THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND FOUNDED 1877. INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER, 1885. Patron -H.M. THE KING. JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS. PART 111: 1940. Issued under the supervision of the Publications Committee. RICHARD B. PILCHER, Registrar and Secicefavy. 30, RUSSELLSQUARE, W.C.1.LONDON, June, 1940. Publications Committee, 19404. A. L.BACHARACH (Chairman), J. J. FOX (President), W. M.AMES, M. BOGOD, R. R. BUTLER, A. COULTHARD, F. P. DUNN, A. E. DUNSTAN, L. EYNON, W. GODDEN, E.GREGORY, A. A. HALL, J. W. HAWLEY, T. P. HILDITCH, H. H. HODGSON, W. HONNEYMAN, R. H. HOPKINS, H. HUNTER, G. KING, P. LEWIS-DALE, G. W. MONIER-WILLIAMS, A.C. MONKHOUSE, H. W. MOSS, J. R. NICHOLLS, T. J. NOLAN, D. W. PARICES, SIR ROBERT PICI(ARD, F. M. ROWE, S. B. WATKINS. 163 IMPORTANT. Chemists and the Central Register.-The Ministry of Labour has requested the Institute to publish the following notice :-“As is well known, steps were taken more than a year ago to form a Central Register of persons with technical, scientific and professional qualifications, who could be regarded as available for service in Government Departments in war time, except in so far as they were already engaged on work of greater National importance. In the formation of the Register the Ministry of Labour and National Service was fortunate in securing the cordial co-operation of all the main societies and institutions concerned, and in its operation since the beginning of the war the voluntary assistance of a large number of specialists has been at the disposal of the Ministry.“The Sections of the Register covering Pure Chemistry (Classification No. 706) and Industrial Chemistry (Classification No. 707) contain between them some 6000 names. The majority of these persons are at present in useful, frequently nationally important, employment, and should not be moved unless it is really necessary in the interests of the country. Every effort is accordingly made to meet the requirements of Government Departments for chemical personnel from the ranks of those who are unemployed, or at least readily available. It is, however, now proving impossible to meet the growing demands for chemists from these groups alone, and it is therefore essential that the names of all chemists of either sex, especially young men and women, who are both qualified and willing should be on the Register.Obviously only names which are on the Register can be put forward for the vacancies which are notified. Roughly speaking, the minimum qualification for enrolment as a chemist on the Register is a degree in Chemistry or an equivalent quali- fication, or, on the other hand, several years’ experience in chemical practice or industry. “Enrolment on the Central Register implies that the persons concerned will be prepared to accept suitable full-time employ- ment offered to them, unless they are already engaged on work of National importance, but the volunteers themselves are the judges of the suitability of the post offered, and only the names of volunteers who have expressed their willingness to be con- sidered for any particular post offered are submitted to the prospective employers. Further particulars of the Central Register, and in particular of the Chemistry Sections, will be supplied on application to the Secretary, Ministry of Labour and National Service, Central Register Branch, Queen Anne’s Chambers, Westminster, S.W.1, and volunteers are asked to write to that address.“There is also an immediate requirement for juniors, normally of Inter-B.Sc. standard, preferably with laboratory or factory experience, who are not qualified for enrolment on the Central Register, but are available €or employment such as that of laboratory or experimental assistant, at a salary range between k130 and E260 per annum (E130to Ez39 per annum in case of women) according to qualifications and experience.Persons suitable for appointment to such posts are normally recruited from the Supplementary Register of persons with professional, technical and business attainments, which is maintained at certain selected offices of the Ministry of Labour and National Service. Any persons willing to be considered for the junior posts referred to are invited to apply in writing for enrolment in the Supplementary Register through the most convenient Local Office of the Ministry, the address of which can be obtained at any Post Office; the application will then be forwarded to the appropriate selected office.” Fellows and Associates whose names are not already included on the Central Register are urged to respond to the above notice.Fellows and Associates who are not at present engaged on work of primary National importance and who are not at present making use of the Institute’s Appointments Register, but who wish their names to be mentioned in connexion with important vacancies brought directly to the attention of the Institute are asked to write to the Registrar giving particulars of age, ex- perience, nature of present work, and approximate present salary. Letters on the above subject addressed to the Registrar should be marked N.S. both on the outside of the envelope and at the head of the letter.Fellows and Associates will understand that, in the present 165 circumstances, it may not be possible to acknowledge receipt of all replies individually. Military Service and the Schedule of Reserved Occupations.-“ Chemists (Analytical, Research, etc.) ” are included in the Schedule of Reserved Occupations if over the age of 21. Fellows and Associates who are called upon to register under the Compulsory Military Service Acts, in their respective age groups, should be careful to use the above description when registering. The term “Chemist” in this connexion refers only to occupation. The Ministry of Labour and National Service has made no attempt to define a chemist on the basis of any professional or academic qualification.The responsibility for the description used when registering is thrown upon the individual himself, in the first instance, but is subject to corrobo- ration by his employers, to the satisfaction of the Ministry. Many Registered Students and other juniors to whom the above description cannot justifiably be applied may come within the meaning of the term “Laboratory Assistant-skilled (Chemical)” and should, in that event, use that description when registering. The reserved age for this category is at present officially notified as 25. Fellows, Associates and Registered Students should be careful not to use other terms which they may consider equivalent, as they cannot reasonably expect the non-technical staffs of local branches of the Ministry to understand the equivalence of such terms.Cases have been known where confusion has arisen through the use of such terms as-“ Assistant Manager, Chemical Works,’’ or “Analytical Chemist’s Assist ant .’’ It should be noted that the Schedule of Reserved Occupations is subject to revision and that the latest edition should therefore be consulted. The last published edition was issued in September, 1939,but it is expected that a revised Schedule will shortly be available. Any Fellow or Associate or senior Registered Student who is employed in a chemical capacity or has nearly completed his course of training, who receives a calling-up notice, would be well advised to consult the officers of the Institute immediately, giving full particulars as to his employment, the name of the office of the Ministry from which the notice was received and the Military Registration number .- 166 Chemists and National Service.-The Executive Officers of the Institute are prepared, so far as they are able, to deal with enquiries regarding chemists and national service. The business of the Institute has been carried on without interruption at its headquarters since the outbreak of war. All correspondence should normally be addressed to 30, Russell Square, London, W.C.1; but should Members, Registered Students or other correspondents find difficulty in communicating with the Institute, enquiries may be addressed to the Registrar, at 9, Westbury Road, Woodside Park, Finchley, London, N.12.Telephone Number: Hillside 1859. 167 Proceedings of the Council. Council Meeting,19thApril, 1940.-Arising from previous Minutes, the Council received a letter from Dr. F. H. Carr, Vice-president , accepting appointment as representative of the Institute on the British Management Council, and a letter from the Committee of the London and South-Eastem Counties Section reporting that Mr. E. Q. Laws had been appointed to represent the Committee on the Publicity Committee. Dr. Norman Lindsay Sheldon, C.I.E. , accepted election as District Member of Council for the Overseas Dominions and Elsewhere Abroad to fill the vacancy arising from the election of Dr.H. A. Tempany as Vice-president. Among other correspondence, a letter was received from the Austrian Academy in Great Britain requesting the co-operation of the Institute. A letter was received from Lord Leverhulme inviting the Council to appoint two representatives to attend a luncheon to be held at the Trocadero Restaurant on 21st May, when consideration would be given to means to be adopted to perpetuate the memory of the late Mr. W. A. S. Calder. The President and Honorary Treasurer agreed to act as represen- tatives of the Institute on this occasion. In response to a letter from the Parliamentary and Scientific Committee indicating that the Institute was entitled to two representatives on the Executive Committee, the Council directed that Dr.H. E. Cox be asked to act as one of the representatives of the Institute, in addition to the Registrar, who has represented the Institute on the Committee for several years. In reply to a letter from the Ministry of Education (Northern Ireland), the Council concurred in the appointment of Mr. Leslie Arndell as an Examiner in connexion with the Examinations for National Certificates. The Honorary Secretary of the Belfast and District Section directed attention to the proposal to form a Food Industrial Council in Northern Ireland, and suggested that it was possible that a Food Research Station would be started, in which event it would be desirable to secure the representation of chemists on the Governing body of the Station.168 On a notice of motion by Professor Briscoe, the Council dis-crissed the problem of ensuring the continued supply of young skilled and semi-skilled chemists for work of national importance, and the matter was referred to a Special Committee with power to act. Reports were received from the Finance and House Committee, the Benevolent Fund Committee, the Publications Committee and the Nominations, Examinations and Institutions Committee. Arising on the Report of the Publications Committee, Mr. Bacharach, the Chairman of the Committee, mentioned that he had received a letter from Dr. Hunter regarding reports of meetings of Local Sections. It was generally agreed that summaries of papers read before Sections should be furnished by the authors, and that the Committee should be empowered to exercise discretion in editing papers or declining to publish them.The general question was referred to the Committee for special consideration and report. Council Meeting, 17th May, 19M.