish EPA believes that 40 tonnes remain in technical products throughout the community. ``We are surprised over the large amounts of containers with leftover mercury in various stock rooms and stores'' said Kristina von Rein EPA's project co-ordinator.Around 80±90% of mercury in schools has now been cleaned up she says as well as many factories. Technicians working on the project were helped by a pair of specially trained detective dogs Froy and Ville Sigmund who were able to sniff out mercury in sinks drains and store cupboards. ``The dogs have done a lot to boost publicity for the project up and down the country'' said von Rein. Swedish EPA www.environ.se the idea and looks set to bring forward ofÆcial proposals very shortly. European Commission A European Food and Public Health Authority the Future of ScientiÆc Advice in the EU.Available at www.europa.eu.int/comm/dg24/health/ sc/future_food_en.html Dioxins still a risk The European population may still be at risk from dioxins despite substantial efforts to reduce exposure over the last two decades. This is the message from a major assessment of the health risks from dioxins published by the European Commission in December. 11N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 News The main exposure route to dioxins is through food the study says and over the last twenty years dietary exposures have been reducing by around 10% per year as legislation controlling dioxin releases has taken effect. However certain individuals and social groups remain at risk because of the persistence of dioxins in the environment. Breast-fed infants and those with a high consumption of Æsh meat and dairy products are thought most at risk.This is because dioxins are fat soluble and accumulate in fatty tissue. The Commission makes a series of recommendations aimed at reducing human exposures for both the short term and the long term. These include the introduction of maximum tolerable concentrations for key foodstuffs; greater public information on dioxin risks; and a cost-beneÆt analysis of dioxin reduction strategies. Echoing this last point Greenpeace Sweden has drawn attention to what it says is an inappropriate trade-off between current and future dioxin risks. Using data from scientists waste management companies and public authorities Greenpeace claims levels of dioxin in incinerator ashes are increasing as a result of air pollution measures and are many times ofÆcial estimates.``The more we clean the dioxins from air the more dioxins we will have in the mountains of ash. We are moving our present pollution to the future'' the group says. European Commission Compilation of EU Dioxin Exposure and Health Data www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ dioxin; Greenpeace Sweden www.greenpeace.se Research activities Particles impact climate Microscopic particles called aerosols have a cooling effect on the atmosphere according to research sponsored by NASA. Researchers from the universities of Illinois Washington and Arizona are studying the inØuence of aerosols on climate change and comparing the results from two fundamentally different measurement techniques.The experiments combine remote techniques such as satellite-based lidar able to carry out wide area surveys with 12N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Benzene exposure acceptable Public exposure to the carcinogenic chemical benzene is at much lower levels than those at which health impacts would be expected according to two recent studies. Reviewing recent scientiÆc literature on benzene exposures Concawe the European oil industry's environmental organisation says that for the general population the daily dose is less than 3% of the current European occupational exposure limit. Those most at risk are trafÆc wardens and cycle couriers.In Europe typical benzene concentrations are 1.6 mg m23 in rural areas 6 mg m23 in urban areas and 12 mg m23 in cities rising to 40 mg m23 in local hot spots. These Ændings are broadly conÆrmed by a study of UK exposures by Leicester University. This found ambient air concentrations in the range 1±6 mg m23 rising to a ``worst case'' of 41 mg m23 for an urban smoker working close to a busy road. The study concludes that ``any risk of leukaemia to adults at general population level º is likely to be exceedingly small and probably not detectable using current methodology''. Concawe Environmental Exposure to Benzene www.concawe.be; Institute for Environment & Health ``Benzene in the Environment'' www.leicester.ac.uk/ieh ConØicting evidence for electricity risks An inconclusive picture of the health risks from electromagnetic Æelds (EMFs) emerged from two studies published in local techniques that provide detailed information on particle characteristics.``Both methods had high uncertainties during the clean conditions but during the polluted conditions our analysis indicates agreement on key quantities within about 20%'' said Tad Anderson a Washington meteorologist. These latest results conÆrm the Ændings of the Washington team and Italian researchers last year which showed that certain organic particles increase the number of cloud droplets in polluted air. In areas containing these particles more sunlight than normal is the UK late last year.A major study into childhood cancer by scientists at Cambridge University found no evidence that exposure to EMFs associated with electricity supplies increases the risk of childhood cancers. Writing in The Lancet the authors say no link could be found with childhood leukaemia cancer of the central nervous system or any other childhood cancer. The study followed 2000 children under 14 with a malignant disorder and made electromagnetic Æeld measurements in their bedrooms and houses. The Cambridge study was released a day after other research pointed to possible mechanisms for cancer formation that could establish a link between electromagnetic radiation and cancer. In two papers in the International Journal of Radiation Biology Professor Denis Henshaw of the University of Bristol concludes that the presence of electromagnetic radiation causes increased deposition of small pollutant particles on the body and within the lungs.Thus those living in the vicinity of power lines may have increased exposures both internal and external to pollutants such as particle aerosols and radon decay products known to be linked to cancer. Professor Henshaw claims this is the Ærst potential explanation for a cancer mechanism associated with EMF. Exposure to power-frequency magnetic Æelds and the risk of childhood cancer in The Lancet 354 pp. 1925±1931; International Journal of Radiation Biology 75(12) pp. 1505±1521 and pp. 1523±1531 reØected back into space resulting in a localised cooling.The phenomenon affects climate locally and probably regionally. Both sets of results will be used to help interpret future measurements including satellite-based global aerosol surveys planned by NASA for 2003. International probe into Arctic ozone An international