-The attention of the Council had been called, at a previous meeting, to the circum- stance that in the list of qualifications entitling a secondary school teacher to salary on graduate scale, the Associateship of the Institute was not specifically mentioned, whereas the Associateship of several colleges and membership of the Institute of Physics was cited. It was agreed that the matter be referred €or appropriate representation. The Special Committee, ap-pointed on Professor Briscoe’s motion, at the meeting held on 19th April, reported that a letter had been addressed to the Ministry of Labour and National Service on the subject of con- serving the supply of young skilled and semi-skilled chemists.A letter was received from the Principal of Sunderland College thanking the Council on behalf of the Governors of the College for adding the name of the College to the list of those institutions recognised for training for admission to the Associateship of the Institute. A letter was received from the Association of Scientific Workers enclosing a report on conferences recently held to discuss the problems of industrial scientists. Reports were received from the Standing Committees. The Publications Committee reported that, it had had under con-sideration the present procedure for publication in the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGSof lectures given at meetings of Local Sections, 169 particularly the extent to which the reports of lectures should be edited, corrected or, at the discretion of the Committee, re- jected in toto.The reference arose on a letter from Dr. Harold Hunter, who had suggested the appointment of a Panel of Referees who would guide the Committee in judging the accuracy of the subject matter. The Chairman of the Committee reviewed the procedure hitherto adopted. For all reports of lectures given before the Sections, the Committee had been dependent on the Honorary Secretaries of Sections, who, in most instances, obtained summaries of lectures from the lecturers, but in other instances, prepared reports themselves or obtained reports prepared by other members of their Sections.This procedure had resulted in lack of uniformity. It did not appear to have been the invariable practice for the summaries to have been checked and approved by the lecturers, but it had been customary for the Publications Committee, where reports were ambiguous, to submit to the lecturers revisions, other than verbal alterations, for approval. It had been urged that the general disavowal of responsibility for lecturers’ and speakers’ opinions, printed in each issue of the Journal before the reports of Local Sections, did not exonerate the Institute for publishing inaccurate or is-leading information.The object of publishing summaries of lectures had been not only to maintain a record of the proceedings of the Sections, but to secure the interest of members in the activities of their Sections. Moreover, it was well to note that the circulation of the Journal was over 8,500 and therefore afforded a valuable means of making known new developments and other useful information. The summaries of lectures which had been published had also led to much useful correspondence between the members and the lecturers. The Chairman submitted for consideration three possible courses:-(a) To cease publishing summaries of lectures to Local Sections at all, and to give merely the titles of lectures and the lecturers’ names.(This would not necessarily prevent the publication of separate summaries of particular lectures, provided that such publication did not trespass on the domain of the publishing Societies.) (b) To publish short summaries limited to, say, 400-500 words, provided and authorised by the lecturers themselves, and considered by the Committee to be worth publishing. 170 (This, again, would not preclude publication at greater length in the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS or elsewhere.) (c) To continue the present practice, with more drastic editing before the copy goes to press. Eight members of the Committee attended the meeting, and nine contributed their views by letter. The Committee recommended :-(i) That, beginning with Part IV, 1940, the reports under the heading “Local Sections” in the JOURNAL AND PRO-CEEDINGS be restricted to the record of business transacted and discussions on matters of professional interest, but that no report of lectures be included in this part of the Journal except the title and the names of the lecturer, chairman, etc., and other particulars, such as attendance. (ii) That the Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections, at their discretion, be authorised to invite lecturers, after the lectures have been delivered, to supply summaries (up to 500 words), the Publications Committee reserving the right to decide whether or not such summaries should be published (as separate articles in the Journal); that only summaries pre- pared by the lecturers be published; that such summaries be obtained as soon as possible after the delivery of the lectures, and, if necessary, be submitted to referees before they are set up in type.(iii) That all lecturers may be invited after the lectures, through the Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections, to lodge typed copies of their lectures at the offices of the Institute. (iv) That, in the event of the Council approving the above recommendations, they be put into force in Part IV of the Journal; but that the substance of the report of this Committee be published in Part I11 of the Journal in order that it may be considered and discussed by the Conference of Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections to be held on 22nd June. The Report was adopted. The Committee also reported on requests received from members to add to their qualifications in the Register certain initials indicating membership of various Societies and Institu- tions and other designations.The Council adopted the opinion of the Committee that only the degrees of recognised universities and 171 the qualifications of recognised professional examining bodies should be included; that no qualification granted by a technical college be inserted unless it had been formally accepted by the Council as exempting from the examination for the Associateship of the Institute, and no initials indicating membership of any learned society be included except the Fellowship of the Royal Society of London. Naval, Military and Air Force rank, unless held by regular officers, would be omitted, but “Professor” would be included.On advice from the Press and Censorship Bureau the Register will not contain information indicating service with the forces at the present time. Such records will be published when duly aut horised. The Report of the Nominations, Examinations and Institu- tions Committee embodied the results of the March-April Examinations. Gifts.-Mrs. W. A. S. Calder has kindly presented the Institute with a copy of the Report of the Tenth International Congress of Chemistry, held in Rome, May, 1938: Volume V, Sections VI-XI inclusive. La chimica, la salute, l’igiene e la bellezza; la chimica e la documenta- zione; la chimica e l’agricoltura; la chimica e l’industria; la chimica e i trasporti; la chimica e la difesa.Dr. J. Newton Friend has kindly presented the Institute with the following :-The History and Present State of Electricity with Original Experiments, by Joseph Priestley. 5th Edition, corrected. London : 1794. Lectures on History and General Policy, to which is prefixed an Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life. Joseph Priestley. A new Edition, with numerous enlargements : comprising a lecture on “The Con- stitution of the United States,” from the Author’s American Edition, and additional notes by J. T. Rutt. London: 1826. 172 Local Sections. [The Institute is not responsible for the views expressed in papers read, OY in speeches delivered during discussions.] Belfast and District.-The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held on 28th March in “The Carlton,” Belfast.The following Officers were elected for the 1940-41session :-Chairman, Dr. R. H. Common; Hon. Treasurer, Dr. W. Honney-man; Hon. Secretary, Mr. C. S. McDowell; Committee, Messrs. A. H. 0. Johnson, M. H. Hall, Drs. E. M. Reid and E. Wright. It was agreed to hold meetings next winter as and when they could be arranged without preparing a programme in advance. Birmingham and Midlands.-On 5th July, the Section will be visited by Dr. G. Roche Lynch, Vice-president, who will give an address on Medico-Legal Experiences. Bristol and South-Western Counties.