team of researchers is involved in the largest ever Æeld investigation into ozone levels in the Arctic. Scientists from Canada Europe Japan Russia and the United States are spending the winter taking measurements that will help assess changes in the Arctic upper atmosphere. The team is using a wide variety of airborne instruments to take measurements of stratospheric composition. It is hoped the results will provide insights into the processes that control ozone levels at mid to high latitudes during the Arctic winter.The project is jointly sponsored by NASA and the European Union. SOLVE http://cloud1.arc.nasa.gov/ solve/index.html and THESEO 2000 www.ozone-sec.ch.cam.ac.uk UNEP recognises ozone chemist An atmospheric chemist who pioneered investigation of the chemistry of the ozone layer has been honoured by the United Nations Environment Program. Professor Mario Molina of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was the winner of the 1999 Sasakawa Environment Prize. Awarded annually since 1984 the $200,000 Prize recognises individuals who have made global Publications Combustor emissions methodology The National Center for Environmental Assessment has published a methodology for assessing health risks associated with indirect exposure to combustor emissions.The methodology is in response to the 1993 Combustion Strategy for Hazardous Waste Incinerators which required EPA and plant operators to conduct indirect exposure assessments to evaluate the impact of stack emissions. The importance of indirect pathways has since been extended from hazardous waste incinerators to all combustion plant. This document updates previous methodologies on assessing combustor emissions and dioxin exposure and provides guidance on conducting indirect risk assessments. EPA 600/R-98/137–Methodology for assessing health risks associated with multiple pathways of exposure to contributions in environmental protection.Presenting the prize Stanley Clinton- Davies chairman of UNEP's selection committee said that ``the conÆdence with which many aspects of the science of ozone destruction is now understood comes directly from Professor Molina's work''. His contributions on ozone had already won Molina the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry which he shared with F. Sherwood Rowland and Paul Crutzen. UNEP www.unep.org/unep/per/ipa/ sasakawa All change for water labs Revisions to EPA's certiÆcation requirements for water laboratories came into effect at the beginning of the year. The new provisions introduce updated versions of 25 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 54 Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater and 13 EPA Analytical Methods for compliance determinations of chemical contaminants in drinking water.combustor emissions. National Centre for Environmental Assessment. Available at www.epa.gov/ncea/combust.htm Diesel health assessment NCEA has issued a revised draft assessment of the possible health hazards from human exposure to diesel engine exhaust. The assessment focuses on hazard identiÆcation and dose-response analysis for the purpose of characterising the risk of diesel exhaust exposure. Background information on diesel engine emissions and exposure is also presented. The report follows EPA risk assessment methods for identifying possible chronic non-cancer health hazards as well as carcinogenicity hazards.Publication of the Ænal report is expected early in 2000. Health Assessment Document for Diesel Emissions Science Advisory Board Review. National Centre for Environmental Assessment. Available at www.epa.gov/ncea/diesel.htm News Previous versions of the 13 EPA Methods have been withdrawn. Earlier versions of the SM and ASTM methods will continue to be approved. New methods for determination of total coliforms lead magnesium and acid herbicides have also been introduced together with various technical corrections and clariÆcations. EPA OfÆce of Ground Water and Drinking Water www.epa.gov/ Risk centre for LSE The London School of Economics has launched an interdisciplinary centre dedicated to the investigation of risk management.The Centre for the Analysis of Risk and Regulation (CARR) brings together researchers from a wide range of disciplines to teach and study on risk-related issues in modern society. Although not concerned exclusively with environmental or chemical risks the Centre will address organisational technological and regulatory systems associated with these and other issues. The new Centre is lead by Professor Michael Power PD Leake Professor of Accounting at LSE. Socio-demographic data for risk assessment Risk and exposure assessments often need to identify those groups within the general population who have the greatest exposure to chemical contaminants. New guidance from NCEA will assist assessors in identifying and enumerating potentially highly exposed populations.The document presents data on factors which could potentially impact on an individual's or group's exposure to environmental contaminants based on activity patterns (how time is spent) microenvironments (locations where time is spent) and other sociodemographic data such as age gender race and economic status. Populations more exposed to various chemicals of concern relative to the general population are also addressed. EPA/600/R-99/060 Sociodemographic Data Used for Identifying Potentially Highly Exposed Populations. National Centre for Environmental Assessment. 13N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 News Available at www.epa.gov/ncea/ sociodeg.htm Health risk assessment framework The US EPA has recognised the need to develop a framework for human health risk assessment that draws together practice throughout the Agency.The framework will set out the scientiÆc basis principles and policy choices underlying past and current risk assessment approaches. It will be a central reference point and will provide recommendations for integrating and harmonising risk assessment methodologies for all human health endpoints. These documents summarise two internal colloquia which brought together EPA scientists to discuss these issues. EPA/600/R-99/001 Summary of the US EPA Colloquium on a Framework for Human Health Risk Assessment Volume 1; and EPA/600/R-98/155 Volume 2.National Centre for Environmental Assessment. Available at www.epa.gov/ ncea/colloquium.htm Validation of toxicological methods ICCVAM coordinates issues within the US federal government relating to the development validation acceptance and harmonisation of toxicological test methods. It is a collaborative body of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and 13 other regulatory and research agencies. This document updates guidance to test method developers on the information needed by ICCVAM to evaluate the validation status of new or revised test methods at any stage of development and after completion of validation studies. It includes a framework for organising the information supporting the validity of a test method.Evaluation of the Validation Status of Toxicological Methods General Events Tools for Urban Water Resource Management and Protection A National Conference. 7±10 February 2000 Chicago IL. National conference for local urban water quality practitioners. 14N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Guidelines for Submissions to the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM). Available at http://ntpserver. niehs.nih.gov/htdocs/ICCVAM/ iccvam.html Mercury Research Strategy EPA's Mercury Research Strategy aims to provide information methods models and data to address key scientiÆc questions needed to assess and manage mercury risks. The strategy provides broad indications of research priorities for the next Æve years but does not detail speciÆc projects or outputs.It is a resource for EPA managers in deciding future priorities and budgets and will be backed up by a more detailed implementation plan to be developed by the OfÆce of Research and Development. Mercury Research Strategy NCEA-I- 0710 National Centre for Environmental Assessment. Available at www.epa.gov/ncea/mercstra.htm Hazardous waste analysis More than just a ``how-to'' book this text provides both environmental and health professionals with the resources necessary to analyse hazardous wastes and determine their impact on the environment and on individuals. It deÆnes the (US) legal requirements of hazard identiÆcation; discusses the regulatory requirements relevant to industrial hygiene safety and engineering personnel; provides practical information on state-of-the-art sampling Æeld analysis and laboratoryanalysis methods; and educates readers about the scientiÆc concepts necessary to understand future developments.Hazardous waste analysis Shane S. Que Hee 1999 ISBN 0865876096 FDA Science Forum. 14±15 February 2000 Washington DC. Forum for multidisciplinary discussion on safety evaluation and risk management. Details at www.aaps.org/edumeet/fsasf/index.html Aerosol sampling SigniÆcantly expanded and completely updated this revision of the 1985 text provides an in-depth look at particle size-selective criteria for aerosol exposure assessment.The book prepared by the ACGIH Air Sampling Procedures Committee considers not only the harmonized criteria agreed upon by such scientiÆc bodies as ISO ACGIH and CEN but also the new issues that are emerging as a result of the criteria. Topics covered include how particle size affects the manner in which particles react with biological systems and how standards should be set to deÆne and determine the acceptability of aerosol sampling instruments in relation to the new particle size-selective criteria. Particle Size-Selective Sampling for Health-Related Aerosols James H. Vincent Editor 1999 ISBN 1882417305 Internet resources for analysts Revised to reØect the changes and growth in online information Chemical Guide to the Internet is written for consultants engineers students lawyers and researchers in the chemical Æeld.The Second Edition contains over 200 new entries and over 400 veriÆed and updated entries. As well as extensive listings of environmental organisations and EPA websites the Guide covers academic institutions Internet discussion groups newsgroups and gopher resources. A second book provides similar coverage for quality management covering nearly 400 websites discussion lists and newsgroups as well as nearly 200 pages of guidelines for quickly Ænding essential information online. Chemical Guide to the Internet 2nd Edition C. C. Lee EPA National Risk Management Research Laboratory 1999 ISBN 086587655X; and Quality Resources on the Internet James R.Clauson 1999 ISBN 0865876657 Monitoring and Abating VOC Emissions. 28 February 2000 London UK. IBC Conferences. Toxicological Hazard and Risk Assessment Human Health and the Environment. 6±7 March 2000 London UK. IBC Conferences. Third Biennial Freshwater Spills Symposium. 6±8 March 2000 Albuquerque NM. Information exchange on freshwater oil spills. Data for Science and Society Second National Conference on ScientiÆc and Technical Data. 13±14 March 2000 Washington DC. Addresses multidisciplinary issues in managing and using scientiÆc and technical data. Organised by US National Committee for CODATA www.epa.gov/ncea/ codata.htm Society of Toxicology Annual Meeting.19±23 March 2000 Philadelphia PA. Details for the Society of Toxicology at www.toxicology.org 10th Annual West Coast Conference on Contaminated Soils and Water. 20±23 March 2000 Mission Valley CA. Details from the Association for the Environmental Health of Soils www.aehs.com/wcc2000web/ wchomepage2000.html Volatile Organic Compounds Demonstrating compliance and Web bytes Pesticides research A new on-line newsletter aims to keep scientists doctors health lawyers and activists up-to-date with the latest Ændings in pesticides research. Pesticide Research Updates summarises recent scientiÆc articles covering epidemiological and toxicological studies of pesticides as well as medical case reports. The newsletter is published by Pesticide Action Network North America in cooperation with Californians for Pesticide Reform.Scientists willing to contribute to the review process are invited to contact PANNA. www.panna.org/panna/resources/pru.html enforcement of control measure for solvent-using industries. 27 March 2000 London UK. IBC Conferences. HAZMAT 2000 Spills Prevention Conference. 4±6 April 2000 St. Louis MO. Hazardous material accident prevention preparedness and response activities. Health Effects Institute 2000 Annual Conference. 9±11 April 2000 Atlanta GA. Annual meeting on health-related effects of transport. Details from HEI at www.healtheffects.org/annual.htm 8th International Conference on ElectroAnalysis. 11±15 June 2000 Bonn Germany.European Society for ElectroAnalytical Chemistry and Society for ElectroAnalytical Chemistry. Details from www-upb.ipc.kfa-juelich.de/upb/ aktuell/ESEAC2000_en.htm 30th International Symposium on Environmental Analytical Chemistry. 13±16 June 2000 Espoo Helsinki Finland. Details from International Association of Environmental Analytical Chemistry e-mail iaeacmfrei@access.ch or tiina.harju@vtt.Æ Fourth International Symposium on Speciation of Elements in Biological Children's ED exposure New information on children's exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals presented at an August 1999 symposium organised by the American Chemical Society are now available at www.acs-envchem.dug.edu/ eeds.htm An easy to understand slide show entitled Preventing Children's Exposure to Endocrine Disruptors–A Teaching Aid is also available at www.instantref.com/children.htm The Swedish view The Swedish EPA has launched a new publication covering the Swedish News Environmental and Toxicological Sciences. 25 June±1 July 2000 Whistler B.C. Canada. Details from Evert Nieboer McMaster University Hamilton ON Canada tel z1 905 525 9140; fax z1 905 522 9033; e-mail nieboere@fhs.mcmaster.ca; http:// www.science.mcmaster.ca/speciation/ 25th International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment. 6±10 August 2000 Ann Arbor MI. Details from www.sph.umich.edu/eih/heavymetals/ 26th International Congress on Occupational Health. 