-The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held at Bristol University on 28th March,-Dr.A. C. Monkhouse, District Member of Council, in the Chair, in the unavoidable absence of Professor E. L. Hirst. The Report of the Hon. Secretary and Treasurer was received and adopted. Mr. Edward Russell and Mr. W. J. Carter were elected hon. auditors for the ensuing session. In the absence of other nominations the Chairman announced that the new members of committee would be Professor W. E. Garner and Mr. E. B. Parkes, so that the committee for the session was elected as follows:-Dr. W. E. Garner, Mr. E. B. Parkes, Mr. A. Sanders, Mr. H. G. Tribley, Dr. E. Vanstone, Mr. J. L. Wild and Dr. A. C. Monkhouse, District Member of Council; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer, F. P. Hornby. (The Committee has since elected Professor W. E.Garner as Chairman.) The proceedings concluded with a vote of thanks to the University for facilities granted during the past session. The General Meeting was followed by a joint meeting, under the Chairmanship of Mr. A. Sanders, with the local Fellows of the 173 Chemical Society and the Local Section of the Society of Chemical Industry, when a paper on “Dangers in Chemical Works,” was given by Mr. S. H. Wilkes (H.M. Engineering Inspector of Factories), who has kindly supplied the following brief notes :-He described mechanical dangers which are avoided by using plant properly designed, constructed and maintained :-stairways and high platforms need handrails; moving parts-such as fly- wheels, belts, pulleys and gears-need fencing. Shafting is particularly dangerous.The lecturer then dealt with chemical injury to the body. External injuries are avoided by careful maintenance of plant, by safety devices such as carboy-carriers, by protective clothing, by washing and drenching in cases of bad splashes, and by periodical medical examination to detect signs of injury caused by long exposure. Large vessels should be fenced to prevent the possibility of workers falling into them. Vessels with common connections-steam boilers, kiers-must be capable of mechanical isolation from each other so that dangerous material from one may not enter another while men are within it. Internal injuries from dust, spray or gas are avoided by totally enclosed plant, or by ventilation, general or concentrated at the point of origin-the latter preferably.Before plant that has contained dangerous material is entered it must be isolated, steamed and ventilated, and the air inside tested, otherwise breathing apparatus and life-line should be worn. If sludge or scale cannot be removed before entry breathing apparatus and life-line should be worn. Fire and explosion of materials inflammable in air are avoided by keeping outside the inflammable limits of the mixture, by excluding air altogether, by replacing the air with inert gas, or by having present an excess of air. A second precaution is the avoidance of factors that may heat the system to its ignition point. Such are-open flames, sparks (by percussion, by foreign material in grinding plant, by aluminium paint on rusty steel), friction and electric arcs, including static sparks.Fires are extinguished (a)by displacing the air with inert gas or water, (b) by cooling below the ignition point. Explosions are extinguished by flame arrestors which cool exploding gas or choke 174 exploding dust, and the pressure is relieved by bursting panels or explosion doors. The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides. Dublin.-On 15th May, members of the Section paid a visit to the works of Cement Limited, at Drogheda, where some members of the Belfast Section joined the party from Dublin, later taking tea with them at the Golf Hotel, Baltray. East Midlands.-The Fifth Annual General Meeting of the Section was held at the St.James Restaurant, Derby, on 4th April,-Dr. L. Hunter in the Chair. The Officers and Committee for the coming year were elected as follows :-Chairman, Mr. G. F. Hall; Committee, (Derbyshire) Dr. F. Briers and Messrs. R. Davidson and C. W. North; (Mottinghamshire) Dr. H. H. Barber and Messrs. E. M. Bavin and W. W. Taylor; (Leicestershire) Dr. L. Hunter and Mr. W. J. Lund; (Loughborough) Dr. G. M. Dyson; and (LincolnsEire) Mr. D. A. Campbell; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer, Mr. J. Rat-cliffe; Hon. Auditor, Mr. C. W. North. The Report of the Committee and the Financial Statement were adopted. The retiring chairman then welcomed the new chairman, Mr. G. F. Hall. Dr. A. E. Everest then gave a lecture on “ Some Problems of the Dyestuff Manufacturer.” The following brief statement has been supplied by Dr.Everest :-The lecturer, starting with a consideration of the raw materials both inorganic and organic, pointed out how both materials and processes affected the finished colour. He instanced the serious effects to which small impurities in raw materials could give rise. He passed under review a number of intermediates and their production, indicating how quite small variations in processing may give rise to serious difficulties or affect vitally important purifications. He drew attention to the manner in which, in certain instances, accidental discoveries had made possible very important advances. He briefly outlined methods of colour production and the very wide range of difficulties which the colour manufacturer 175 has to face in producing colours satisfactory to all the using industries.In regard to this he pointed out how colours might be perfectly standardised in respect of one use but quite unsatis- factorily so for another, and he gave a series of instances where the use to which a colour was put could give rise to unexpected difficulties if the use was not known to the manufacturer. He drew attention to the very large range of colours of British manufacture now available, in contrast to the position existing in 1914. The lecture was illustrated by specimens of dyes and intennediat es. Huddersfie1d.-The Twentieth Annual General Meeting was held on 2nd April, in Fields Cafe, Huddersfield,-Dr.A. E. Everest in the Chair. The reports of the Hon. Treasurer and the Hon. Secretary were formally adopted. The Hon. Secretary in his report referred to the somewhat restricted activities of the Section due to war conditions and to the assistance which had been given to the Ministry of Home Security in the appointment of Gas Detection Officers. Dr. J. W. Whitaker and Dr. R. J. Connor were elected to the Committee and Mr. H. S. Pink was re-elected Hon. Auditor. Votes of thanks were accorded to the retiring members of the Committee and to Dr. Everest on his retirement from the Chairmanship of the Section. Mr. Webster Moss gave a brief account of matters of general interest which had been before the Institute during the year and made special reference to the losses which the Institute had suffered by the death of well-known Fellows, and, in particular, by the death of the President, Mr.Calder, to whose personal charm and ability he paid tribute. Following the Annual General Meeting, an ordinary meeting was held, at which Dr. M. W. Goldblatt gave a talk entitled “The Reaction of the Living Organism to Organic Compounds.” In his introductory remarks the lecturer stressed the remark- able manner in which the living organism, particularly the animal and human body, was able to adapt itself to deal with substances which were foreign to it and with which the organism had never been accustomed to deal under natural conditions.In particular, it was astonishing that the human body could deal with the enormous variety of compounds, often poisonous, which it encountered or had forced upon it under modern conditions of civilisation. The way in which the body contrived to deal with this wide variety of chemical substances was by the use of mechanisms already existing for the utilisation of foodstuffs of various kinds. The lecturer discussed in some detail the normal breakdown of the three main foodstuffs, namely fatty acids, carbohydrates and proteins, and indicated how certain diseases interfered with these processes. He then gave illustrations of how the animal body, by utilisation of the processes of hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction and conjugation, was able to deal with substances foreign to its normal metabolism.It was possible for the animal body to deal with surprisingly large amounts of toxic bodies by one or other or all of these methods. Examples of the elimination by conjugation were given:- (a) The formation of mercapturic acids by conjugation with cystein. (b) The formation of sulphates with or without previous oxidation or reduction. For example, j3-naphthylamine had been shown to be oxidised to 2-amino-1-naphtho1, which is then eliminated as the less toxic sulphate. Benzene has been shown to be oxidised to phenol which is then eliminated as the sulphate. (c) The formation of acetyl derivatives. This is the means by which a number of compounds are known to be eliminated.Examples are 9-aminobenzoic acid, sulph- anilamide (Prontosil) and M and B 693. An interesting discussion followed the lecture, in which a large number of members took part. Leeds Area.-A meeting of the Section was held on aand April, in the Chemistry Lecture Theatre of the University of Leeds-Professor F. M. Rowe in the Chair. Dr. J. W. Baker (Home Office Regional Instructor, Gas Identification Service) and Dr. A. L. Roberts (Co-ordination Officer of the Gas Identification Service, City of Leeds) gave a joint exposition of ‘‘The Detection and Identification of War Gases.” Dr. Baker said that there are two main aspects of the problem of the detection and, more especially, the identification of war gases under civil defence conditions.The first was the rapid diagnosis in the field of the nature and type of gas used; the second was the collection of contaminated material and its subsequent examination in the chemical laboratory. Experience had shown that reliance must be placed largely on subjective methods for the field diagnosis and the Gas Identification Officer was chiefly trained in the use of such methods, but in addition he was equipped to carry out a chemical test for mustard gas on the spot and to take suitable samples of contaminated material. Dr. Roberts, who appeared in full kit, gave a realistic demonstration of the Gas Identification Officer’s work. He outlined the organisation of the local service and displayed the various items of the equipment.With the aid of a pot of earth impregnated with mustard gas substitute, he successfully demonstrated the field test and the collection of a contaminated sample with all the handicaps of respirator and gauntlets that grim reality would impose. Dr. Baker next dealt with the laboratory examination of contaminated material. Two general techniques were available, namely extraction with solvents and the method of air-flow analysis; the latter was to be preferred on account of greater safety in operation and economy of material. Non-persistent gases might be absorbed on activated charcoal and particulate clouds could be filtered out on cotton wool. Methods of examining these were described together with the investigation of materials contaminated with persistent gases.The lecturer demonstrated a number of the more important chemical tests used to identify phosgene, chloropicrin, ethyl iodoacetate, bromobenzyl cyanide, diphenylamine chlorarsine, mustard gas and lewisite. This comprehensive picture of the Gas Identification Service in action conveyed a striking impression of the scientific thoroughness with which its details have been thought out and was much appreciated by the audience. The lively and interesting discussion which followed was only closured by the black-out , 178 Liverpool and North-Western.-The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held at the City Technical College, Byrom Street, Liverpool, on 18th April,-Mr. G. W. Beaumont in the Chair.Dr. J. W. C. Crawford, Dr. J. V. Loach, Mr. C. K. Boundy and Mr. G. H. Turner were elected to the Committee. Mr. L. V. Cocks and Mr. B. D. W. Luff were re-elected Hon. Auditors. Dr. F. J. Smith was re-appointed Hon. Secretary and Mr. E. Reid, Hon. Assistant ,Secretary. The following elections by the Committee were announced for the coming session :-Chairman, Mr. J. R. Stubbs; Vice-chairman, Mr. G. W. Beaumont; Hon. Treasurer, Prof. W. H. Roberts. At the con- clusion of the business a joint meeting of the Section with the Liverpool Sections of the Society of Chemical Industry and the British Association of Chemists was addressed by Prof. J. Chadwick (Liverpool University) on :-“ Nuclear Chemistry.” The following abstract has been approved by the lecturer.Professor Chadwick gave a concise account of recent work on the transmutation of the elements. He traced the develop- ment of this branch of physics from the search for the Philosopher’s Stone, through radio-active disintegration, and showed how the nature of this last change was made clear by Rutherford’s theory of the nuclear structure of the atom. Light, X-rays or swift particles may remove one or more of the outer electrons, but the change is only temporary. To produce a true transformation, he said, we must change the nucleus of the atom. From radio-active substances a-particles must occasionally penetrate deeply into the structure of atoms in their path, and it seemed possible that sometimes a transmutation of the atoms might occur.The first successful experiment was carried out by Rutherford in 1919,when he exposed nitrogen to the bom-bardment of a-particles and found that protons were ejected at great speeds. ,N14 + ,He4 -+ gF1*-+ + lH1 The amount of transmutation is very small. Further experiments in a-particle bombardment, combined with those on the scattering of a-particles showed us how to proceed further in attempts to produce transmutation. 179 The a-particle must enter the nucleus; it must make a head-on collision and must have sufficient speed to surmount the potential barrier round the nucleus, (the lecturer here gave a demon-stration with a model) and since this increases with atomic number only the lighter elements could be transmuted by means of natural a-particles.Methods were developed for the production of high voltages, and these were used to accelerate streams of protons, deuterons and helium ions for bombardment; in this way Cockcroft and Walton in 1932 effected the transmutation of lithium with accelerated protons, a-particles being emitted with great energies. ,Li7 + lH1-+,Be8 -+ ,He4 + ,He4 Bombardment of oxygen with accelerated deuterons (ions of heavy hydrogen) may give three different results. 77N14 2He4+ .L9F17+ on1 The lecturer pointed out that difficulties attendant on the use of potentials of several million volts to accelerate particles for the disintegration of heavy elements have been overcome by the use of the cyclotron, in which particles are accelerated by a moderate voltage of the order of 50,000-100,000 volts in a series of successive steps.It gives results equivalent to the application of 16 million volts. The neutron, discovered in the disintegration of beryllium, ,Be9 + ,He4 -+ &13 -+6Cl2 + on1, is the most effective of all agents for producing disintegration, having no charge and therefore not being repelled electrically by the nucleus. Slow neutrons are sometimes more effective than fast ones. When simple capture of a neutron occurs, the new nucleus may be unstable, i.e., cannot exist permanently but changes to a more stable form by the emission of a negative or positive electron, thus :-13A127+ ,,nl -+ 15A128 (unknown in nature), 13A128-+ 14SiZ8+ -,eo.This is the phenomenon of induced radio-activity discovered by 180 Mme. and M. Curie-Joliot. In their initial experiments the unstable bodies were produced by a-particle bombardment. 13A127+ ,He4 -+15P31--+ 13P30+ on1 15P30-+&i30 + +,e0. The unstable nuclei obey the same exponential law of trans-formation with time shown by the natural radio-active bodies. At the present time about 500 nuclear reactions of the primary type have been discovered, and some 350 new forms of atomic nuclei produced. Some of the stable nuclei were first known from their appearance in these reactions, for example, 017 and He3. In general, only minute amounts of matter can be transmuted by these processes, because only an exceptional collision produces transmutation.Many projectiles must be used to register a successful hit, and though the nucleus struck may release an amount of energy large in comparison with that of the projectile, it is very small compared with that of the total projectiles used. Further, nuclear reactions cannot usually be propagated, the fragments of the first disintegration dissipating their energy in electron collisions rather than in producing further trans- mutations. Professor Chadwick pointed out that there are two examples in which nuclear reactions may lead to effects on a large scale. The first is that of certain stars, where the nuclei are very close together and protons are accelerated to sufficient speed by the temperature.A cycle of transmutations is possible, which in essence results in the creation of helium from protons, and calculation shows that this process is the most important source of energy in hot stars. The second example is the transmutation of uranium by neutrons. A uranium nucleus which captures a neutron divides into two roughly equal parts, with the liberation of a large amount of energy and the emission of two or more neutrons. If conditions could be realised in which these neutrons could be utilised to produce further transmutations, a chain reaction -might develop which would provide an enormous source of power. For the first time there seems to be a possibility of tapping the great store of energy residing in the nuclei of heavy atoms, but at the present moment the prospects of cheap power produced in this way are not bright.In the discussion which followed, the Chairman, Dr. Kennett, and Messrs. E. E. Billington, G. N. Copley, V. Biske, E. Myer, J. G. Rimmer and E. Wallace took part. A vote of thanks to Prof. Chadwick was proposed by Mr. A. E. Findley and seconded by Dr. F. W. Kay. London and South-Eastern Counties.-A joint meeting of the Section with the London and Home Counties Branch of the Institute of Physics was held on 19th March, in the Theatre of the Royal Institution, when Dr. D. A. Spencer gave a lecture on ‘‘Colour Photography.” Mr. E. R. Davies, Chairman of the London and Home Counties Branch of the Institute of Physics, presided. Dr.Spencer has kindly supplied a resum6 of his address. The lecturer reminded the audience of the nature of colour and, having briefly described historically interesting optical processes in which attempts were made to reproduce the actual spectral composition of the colours of nature, outlined the principles upon which the commercially successful processes are based. In such processes no attempt is made to reproduce the spectral composition oi the colours photographed, but rather to match them-a much simpler matter. In 1861 Clerk Maxwell projected on to the screen at the Royal Institution the first colour photograph based on this principle. (The lecturer repeated this demonstration, using slides made from Maxwell’s transparencies.) Maxwell’s system, which arose out of his studies of colour mixture, depends on the fact that all naturally occurring colours can be matched by mixtures of three colours only-red, green and blue light.By means of a colour cartoon film the various ways in which this principle has been applied to commercial processes was illustrated and the various stages in the exposure, processing and projection of typical systems were shown in the form of animated diagrams. The relationship between the additive processes, in which the final result is in effect synthesised from red, green and blue light, and the subtractive systems, in which the synthesis colours are magenta, yellow and blue-green pigment or dye layers, was demonstrated and a comprehensive exhibit of colour prints by various subtractive processes illustrated the high level of quality nowadays attainable.Turning to the underlying theory, the lecturer pointed out that the so-called objective theory of three-colour photography, which had held the field for some 35 years, was incomplete and in some 182 ways misleading and that in the last few years the subject had been re-examined by several workers in the light of the comparatively new science of colorimetry. According to recent theory, the colour-mixture functions of the human eye must be taken into account and he illustrated the way in which this had been done. This led to an examination of the accuracy attainable by purely automatic procedures, and it was shown that, although complete accuracy was in theory attainable, it made demands on the photographic material and the operator’s technique which were at the moment difficult of attainment on a commercial as opposed to a laboratory basis.Nevertheless, it remained doubtful whether, in the absence of direct comparison with the original, an observer would be aware that literal accuracy of colour rendering was not attained in agood commercialcolour photograph by either additive or subtractive methods. Obvious errors in colour rendering were nearly always due to avoidable errors in technique or in choice of materials. A brief survey of commercial processes led to the latest development-the so-called monopack system-which enabled subtractive colour transparencies to be made in an ordinary camera.The construction and method of processing a typical monopack was illustrated by a moving diagram colour cartoon made with the monopack material in question. The lecture concluded with the projection of a variety of subjects recorded on sub-standard monopack 16 mm. cine film and on still transparencies. Commercial processes described in the lecture and forming the accompanying exhibition included Vivex, Carbro, Eastman Wash-Off Relief, Agfacolor and Kodachrome (subtractive processes) and Lumiere Autochrome, Finlay, Kodacolor and Dufaycolor (additive processes). A party of Members visited the Stratford Works of the London and North Eastern Railway on 17th April, by courtesy of Mr. F. W. Carr, the Mechanical Engineer.The departments in- spected included shops for repair of locomotive wheels, removal of steel tyres, replacement and machining, axle and crank turning and for various phases of locomotive dismemberment and recon- struction. In the tool shops, the production of small parts, such as bolts and nuts, by automatic lathes and other machines of robot character were seen. The noise occasioned by work on boilers reverberated until the party reached the foundry, where drop 183 forge work provided a fascinating sight, and so to the casting foundry where ladles of molten steel from the blast furnace were guided to moulds by means of overhead transporters; and finally, to the paint shop where the locomotives are made ready for the road.The Committee of the Section met in April. Business transacted included the appointment of Mr. E. Q. Laws as representative of the Section Committee on the Committee of the Council on Publicity, a discussion upon the Gas Identification Service and the arrangements to be made for the Annual General Meeting of the Section. A tentative programme for the forth- coming session was prepared. Manchester and District.