27 Aug±1 Sept 2000 Singapore. The Annual Meeting of the International Commission on Occupational Health (ICOH). Details from ICOH2000 e-mail icoh2000@post1.com or see www.icoh.org.sg X2001 Conference on Exposure Assessment in Epidemiology and Practice. 10±13 June 2001 Go» teborg Sweden. Details from x2001@ymk.gu.se or see www.ymk.gu.se WTQA 2000. 5±10 August Arlington VA. Details from Eileen O'Toole e-mail eileen_otoole@wpi.org environment and environmental policies. EnviroReport is published in both printed and on-line editions. Each issue is thematic and deals with a particular environmental subject. The Ærst November 1999 edition focuses on sectoral integration and transport. www.environ.se/enviroreport Swedenvironment the on-line news round-up from Swedish EPA the Ministry of Environment and the National Chemicals Inspectorate is also available at www.environ.se/swedenvironment/ index.html 15N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b000060o

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Up close and personal When it comes to measuring human exposure to toxic pollutants ambient environmental (area) monitoring appears to give misleading results according to a growing number of scientists. Instead what is needed is a greater use of personal monitors that measure how much contamination actually comes into contact with individuals. In 1987 the US EPA published the results of a detailed six-year study that involved hundreds of people. The Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study approach combined probability sampling with direct measurements of human exposure.1 TEAM measured peoples' exposure to pollutants in the air using small portable personal exposure monitors. The monitors consist of a pump and Ælter system which records the contaminants to which the wearer is exposed.The study also measured contaminant levels in their drinking water and in their breath. For exposure the results were remarkably consistent. Personal air exposures to every one of the eighteen target volatile organic compounds (VOCs) including benzene and chloroform were far greater than mean outdoor concentrations–2 to 5 times greater than concurrent outdoor measurements. These studies took place in areas of intensive chemical Fig. 1 Exposure to toxic pollutants. 16N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 manufacturing and petroleum reÆning Elizabeth NJ Bayonne NJ Los Angeles CA Antioch CA and Pittsburg CA. Since that time personal monitoring studies have substantiated these results and revealed that human exposure is signiÆcantly greater than outdoor air monitoring would suggest for many other pollutants including carbon monoxide pesticides lead and Æne particulates studies.2 The main reason for this disparity is that people spend most of their time indoors where pollution levels are higher and sources are different.For example in the US cars and industry are the main sources of benzene emissions. But for personal exposures the numbers are very different smoking and second-hand smoke accounts for 45 percent and driving and other personal activities account for 32 percent. Cars account for 20 percent and industry contributes just three percent.Yet funding for research on indoor air pollution and personal monitoring is just one tenth of that for outdoor air research (Fig. 1).3 For the reasons outlined over 200 scientists who work in the Æeld of human exposure and risk assessment have endorsed this statement ``Human personal exposure needs to receive greater emphasis in the nation's programs of environmental regulation research monitoring and public education.'' International leaders in the Æelds of epidemiology and exposure research have also signed what has come to be known as the consensus statement which was launched at the 1998 joint annual meeting of the International Society for Exposure Analysis (ISEA) and the International Society of Environmental Epidemiology (ISEE) in Boston MA.Watching the detectives The point of personal human exposure monitoring is to determine pollutant concentration levels that actually come into contact with the human body according to Wayne Ott an exposure scientist. While at the EPA he managed research on air pollution toxic substances and human exposure.4,5 Ott US Focus offers an analogy to contrast the personal exposure assessment approach with more traditional technologies used in environmental monitoring.4 The analogy starts with a typical murder mystery story starring Hercule Poirot or Sherlock Holmes. These detectives start with the victim and then work backwards to Ænd the source of the crime. If the victim was shot Poirot might analyze bullet fragments sample the victim's body and look for Ængerprints.They look for facts surrounding the Æring of the gun– which in the analogy is equivalent to the emission of a pollutant from its source. This sort of ``working backwards'' is what personal exposure monitoring is about according to Ott who is now based at Stanford University in Palo Alto CA. He describes Poirot Holmes and personal exposure assessors like himself as ``receptor-oriented.'' In contrast traditional monitoring approaches which are enshrined in environmental regulations proceed in the opposite direction–they are ``source-oriented'' not ``receptororiented'' according to Ott. If Sherlock Holmes were to proceed with a sourceoriented approach he would Ærst discover a gun and its spent shells.He would know that the gun had been Æred but not where the bullets had gone nor whether they had injured anyone. Holmes would have to start at the source and then try to work forward to follow the bullets. There has never been a murder mystery like it and there never will be Ott says because the approach does not work. Yet most current environmental laws are concerned with emissions or with efØuents–with the bullets. They do not for example begin with people and attempt to see whether these pollutants actually are reaching any members of the general public. These laws were written when outdoor pollution from leaking waste dumps dirty smokestacks and noxious discharges was obviously fouling the environment.But as source emissions have been reduced thanks to the success of these laws it becomes extremely important to determine whether pollutants are reaching people and by how much. Safe as houses? Although indoor air issues have received relatively little prominence they have a direct impact on peoples' lives particularly children according to John Roberts whose consultancy Engineering Plus in Seattle WA specializes in assessing and controlling dangerous pollutants in the home. For small children house dust is a major source of exposure to cadmium lead and other heavy metals as well as polychlorinated biphenyls and other persistent organic pollutants. This is because pollutant-laden particles