-The Annual Conjoint Meeting of the Manchester Chemical Societies which usually takes place each year in November was held on 15th March in the College of Technology. The Deputy Chairman of the Society of Dyers and Colourists, Mr. L. Thompson, presided. Professor J. B. Speakman gave an address on ‘‘Some Relationships between the Constitution, Properties, and Uses of Animal Fibres,” of which he has kindly supplied the following abstract :-Twenty years ago little was known concerning the constitu- tion, properties, and reactivity of animal fibres, such as wool, In consequence wool textile processes were empirical in character and there could be no constructive development of new processes.-4s a result of recent research, however, the structure of animal fibres is now well understood, wool textile processes are capable of scientific control, and new processes can be developed. Early attempts to interpret the molecular structure of the animal fibre met with considerable difficulty on account of its variable composition. The wool fibre, for example, consists of three types of cell, forming respectively, the cuticle, cortex and medulla.Although the cuticle and cortex do not differ as regards sulphur content, the medulla contains little or no sulphur. Further the intercellular phase is deficient in sulphur as compared with the cuticle and cortex and the sulphur content of the fibre varies along its length. As a result of these and other variations in composition, little progress could be made towards interpreting the structure of the fibre by orthodox chemical methods. X-Ray 184 analysis and physico-chemical methods, however, led to the recognition of a skeleton structure, common to both the cells and the intercellular phase, and consistent with all known variations in composition of the fibres and their component parts.Accord-ing to this conception, the fibre consists of long peptide chains arranged parallel to the length of the fibre and linked together in one plane by cystine and salt linkages. Several such planes are superimposed to form the micelles from which the fibre is built. The processes to which wool is subjected are capable of close interpretation in terms of the above structure. As regards scouring, for example, the difficulty of removing mineral oil from wool is due, in part, to the high adhesion of mineral oil and wool. The high adhesion is due to the presence on the surface of the fibre of amino-acid side chains between which the oil mole- cules pack. In consequence, scouring must be assisted by introducing polar compounds into the mineral oil to promote emulsification.The long chain alcohols are useful, but a more recent solution, which is of topical interest, is to use fatty acids and scour with neutral detergents. As regards dyeing, the salt linkages are responsible for the affinity of animal fibres for acid, but sulphur linkage breakdown at high temperatures facilitates the process by promoting swelling. In milling, too, shrinkage of fabrics is assisted by the action of acids or alkalis in breaking salt linkages. Sulphur linkage breakdown, when excessive, hinders shrinkage by impairing the power of recovery of deformed fibres, and the critical conditions for optimum shrinkage-+H 10 and 45OC.-are governed by disulphide bond breakdown.In the case of rabbit fur, however, felting is promoted by disulphide bond breakdown in the coarser part of the fibre, which is peculiar in contour. Finally, it is now recognised that the unshrinkable finish on wool is based on gelatinisation of the surface layers of the fibre. Such gelatinisa- tion depends mainly on disulphide bond breakdown, and any reagent capable of causing such breakdown can be used to impart an unshrinkable finish to wool. Chlorine, bromine, sulyhuryl chloride, sodium sulphite, chlorine peroxide, etc., all function in this manner. From these and other examples it has become clear that existing finishing processes are based on the properties of the two types of cross linkage in untreated fibres-the salt linkage and the sulphur linkage.Conversely, it has been argued that new 185 processes will result from the synthesis of new linkages in animal fibres. In support of this contention, it may be stated that the long-established processes of crabbing and blowing are based, not merely on the breakdown of salt and sulphur linkages, but also on the synthesis of new linkages between the peptide chains. Similarly, the process for correcting the unlevel dyeing of loose wool by means of basic chromium acetate depends on the forma- tion of new cross-linkages. Recent research has, therefore, been devoted to the synthesis of new cross-linkages and a number of types have been established. These include metal-containing linkages, involving the use of simple inorganic compounds as well as inorganic polymers, and linkages formed by means of form- aldehyde, quinone, aldehydic and ketonic acids and ethylene sulphide.The new bonds, besides forming the basis of new finishing processes, have an important bearing on the repair of damage in animal fibres. On 5th April members of the Institute joined with the Manchester Statistical Society at a lecture on ‘‘Statistics : A Technical Tool in Chemical Industry,’’ which was given by Mr. S. Horrobin and Dr. 0. L. Davies (both of Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd.) at the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society’s rooms. The Twenty-second Annual General Meeting of the Manches- ter and District Section was held on 29th April, in the rooms of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. The chair was taken by Mr.S. A. Brazier. Mr. C. J. House, Mr. R. Gray, Dr. D. A. Harper, and Mr. J. H. Carrington were elected to the committee in place of four retiring members. The Hon. Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. A. Coulthard, and. the Hon. Auditors,-Mr. H. H. Stocks and Mr. L. Thompson,-were re-elected. The Chairman gave an address entitled: “A Chemist in Industry,” of which the following record is based on an abstract supplied by the lecturer. The lecturer described the different types of work required in a factory and the separation into (i)the control of raw materials and general analytical work, (ii) product or process control in 186 the factory, (iii) technical service or development work, and (iv) research work.Some distinction should be made between factories where the manufacturing processes are of a directly chemical nature and factories employing manufacturing processes the basic reactions of which are far from completely understood or very largely empirical. In operations more directly related to normal chemical manu- facturing processes it is probable that no serious difficulty exists in getting either a supply of trained but inexperienced chemists who would quickly fit into the technical control organisation or a supply for analytical or routine control laboratories or for research work, particularly when this is carried out by research squads under the direction of experienced leaders.A different position, however, seems to exist about direct factory work and, in view of the importance of this to industry, it is worth while considering some of the difficulties encountered. The division of industrial work into development, manu-facturing control and technical service is not entirely arbitrary. Although knowledge of the principles involved in manufacturing processes is obviously necessary for satisfactory development or technical service work, actually it will not be found difficult to sort out any available staff. There is a growing demand in industry for technically trained men to carry out these duties, to ensure efficient control of the product to meet the intensively competitive position of industry, the best standard of product at minimum cost and satisfactory standardisation.At the same time most industrial products have to meet competition from alternative materials; as only the most suitable product can continue to hold any market, it is necessary for a highly specialised technical staff to be created to enable the product to be improved from time to time and so to enable the manufacturers to continue in production. To meet such conditions it is essential that there should be a satisfactory flow of trained chemists with the right temperament for industrial work and sufficient initiative, force, fitness and foresight to carry the work through to a successful conclusion, and it is unfortunate that the right type of man is often difficult to find. It is of primary importance that the fundamental principles of science should be taught; if these are sacrificed in an attempt 187 to cover a large field of work the chemist will be seriously handi- capped in his later life.It has been found that certain schools of training turned out men particularly suitable for industrial work; where this is not so, it seemed likely that the reason was the curriculum rather than the personnel. Although it will probably be agreed that we are turning out good academic men and good research chemists, a difficulty does exist over the supply of men for industrial work and the matter is certainly worth consideration. In spite of the advantage given by preliminary contact with industry prior to University training, students have a real difficulty if entry into a revenue-earning position is unduly delayed.Factory experience at the beginning will, however, enable a student to decide if he is attracted by a career in industry and so would remove the frequent criticism that scientists on the whole are not suited for this type of work. At present the student has first to qualify as a chemist and then to decide on his career. In the lecturer’s own experience twelve months has been found a reasonable time in which a chemist can get “settled down” into his new life. The importance of a combined study of test data in direct relation to the product, of making clean reports that avoid highly technical terms and of establishing the goodwill of the colleagues with whom the chemist has to work must be realised.Mr. W. Atherton, Mr. J. H. Carrington, Dr. D. A. Harper, Dr. H. Hunter, Dr. W. J. S. Naunton, Mr. G. M. Painter, Mr. F. Scholefield, Mr. Owen Jones, and Mr. H. Stevenson participated in the ensuing discussion. Newcastle upon Tyne and North-East Coast.