are tracked in and deposited onto carpets which act as deep reservoirs.Once inside many compounds particularly pesticides are more persistent because they are protected from sunlight and bacterial degradation. A standard vacuum cleaner does not remove these toxic compounds nor does it get rid of other asthma-inducing allergens such as animal dander dust mites and mold.6 But despite this gloomy picture there are simple low-cost ways to lower exposure from dust and carpets. These include leaving shoes at the door using industrial welcome mats and vacuum cleaners which incorporate dust sensors. Most people however are unaware of the ubiquity of indoor air pollution or how to reduce it. An exception to this lack of information is an innovative program in Seattle WA.Trained volunteers in the Master Home Environmentalist Program (MHEP) provide free assessments to families who wish to reduce their exposure to indoor pollutants house dust and chemicals.7 Indoor pollution is also responsible for ``sick building syndrome'' a phenomenon which is still poorly understood. EPA has just Ænished a major study of large ofÆce buildings across the US. The Building Assessment Survey Evaluation (BASE) is the Ærst study to gather baseline information on ``normal'' buildings according to project manager John Girman in Washington D.C.8 Researchers are currently analyzing the data that include information on ventilation systems and ducts air Øows Æltration VOCs bacteria fungi Æne particles and the questions about the health of ofÆce workers.Girman hopes that his work will provide building managers with some guidance for reducing contaminant levels in ofÆce buildings–information which they do not have now he says. Despite a long list of recent US Government reports identifying indoor pollution as one of the most serious environmental risks to public health there is no government agency with a strong legislative mandate to address the problem.9 OfÆcials speculate that such a mandate is unlikely because many indoor spaces particularly dwellings are private not public places. From this point of view tackling indoor pollution is a personal choice. But personal choice Focus depends on access to information.For many aspects of indoor pollution such as baseline data about schools or sources in dwellings the information does not exist yet. Perhaps the situation will improve if policy makers heed exposure scientists' pleas. Notes 1 L. Wallace The Total Exposure Assessment Methodology Study Summary and Analysis Volume 1 United States Environmental Protection Agency OfÆce of Research and Development EPA/600/6-87/002a 1987. 2 A. P. Jones Atmos. Environ. 1999 33 4535. 3 J. M. Seltzer Occup. Med. 1995 10 26. 4 W. R. Ott J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 1995 5 449. 5 W. R. Ott and J. W. Roberts Sci. Am. 1998 278 86. 6 Lewis et al. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1994 26 37. 7 J. W. Roberts and P. Dickey Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1995 143 59. 8 General information about the BASE project is available at http:// www.epa.gov/iaq/base/index.html 9 Indoor Pollution Status of Federal Research Activities August 1999. United States General Accounting OfÆce Report GAO/RCED-99-254. Rebecca Renner Science writer and editor Tel z1 570 321 8640 Fax z1 570 321 9028 E-mail applepie@sunlink.net 17N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b000061m

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC

摘要:

Isocyanates measurement methodology exposure and effects Report from a workshop organised by the Swedish National Institute for Working Life and held in Brussels 26±28 April 1999 Introduction The Swedish National Institute for Working Life (NIWL) organised an international workshop with the title Isocyanates–Measurement Methodology Exposure and Effects in Brussels 26±28 April 1999. It was one of a series of workshops preceding the conference ``Worklife 2000'' January 22±25 2001 in Malmo» Sweden. Approximately 20 scientists in the Æeld from Europe and the US participated. The workshop was of an informal nature with ample time for discussion. Below a summary of the presentations is given together with some conclusions from the workshop.Isocyanates–effects and exposure Highly reactive isocyanates (R±NLCLO) are nowadays used in many workplaces. They may become airborne in gaseous or aerosolised forms. When inhaled they bind to human tissues proteins and DNA forming toxic adducts and metabolites which may cause adverse health effects. Bronchial asthma is the most frequent clinical diagnosis in isocyanate workers. Further diseases caused by these chemicals include nonobstructive bronchitis rhinitis conjunctivitis dermatitis and extrinsic allergic alveolitis. The diagnosis of isocyanate-induced disorders is based on a stepwise approach starting with a detailed occupational case history measurement of speciÆc isocyanate-IgE antibodies lung function testing follow-up during working hours and spare time and in doubtful situations occupational-type inhalative challenge with the suspected causative agent.Due to the heterogeneous pathogenic mechanisms negative immunological tests (seen in 85% of isocyanate asthma cases) and the absence of bronchial hyperreactivity to methacholine do not exclude isocyanates as causative substances. To ensure 18N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 This journal is # The Royal Society of Chemistry 2000 reversibility the early diagnosis of isocyanate-induced disorders is required. Since the health risk is concentrationdependent the most important preventive measure is the reduction of exposure levels. Concentrations at or below the current occupational exposure limits (OELs) (mostly 10 ppb) do not exclude effects.Therefore the development of improved routine analyses of all airborne isocyanates as well as of methods for biological monitoring is urgently required. Further where possible a health-based OEL comprising all isocyanate groups should be stipulated and workers at risk should undergo regular medical surveillance programmes. In the US health surveys of plants using isocyanates have been conducted by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The construction of a new facility provided the opportunity to study the workers' health prior to and after the introduction of diisocyanate. Several tools have been used to evaluate workers' respiratory status.A health questionnaire was administered prior to and twice a year for two years after the introduction of isocyanate. Occupational and work practice questionnaires were also obtained. Lung function testing and skin testing to common allergens were performed. Blood was drawn for isocyanate speciÆc and total IgE measurements. Nasal lavage was performed on workers at the end of their work shifts. Workers are also potentially exposed to other work place antigens such as raw unÆnished wood and isocyanate Ænished wood products in places where isocyanate is used as a wood binder. Extracts from each of these materials were used to screen for potential IgEs. Preliminary data showed that speciÆc IgE to both isocyanate associated antigens and other work place antigens can be found in workers from plants using diisocyanates in their processes.Workplace asthma caused by exposure to isocyanates has shown no decrease in the UK with some 400 cases per year while the overall use of isocyanates by UK industry is increasing slowly. Levels of occupational asthma do not appear to have fallen although reporting levels may have risen through Forum increased awareness. Analysis of the summarised health data shows that incidence of asthma is not restricted to the motor vehicle industry but dangers may be as great in other isocyanate using industries such as for example spraying isocyanates into moulds to form rigid foam. In Sweden there is an intense debate about isocyanates.Special attention has been drawn to the risk entailed by the thermal degradation of polyurethane plastics and products containing polyurethanes. Some of these degradations have been unknown or overlooked. What is also new is the newly discovered generation of lowmolecular isocyanates which occur when heating up materials containing some combinations of phenyl-formaldehydeurea. Examples of workplaces where isocyanates will occur will include heating of mineral-wool in oven insulation of binders for core making in the foundry industry and hot work in car repair shops. The polyurethane (PU) industry routinely carries out occupational hygiene measurements both in-house and at their customers' factories to assess workplace exposures during the manufacture and use of PU chemicals.A wide variety of compounds are used by the PU industry e.g. release agents blowing agents cleaning agents Ære retardants surfactants and isocyanates for routine manufacture of a vast range of products such as rigid and Øexible foams elastomers adhesives coatings paints binders etc. ICI for example has carried out occupational hygiene studies and surveys in-house and at customer premises to measure the concentration of 4,4'-diisocyanatodiphenylmethane (MDI) in the workplace during the manufacture and use of polyurethanes. Data from over a thousand personal samples have been generated. Exposure assessments have included personnel who had the potential by way of their job activities to be exposed e.g.line operatives line supervisors maintenance staff product Ænishers cleaners QA staff electricians laboratory personnel warehouse staff forklift truck drivers etc. Overall exposure to MDI is well controlled with only two values from 1327 personal samples resulting in values w0.05 mg m23 (8 h time-weight average). Adopting monitoring methods capable of detecting and quantifying all isocyanate containing species allows assessment of total isocyanate exposure as well as providing an insight to the physical form of the MDI. In summary human exposure studies indicate that isocyanate exposures during work are associated with occupational asthma. Such studies may provide insight into the relationship of diisocyanate-induced disease and speciÆc work practices and potential routes of exposure.Isocyanates–measurement methodology Collection of samples can be through use of impingers/bubblers or Ælters each involving reagents. There can be internal losses of material in both impinger inlets and on the walls of Ælter cassettes. There are also issues of the efÆciency of reactions of particles with reagents on Ælters. Impingers raise questions of particle sizes collected (for small particle sizes). Instrumental (paper tape) methods are more suitable for exposure proÆling over time than for quantiÆcation. Derivatives Each of the reagents has strengths and weaknesses. Older solutions are still in use such as Marcali ethanol nitro-reagents and 1-(2- methoxyphenyl)piperazine (2MP).On occasions several detectors are required for example a combination of electrochemical (EC) and ultraviolet (UV) detection. The reagent 1-(2- pyridyl)piperazine (2PP) is effective in separating isocyanates but still Ænds polyisocyanates difÆcult. The reagent 9- (methylaminomethyl)anthracene (MAMA) uses a detector-response ratio as a means of quantiÆcation but the ratio is not constant. Tryptamine also uses two detectors but is more constant than MAMA in Øuorescent yield. MAP [1-(9-anthrecenylmethyl)piperazine] combines the advantages of 2MP and MAMA and gives the most constant yield. Di-n-butylamine (DBA) has the fastest reaction time as high concentrations can be used.At present this is an expensive and non-routine method since it utilises liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric determination. The Iso-Chek2 sampler is a hybrid method separating the isocyanate particles and vapour and using both MAMA and 2MP derivatization. In the UK the Health and Safety Laboratory method MDHS 25 is used which utilises the 2MP derivative with ECzUV detection. There are potential problems with MDHS 25 i.e. the reliance on the EC/UV ratio being consistent and mis-identiÆcation can occur with incorrect quantiÆcation. However good results were obtained in comparison with direct titrations of polyisocyanates. The EC/UV ratios of several industrial isocyanate samples have been investigated.Six steps in sampling and analysis each of which can have problems can be identiÆed Collection EfÆciency problems of aspiration internal losses and transmission losses are frequent. Problems are addressed through inhalable sampler Ælters and impingers. Vapour collection depends on derivatization efÆciency. Derivatization EfÆciency is affected by reagent reactivity concentration and mixing. Flexibility is recommended in sampling covering collection and derivatization given the limitations of both Ælters and impingers and taking into account the environments concerned and the duration of the sampling. Filters should be extracted in the Æeld. Use of high boiling solvents is preferred. Sample preparation The fewer things you do the better.Losses are a potential problem with liquid-liquid extraction as well as solid phase extraction. Separation Separation has been dominated by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Several methods use a bulk product for calibration. Monomers can be used for calibration in other methods. Isocratic elution has advantages simple stable and unvarying baseline. Gradient elution is more powerful and faster but may have an adverse effect on the baseline. In the MAP method pH gradient elution is used. It is also powerful selective and gives a stable baseline. Forum IdentiÆcation Retention time is important for monomers while for oligomers selective detectors are needed multi-dimensional detectors or two detectors.For identiÆcation of MAP a UV/Øuorescence ratio is used. For safe and complete identiÆcation mass spectrometry is needed. QuantiÆcation There can be direct calibration curves for monomers while for oligomers it is a matter of bulk calibration or monomer calibration. Thermal degradation of PUR For thermal degradation