-A joint meeting of the Section with the Local Section of the Society of Chemical Industry was held in the Chemistry lecture theatre of King’s College, Newcastle upon Tyne, on 30th April, when Dr. Madgin, chairman of the Section, gave a talk on Equilibria in Some Solutions.” Dr. Madgin reminded his audience that determinations of the molecular weight of dissolved substances by the cryoscopic method generally assume the validity of the van’t Hoff ideal solution laws, and regard the solvent as an inert medium.However, it is quite certain that abnormal cryoscopic effects may be due not only to solute effects, such as dissociation or association, 188 but to solvent effects also. Lewis and Randall had shown how to determine a corrected concentration, or activity, from freezing- point measurements, and their equations were adapted to the study of solutions of molecular compounds. The inherent difficulties in the determination of the concentrations of undissociated molecules were successfully overcome, and equilibrium constants in both benzene and para-dichlorobenzene were calculated. The similarity of the essential properties of the solvents gave grounds for supposing that they would influence solutes in the same way, and the values for the same equilibrium constant (at different temperatures) were used in the van’t Hoff isochor to calculate heats of formation.It might be expected that, since all compounds between phenols and amines contain, presumably, the same fundamental linkage, the heats of formation would be similar. However, examination of a series of such compounds revealed specific differences between these compounds, and this will require further investigation. South Wales.-The Twenty-second Annual General Meeting was held on 25th April, in the Royal Institution of South Wales, Swansea,-Mr. J. Christie presiding. The Annual Report of the Committee and the Financial State- ment were received and adopted.Despite the fact that part of the programme for the session was cancelled, members had been able, through co-operation with other local chemical societies, to attend six meetings. The chief event of the session was the celebration of the “Coming of Age” of the Section, on 16th November. Mr. S. B. Watkins, District Member of Council, spoke of various Council activities during his first year of office and was thanked by the Chairman for his report. The Officers and Members of the Committee for the ensuing session were elected, as follows :-Chairman, Mr. J. Christie ; Honorary Secretary, Mr. E. E. Ayling; Committee, Dr. W. A. Hayward, Dr. F. Heathcoat, Dr. L. E. Hinkel, Mr. R. H. Jones, Mr. E. Thornton and Mr.F. G. Willson; ex-oficio, Mr. S. B. Watkins (Cardiff), District Member of Council. Messrs. J. W. Adye and C. R. N. Strouts were elected Honorary Auditors. The meeting then considered several questions, relating to the constitution and to the nomination of the Council, which had previously been before the Section and, after a keen discussion, 189 the following resolution was adopted for submission, in the first instance, to the Annual Conference of Honorary Secrtataries in June:- “That the By-laws governing the constitution and the election of the Council be revised, with special reference to the following: (a) An increase in the number of District Members to 19,so that one may be allocated to each Section in the British Isles and one to Overseas Members, (b) The abolition of the distinction on the balloting list between candidates nominated by the Council and those nominated under By-law 26.” The Conference of Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections, at which the President, the Honorary Treasurer and the Chairmen of the Publications Committee will also be present, will be held at the Institute on Saturday, aand June, at 10a.m.190 “The History of Chemical Industry in the Midlands.” During the 1939-40 session, under the Chairmanship of Mr. J. R. Johnson, before the Birmingham and Midlands Section of the Institute, a Symposium was held on the history of Chemical Industry in the Midlands. CONTRIBUTORS. The Rise of Chemical Industries in the Midlands .. .. .. .. George King,Member of Council. The Coal Tar Industry .. .. .. R. B. Robinson. Early Gas Plant Manufacture .. .. W. E. Benton. Alexander Parkes .. .. ..* Dr. D. F. Twiss, Member of Council. The Varnish and Lacquer Industry .. G. N. Hill. The Paint and Varnish Industry ,. W. E. Wornum. Bakelite .. .. .. .. .. George Dring.Non-Ferrous Metals . . .. .. J. R. Johnson, Member of Council. The Rise of Chemical Industries in the Midlands. By GEORGEKING,Member of Council. The availability of raw materials (charcoal, coal, iron pyrites, iron ore, sand, salt and limestone) has been the most important factor in establishing chemical industry in the Midlands. Two other factors are of interest: the foundation in Birmingham in 1552of the King Edward VI School provided a centre of learning; when the Five Mile Act was passed in 1665 many Non-Con- formists found refuge in Birmingham (which was not then a borough), and it is significant that most of the founders of Birmingham’s industries were dissenters.For centuries the Wyre Forest has been a source of charcoal, first used in winning iron from its ore. Reference to the mining of coal at Halesowen is made in the Rolls of Parliament for 1376, but the first notable use (under patent) of coal for iron ore reduc- tion was at Gadley Forge, where, in 1620, Dud Dudley is said to have produced about 3 tons of iron per week. 191 In 1709 Abraham barby first used coke for smelting iron at Coalbrookdale, and in I770 John Wilkinson of Bilston introduced the idea of blowing air through cast iron pipes into his smelting furnace.Wilkinson achieved fame by constructing in 1779 the remarkable single-span cast iron bridge over the Severn at Ironbridge. In 1886 Siemens introduced the open hearth process for removal of impurities from scrap and pig iron--the works being in Great Hampton Street, Birmingham. In 1746 Roebuck set up in Steelhouse Lane, Birmingham, the first factory in the world to use lead chambers for condensing sulphuric acid, and reduced the price of the acid from 40s. to 2s. 6d. per lb. The oil of vitriol was in demand in the metal industries. In 1835 Robert and William Chance erected a works at Oldbury to make sulphuric acid, and then sodium sulphate as a first stage in the Leblanc process for alkali manu- facture.In their works the Chance-Claus process for recovery of sulphur was worked out by the Leblanc method. William Hunt gained early experience in the works of Gossage and Fardon at Stoke Prior (near Droitwich), which had been established in 1830 for the manufacture of alkali by the Leblanc process and later carried on this manufacture in the works of William Hunt and Sons at Wednesbury. In 1896, the two companies were amalgamated to form Chance and Hunt, Ltd., famous all over the world as manu- facturers of heavy chemicals. This firm was later absorbed in Imperial Chemical Industries. The Chances required the alkali they manufactured for their glass works at Spon Lane, where, in 1832, sheet glass was made for the first time.It is interesting to note that the great Crystal Palace was built for the 1851 Exhibition with Chance’s sheet glass. In 1822 John Sturge started business at Bewdley, making dyers’ solutions-no doubt for the carpet makers at Midder- minster. Shortly afterwards he moved to Wheeleys Lane, Birmingham, where he was joined by Edmund Sturge in the manufacture of citric acid, tartaric acid, tartrates and potassium bicarbonate. In 1841 precipitated chalk was added to the list. The commercial importance of this last product to-day is largely due to the researches carried out in the laboratories of J. & E. St urge. The Sturges were joined in 1840 by Arthur Albright, who 192 experimented with phosphorus production.By 1851 progress had been sufficient to start up a new factory for this work, and Albright did this at Oldbury-a centre convenient for supplies of heavy chemicals and at the same time well situated for trans- port by rail and canal. A year later he was joined by J. E. Wilson to form the company which continues to make phosphorus, phosphates, various aerating materials and baking powders. The beginning of the gas industry took place in Birmingham. In I792William Murdoch experimented with coal gas in Cornwall; later he built the first gas holder at the Soh0 Works. In 1800 New Street Theatre was lit by gas. The firm of Boulton and Watt, with which Murdoch was associated, erected many inde- pendent gas plants for manufacturers and private houses.The gas industry soon developed actively in Birmingham in spite of certain opposition by leading clergymen who thought its use “profane and contrary to God’s Law.” The first gas works was built in 1817in Gas Street, and the streets were lighted by gas in 1826. In 1875 the gas companies were purchased by the town. Then came the problem of disposal of gas liquor and tar, and for this purpose various companies were formed (e.g. Lewis Demuth & Co., 1867,Major & Co.,Ltd., 1856,Robinson Bros., Ltd., 1869). These were amalgamated in 1918as the Midland Tar Distillers, Ltd., who