a method based on the derivatization of aromatic and aliphatic isocyanates using di-nbutylamine (DBA) followed by the derivatization of aromatic and aliphatic amines with ethylchloroformate has been used. The DBA-method has been demonstrated for isocyanate-adducts -monomers and thermal degradation products of PUR for example when welding buses. Fast reaction rates between isocyanates and DBA were observed and the method was found to be robust with no inØuence of interfering compounds.For a 0.01 mol 121 DBA concentration the reaction rate was very fast and it was not possible to study the time dependence of the reactions. The removal of the reagent during the work-up procedure greatly facilitates the subsequent chromatographic determination and allows the use of DBA at high concentrations. Quality assurance of isocyanate measurements National standardisation has been diverse. For example the Swedish National Institute for Working Life in 1997 recommended the DBA method. The UK Health and Safety Executive recommends 2MP (which meets the performance requirements of EN 482) and Marcali.NIOSH has three methods 2MP tryptamine and the nitro reagent method. Internationally the ISO standardisation committee ISO/TC146 has 5 methods under consideration 2MP; and four new work items; DBA Iso-Chek2 MAP and Guide on selection of procedures. In 1991 the European Commission decided that certiÆed reference materials 19N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Forum in the form of 2MP derivatives should be prepared for isocyanates. The speciÆed certiÆcation studies have been undertaken and CertiÆed Reference Materials (CRMs) have been prepared and can be obtained from the Community Bureau of Reference (BCR). There are independent proÆciency testing schemes like the UK WASP (Workplace Analysis Scheme for ProÆciency).Conclusions recommendations and needs for future research . Isocyanates result in more reported cases of occupational asthma and similar respiratory disorders than any other group of chemicals. Industrial uses of isocyanates include manufacture of polyurethane foam surface coatings adhesives and textiles and occupational exposure can occur particularly in processes involving heating and spraying isocyanates. . Most countries have adopted occupational limit values based on monomeric isocyanates. However polyisocyanates (diisocyanate polymers or prepolymer adducts with polyamines) and low molecular weight isocyanates (such as methylisocyanate) are also used or can occur industrially. Toxicological evidence suggests that they should also be included in setting appropriate harmonised limit values.. Methods exist for the determination of airborne isocyanates. These are mostly complicated expensive and require a high degree of technical competence. There is a need for simpler more cost-effective methods. This would facilitate monitoring by Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs). . There is a need for the further development of sampling and analytical methods for isocyanates particularly airborne but also for dermal exposure and biological monitoring. Where possible such methods should be simple and cost 20N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 effective and distinguish between vapour and particulate isocyanates. . Sampling and analysis methods should be supported by validation (such as according to EN 482) quality control quality assurance and certiÆed reference materials.. The relative toxicity and metabolism associated with health effects of different isocyanate species should be further investigated in particular connection with setting limit values and improving biological monitoring. The parent compounds and metabolites may be genotoxic or carcinogenic in addition to having allergenic potential. The metabolism of aromatic and aliphatic isocyanates has not been studied in detail. There is also a lack of epidemiological studies on isocyanate workers. Therefore it is strongly recommended that such investigations are carried out. .Cases of occupational asthma have been observed where no measurable isocyanates in air were identiÆed implying a deÆciency in the sampling and analytical methods used and/or an incorrect limit value and/or exposure via routes other than inhalation. For this reason air measurements should be seen as part of an occupational hygiene assessment that might also include estimates of surface contamination skin absorption and/or biological monitoring and health surveillance. . In cases where isocyanate exposure cannot be prevented by substitution or minimised by engineering controls and is controlled by the use of personal protective equipment particular attention should be paid to the correct selection maintenance and use of such personal protective equipment.. There is debate about the current levels of exposure using available technologies and methods. All too often measurements are infrequent governed by the requirements of law. Occupational hygienists should be encouraged to do more assessment. . There is a discussion of prevention as opposed to monitoring. There is an opportunity to address this issue for politicians. What is wanted is control of the environment rather than the requirement to dress up workers in special clothing. Regular monitoring can reduce the incidence of exposure accompanied by health surveillance. . There are difÆculties in predicting particular problems in individual workplaces. There is a need for improved education and communication.. International practice is already affected by requirements of environmental legislation such as requirements of the US Environmental Protection Agency as it affects the workplace; there can be obligations to report when particular materials are in use. Additional information A full report from the workshop will be published by the Swedish National Institute for Working Life in Work Life 2000 Yearbook 2 2000 (Ed. R. Ennals) Springer London. Conclusions and recommendations from the workshop will be reported at the conference ``Worklife 2000'' January 22±25 2001 in Malmo» Sweden. For information see http://www.niwl.se/ wl2000/. Information on ISO standardisation can be obtained from the convenor of ISO TC146/SC2/WG4 Richard H Brown at the address given below.Jan-Olof Levin Roger Lindahl Anders O » stin National Institute for Working Life Department of Chemistry Umea Sweden Richard H. Brown Health and Safety Laboratory ShefÆeld UK Richard Ennals Kingston University Kingston Business School Kingston upon Thames UK Book Review Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals Edited by T. Roberts and D. Hutson Royal Society of Chemistry. 1999. £225. ISBN 0-85404-499-X. Over the last 20 years or so there has been an ever increasing regulatory demand for information concerning the degradation of pesticides in the environment yet in that time there has not been an extensive review or text that summarises metabolic pathways in soil plants and animals as well as chemical degradation.This void is now Ælled with this book which is Part 2 of a two part series. Part 2 covers Insecticides and Fungicides whilst Part 1 covered Herbicides and has already been published. This book is comprehensive in the range of categories of compounds covered which are Insecticides Insect Growth Modulators Insect Pheromones Insecticide Synergists Nematicides Rodenticides Fungicides and Plant Activators. In total these categories cover a total of 294 compounds. Consequently the book is large and the question could be asked should it have been broken down even further separating out Fungicides and Plant Activators for instance. However the book is well organised being divided into compound categories and the compounds within each category are listed alphabetically thus making it easy Book Review Environmental Impact of Power Generation Edited by R.E. Hester and R. M. Harrison Royal Society of Chemistry 1999 £25/$45. ISBN 0-85404-250-4 Modern society demands increasing energy consumption to maintain current lifestyles. The growth in energy use from the start of the industrial revolution and to the middle of the 20th Century was accompanied by signiÆcant environmental impact. Notable was the deteriorating air quality culminating in episodes such as the London smog of 1952. The public outcry resulted in legislation that provided a framework for addressing the problems. Along with the legal developments came recognition of the beneÆts of cleaner energy sources such as gas and electricity made even more attractive by cost differentials.to locate compound speciÆc information. There is a useful broad overview given at the beginning of each compound category and the information provided on individual compounds is well structured. Basic information on Uses Mode of Action and Physical Chemical Data is given initially followed by Metabolic Pathways and completed by references. The focus of the book is obviously Metabolic Pathways and this section is sub-divided into Chemical Degradation Degradation in Soils Metabolism in Plants and Ænally Metabolism in Animals. The degradation pathway schematics are excellent although sometimes the plant and animal schemes are combined sometimes plant and soil and sometimes they are separate.However this does not detract from their value. The sources of information for the book were varied and included the open literature (in some cases back as far as 1967) Pesticide Manual IUPAC and ACS Meetings PSD Evaluations along with some information from companies. A notable exception is data available from the USA via EPA and it is not clear whether or not this was deliberately omitted. In certain cases no or little information is given under some headings (e.g. tebuconazole metabolism Modern technology in homes and businesses places even greater demands for electricity from conventional or alternative sources.This type of historical development is part of the discussion in Chapter 1 of this book the 11th in a series aimed at providing a concise yet authoritative review of contemporary environmental issues. Nine expert authors have written seven chapters that range from reviews of traditional air pollution from combustion sources through nuclear energy issues to modern concerns over electric and magnetic Æelds. Environmental management system perspectives legal pressures techniques to identify the best practicable environmental option and some aspects of energy efÆciency are also covered. It is Forum in plants and animals) and data may have been available from company submissions to the EPA (provided the compound was registered in the USA).Furthermore the data available may well have been more extensive than that published in this book. Also a little extra quantitative data on metabolites would have beneÆted the reader signiÆcantly. It would also have been useful to have included details of the compound manufacturers. In conclusion the book is a must for every one with an interest in insecticide and fungicide metabolism and degradation. The authors must be complimented on undertaking such a mammoth task and as a result the reader has been rewarded with an excellent reference book. As mentioned before there is an argument that the book should have been separated into two but in my opinion due to the similarities in part structures of compounds I think that for the time being it is better that it remains as one book.However this may change as more data becomes available thus increasing the size of the book. Terry Clark Zeneca Agrochemicals UK clear that the breadth of coverage is considerable and many of the authors are to be congratulated on producing such wide ranging yet concise reviews. However the balance and some content are surprising. There is much repetition of traditional historical air pollution detail that is readily found in many air pollution texts yet global warming has relatively little mention by comparison particularly in terms of its impact; yet environmental impact is the title of the book. While a chapter entitled `energy efÆciency and conservation' suggests ways to address global warming its focus on economic instruments offers little practical advice on technical solutions or on how to change human behaviour to address the problem.Resource depletion is another omission 21N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Forum from the environmental impact of power generation while renewable sources and their own impact receive scant attention. A UK focus is acknowledged in the book and hence avoids the international debates about inordinate US energy consumption. However international incidents such as Chernobyl and Three Mile Island inevitably raise public concern and are very brieØy mentioned. Transport is touched upon in Chapter 2 and in terms of environmental impact and energy use it is undoubtedly an important issue. However it sits uneasily with the title of the book and the reader will not 22N J. Environ. Monit. 2000 2 Ænd the section in the index under transport but only under road transport. Another idiosyncrasy of the index is illustrated by reference to the Integrated Pollution and Prevention Control Directive (sic). Help with the abbreviations and acronyms that appear throughout the book would also assist the reader yet only one chapter has a glossary. This fact together with some repetition across chapters suggests a lack of coherency. The independent writing of each author does not appear to have been brought together by strong editorial input. The reader may also be confused by some lack of clarity in expression of the air quality bandings compared with the values cited in government publications. The book aims to contribute to the public understanding of science in this important area while simultaneously claiming that it will be essential reading for students and practitioners in environmental science and engineering. Unfortunately it seems unlikely to meet the needs of these readerships. R. S. Barrat Open University UK

ISSN:1464-0325    

DOI:10.1039/b000062k

出版商:RSC    

年代:2000

数据来源: RSC