now take tar from xoo gas undertakings and distil it at Oldbury. The ammonia liquors from the gas works were early disposed of and converted into chloride and sulphate.In 1893 a works was established (now managed by Brotherton & Co.) at Nechells for dealing with these liquors. In 1901, following the researches of Dr. Ludwig Mond, producer gas was manufactured at Tipton and distributed over an area of 120 square miles. From the by-products many new substances have been isolated, including a range of non-toxic, non-irritant germicidal preparations known as Monsol products : various sheep dips and new types of luminous paints have also been made. In 1894 the British Cyanide Co., Ltd., was founded at Tat Bank, Oldbury. Cyanide was used for gold extraction, mainly in South Africa. Later, this firm was merged into British Industrial Plastics, Ltd., which produced the first successful synthetic resins of the thiourea-formaldehyde type.The rise of the plastics industry in recent years has been amazing. Founded on the researches of Dr. Baekeland, work 193 was developed in Birmingham by H. V. Potter, who produced “Damard Lacquer.” From this beginning there has been built up the British Bakelite Industries with their extensive works at Tyseley. Two other modern industries based on the manufacture of cellulose esters were first developed commercially in the Midlands, -artificial silk by Messrs. Courtaulds, Ltd., at Coventry; lacquers by the Frederick Crane Co., in Birmingham. Probably the first piece of rubber to come to Birmingham was that given to Joseph Priestley.Vulcanisation by sulphur chloride was invented by Alexander Parkes, metallurgist at Messrs. Elkingtons, who made waterproof rubber goods. Messrs. Dunlop, Ltd., later established their works in Birmingham, and founded a research department which has achieved international reputation. It was in Birmingham that the manufacture of nickel was first developed, and chemistry has played an important part in the growth of the metallurgical industry. The manufacture of paints and pigments, glue and gelatine, and the preparation of foods, attracted the attention of chemists in the Midlands in the early days. Scientific control in industry is no new thing in Birmingham, and from the days when Priestley, Murdoch and other chemists met Boulton, Watt, Wedgwood and other “industrialists” at the Lunar Society meetings, chemists have contributed their share to the growth of the industry in the Midlands.The Coal Tar Industry. By R. B. ROBINSON In the early days of the gas industry, tar was merely a waste product, and gas works had to pay for its removal. It was first used for tarring fences, roofs, etc. In r838, Bethell, who intro- duced the use of creosote for the preservation of timber, built a tar distillery near the site of the present Swan Village Gas Works. The development of the tar industry, particularly during the latter half of the nineteenth century, was largely due to Perkin’s discovery in 1856 of the use of aniline as a source of dyestuffs, which, of course, provided an immense stimulus to the production of benzol.The development of the production of alizarine from anthracene, which dates from 1868, was a further incentive to the industry. 194 Tar distilleries were erected at various points in the Midlands, notably by J. C. Major of Wolverhampton; by Lewis Demuth, who specialised in the production of benzol at his works at Oldbury; by Robinson Brothers at West Bromwich; later followed the Brownhills Chemical Works, W. H. Keys of West Bromwich, and Josiah Hardman at Nechells, dealing with the tar from the nearby gas works. These firms purchased and distilled the crude tar produced by the gas undertakings in the surrounding area, and produced most or all of the well-known products of the industry, such as benzol; solvent naphtha for the rubber trade and for dry-cleaning; heavy naphtha, used in the paint trade and for anti-fouling compositions; crude carbolic and crude cresylic acids, the source of phenol and to-day important in the synthetic resin industry; creosote for a variety of uses, such as brick press oil, wells oil, absorbing oil, preservation of timber, etc.; and pitch, which found its principal outlet as a binder for the manufacture of patent fuel, considerable quantities being sent to South Wales for this purpose. In 1908, Robinson Brothers, Ltd., established a special department for the development of road tar. This was the beginning of the growth of this section of the industry, which occupies a position of very great importance in the Midland area to-day.It is interesting to note that, whereas in the early days there were only one or two proprietary road tar compounds on the market, there are to-day between 300 and 400. After the Great War, several of the largest local distillers merged their interests and formed the Midland Tar Distillers, Ltd., which company now has contracts with a very large number of gas undertakings over the Midland area on a profit-sharing basis. This principle, which is also in operation in a number of other areas, has made possible collective marketing of some of the principal products, such as creosote and pitch, with a (relative) stabilisation of prices in startling contrast with the old-time fluctuations. Early Gas Plant Manufacture.By W. E. BENTON. (The work of Murdoch (1754-1839)and Clegg was described and photographs of early types of gas plant made at the Soh0 works were exhibited.) 195 In 1792 Murdoch first used gas to light his cottage at Redruth. At a later date-possibly about 1802 or 1803-he induced Boulton and Watt to take up the manufacture of plant for production, storage and distribution of coal gas. His plant was sold to individual firms to enable them to manufacture coal gas for their own use. It is interesting to note that this group (Murdoch, Boulton and Watt) never seemed to have envisaged the possibility of the public distribution of gas-at any rate they were not interested in such work. Murdoch was also concerned with the devising of plant for purification of gas; water was mainly relied upon for this, though later he appears to be re-sponsible for the addition of lime, placed in the gas holder.This method was subsequently abandoned for some form of lime washer. Clegg, pupil of Murdoch, continued his master’s work: instead of the rectangular gas holders which were first used, he made the first circular one; he also introduced a proper coal gas purification process with damp lime. Alexander Parkes. By Dr. D. F. TWISS,Member of Council. Alexander Parkes, was a remarkable inventor with a wonder- ful perception of possibilities extending over the whole range of chemistry. Between 1840 and 1886 he took out 80 patents. The late Lord Moulton spoke of Parkes as the greatest original inventor produced by this country.Born in Suffolk Street, Birmingham, in 1813, Parkes lived in or near Birmingham for 68 years, and then retired to London. He was self trained. As a boy of 15 he exhibited at the Society of Artists in Birmingham a carving which was highly commended. He had made his own tools for this work. He always had artistic leanings, and in a number of his technical patents described himself as an “artist.” Parkes was apprenticed to Messrs. Messenger and Sons, art metal manufacturers. He passed on to the works of Elkington and Mason, where he was shortly made a manager of the casting department. No particularly striking development occurred until his employers called upon him to develop electro-plating by the cyanide process which they acquired in 1840.In less than a year he had suggested improvements which were embodied in the patents filed by his employers. One interesting and now well-known technique worked out by Parkes consisted of dipping the article to be plated into a solution of phosphorus in carbon disulphide, and then into a copper sulphate solution. Gold was then electro-deposited on the reduced copper. On one occasion when Queen Victoria visited Birmingham, she was presented with a bouquet of real flowers which Parkes had gold-plated. He next turned his attention to rubber. He discovered the softening and solvent action of carbon disulphide on rubber. He also vulcanised rubber films by applying a solution of sulphur chloride in carbon disulphide and further showed that rubber with bright pigments incorporated in it could be so vulcanised without loss of colour.He developed the process into the method still used to-day for vulcanising the rubber on water- proofed garments-Elkington and Mason, in spite of their prime interests as silversmiths and art-metal workers, being the first firm to make rain-coats with a vulcanised rubber coating. The process eventually was sold to Messrs. Charles Macintosh of Manchester, in 1852,after which, “mack,” in spite of its mis- spelling, became a general brief description for this type of overwear. Parkes carried out useful work in other directions. He made improvements in collodion for use .in photography, and discovered the beneficial effect of cotton seed oil and also of camphor on the moulding qualities of nitrocellulose.His product “Parkesine” was an early and original form of celluloid and xylonite, these substances appearing some years later. Probably arising out of this work he invented a propellant explosive, a type of cordite presumably, for which no patent of protection or statement of composition is on record. A report remains, however, of startlingly effective results obtained in 1855 with a $-ton shell. Metallurgy, too, received his attention. He invented the well-known Parkes process for extraction of silver from lead. In 1857 he patented inventions for the manufacture of seamless metal cylinders and tubes-the process eventually passing to Messrs.Everitt. In the same year he patented a process for the recovery of tin from scrap tinned iron. Later he produced various steel alloys and phosphor bronze. Arising out of the development of one of his processes for the extraction of nickel from its ores, Parkes became associated with Sir Josiah Mason in a nickel works in Holly Lane. He also 197 developed a smokeless furnace for annealing, smelting and calcining. Parkes never became wealthy. He spent his earnings in the development and elaboration of his ideas. The impression created on Josiah Mason by his scientific and fertile mind probably contributed much to the latter’s subsequent decision to found a science college-Mason College-which eventually formed the nucleus for the University, of which, as of Alexander Parkes, Birmingham is proud.The Varnish and Lacquer Industry. By G. N. HILL. The early development of the varnish and lacquer industry in Birmingham was closely associated with the metal trades of the town, and it appears that a number of manufacturers produced lacquers and japans not only for their own use but also for supply to out-workers. Little information is available concerning the early days of the industry, as formulas and processes of manufacture were jealously guarded secrets and only meagre details have become available from the private papers of some of the earlier workers. An event which had considerable influence upon the develop- ment of the industry in Birmingham took place in the year 1740, when John Baskerville introduced the art of japanning.This was the process of applying lacquer to metals and other materials in a manner similar to that practised in Japan. The business developed to such an extent that by 1770 a dozen or more “japanners” were established, and to supply their needs a number of varnish makers were at work in the town. One of the first of these was John Meredith, who set up in business in the year 1780. This business was listed in Holden’s Directory of Birmingham for 1803 as Meredith & Co., varnish makers, of Lionel Street, and is still carried on under the same title at premises in Western Road, claimed by the firm as the oldest varnish business in the world.A few years later two other varnish makers established themselves in Lionel Street-a Mr. Thornley at Nos. 5 and 6, and Mr. W. G. Postans at No. 19. Mr. Thornley’s business was carried on as Thornley & Son, varnish and printing ink makers, until 1845-50,when Thomas Knight became associated with the Company, which continued for a time as Thornley, Son & 198 Knight. By 1873 the title of the firm had been simplified to Thornley & Knight, under which it is still carried on bydescendants of the original founder. The business established by Mr. W. G. Postans later became associated with that of Messrs. Morley Bros., and is still carried on at the Trevor Street Works by Postans, Morley Bros. & Birtles. The industry first attained the dignity of a separate trade classification in the Directory of 1841,when some ten or more varnish makers were established in the city; of these businesses at least five are in existence to-day.The firm of Barrett & Hadfield had been established in Bradford Street a few years earlier by Jeremiah Barrett. Had-field appears to have been an elusive sort of person, as he left Mr. Barrett for a few years, returned in 1850,but had again departed by 1856,from which date Mr. Barrett carried on alone until 1864, when he retired from the business, following un- profitable speculation in American turpentine. The business was then taken over by Holden and Sanders. After a few years Mr. Sanders retired and Mr. Holden carried on.The name of the firm was changed to Arthur Holden & Son, under which title it still continues. One of the oldest lacquer firms in the country is that of Llewellyn Ryland, Ltd., the foundations of which were laid in the closing years of the eighteenth century by John Ryland, a manufacturer of Britannia and brass wares, who was later joined by his brother-in-law, John Llewellyn. This worthy was possessed of considerable artistic ability, and interested himself in the improvement of the lacquers then in use so effectively that, after the acquisition in 1830 of the lacquer business of William Lambley, the manufacture of lacquer had assumed such proportions that it became the principal occupation of the firm. On the death of the founder, the business was carried on by his son, John Llewellyn Ryland, who discontinued the metal side of the business and devoted the whole of his efforts to lacquer manufacture.The rapid development of the metal trades in Birmingham and the Midlands gave a great impetus to the varnish and lacquer trades, and Birmingham’s contribution to the industry lay in the production and standardisation of materials of high quality, which gained for them a world-wide reputation. 199 The earliest records of the principles of varnish making in Europe are due to Theophilus Presbyter in the tenth century. He described processes in use to-day. The early varnishes were viscous materials, much too stout for application with the brush, and were usually applied by means of the finger.The method of reducing the varnish melt to brushing consistency with a volatile solvent does not appear to have been practised until the eighteenth century, as it was not until 1750that Alberti, of Magdeburg, described the manufacture of an amber linseed oil varnish thinned with turpentine , which remained the only solvent available until 1885,when Samuel Banner, of Liverpool, patented his process for the manufacture of a short-range distillate from petroleum called “White Spirit.” The industry roughly classifies its products as varnishes and lacquers, including in the former category those oleo-resin complexes which depend for their film-forming and hardening properties on the oxidation and polymerisation of the complex after the evaporation of the solvent, and in the latter those materials which dry and harden with the evaporation of the solvent.The early lacquers consisted for the most part of simple solutions of resins in alcohol, to which were added small pro- portions of other ingredients to improve adhesion and impart toughness to the films. For the treatment of metals and particularly of brassware, the so-called “hot lacquers ” were produced. These lacquers depended for their success upon the thermo-hardening qualities of Indian lac, and were applied to previously heated articles. Birmingham manufacturers gained a world-wide reputation for this class of lacquer, and have been pioneers in the develop- ment of the modern type of synthetic lacquers.The Paint and Varnish Industry. By W. E. WORNUM. Like most of the varnish houses, the firm of Mander Bros. started by making japanning lacquer in 1792: the founder, Benjamin Mander, then 23 years of age, carried out his early experiments in his father’s house in John Street ,Wolverhampton. Out of this early work varnish making developed. By 1817 expansion resulted in the employment of 15 men, 4 women and 5 or 6 children and the same number of apprentices. An interesting sidelight on the industrial outlook at that time is given by the fact that for years daily prayers took place in every shop on the premises; the alternative of this was a fine. At the conclusion of work, hymns were sung. Employees attended the John Street Chapel on Wednesday nights.The hymns and prayers, however, disappeared when increasing trade demanded greater output. It is also interesting to recall that, in view of the fact that the processes were secret and very strictly guarded, the workmen were warned not to attend the same place of worship as workmen of rival factories, for fear that such processes might be discussed before and after the services. There was even rivalry between the different shops in the factory itself, and the same strict secrecy was maintained between them. Paint was first made in the factory in 1864; the manufacture of printer’s ink was started in 1880, and of dry colours in 1890. Cellulose finishes were first produced in quantity in about 1920, although clear cellulose lacquers were introduced some 35 years ago.In about 1900 a considerable amount of money was spent in buying the patent and developing a new method of making white lead. The product was claimed to be much whiter than the older white lead, and non-poisonous. The first claim was true and the second was not. It was made from pig lead mined on the Welsh border and this was subjected to a heat process in the presence of carbon dioxide. After lengthy experiments it was found impossible to obtain uniformity in the whiteness of the product and the process was given up. So far as is known, Mander Bros. was the first firm to use chromium oxide in a paint, the colour being bought from Germany at 4s. 6d. per lb. Later the colour was manufactured at the Wolverhampton works and the well-known “Suffield Greens ” were developed.The firm was also a pioneer in the commercial development of the vacuum flushing process, in which colours were directly converted from a water pulp to an oil or varnish paste without the intermediate stage of drying the pigment. That process has now been highly developed and extended in their Heath Town colour works. The Company now has three factories in production: the varnish works still occupies the original site in John Street, Wolverhampton; at Heath Town in a very up-to-date factory is centred the manufacture of paint, industrial finishes, cellulose lacquers, printer’s ink, and dry colours; their third factory is situated in Wednesfield.201 Probably the greatest step by Mander Bros., industrially, was that taken in September, 1932,when the Company signed a 40-hour week agreement, the first ever to be concluded between a British trade union and a British firm. Bakelite. By GEORGEDRING. The history of Bakelite, Ltd., goes back to 1906,when the fireproof celluloid syndicate was formed by Sir James Swinburne, F.R.S., chairman of the present Company, who purchased the British rights of one of the early phenol-formaldehyde patents- the patent of A.Luft (1902). Work was carried out in Sir James Swinburne’sown laboratories attached to his offices at 82 Victoria Street, London, S.W.1, with a staff of investigators. Stoving lacquers were made from phenol and formaldehyde by a process covered by the patent of W.H. Story, and the Damard Lacquer Co. was formed in 1910. The descriptive title “Damard” applied to these lacquers was well justified. They were extensively used on all brass household goods, such as bedsteads and fenders, and their production was transferred from the original premises in London to a small factory at 98, Bradford Street, Birmingham. H. V. Potter, the present managing director of Bakelite, Ltd., joined the Damard Lacquer Co. as chemist in January, 1914. In 1916 the Damard Lacquer Co. took over the factory at Cowley, Middlesex, which had been started in 1913 by the Bakelite Co., manufacturing phenol-formaldehyde compounds under the patents of Dr. L. H. Baekeland. At Cowley, solid synthetic resins were produced on a commercial scale.Resins and varnishes for the manufacture of laminated materials were produced and during the war the entire output of the factory was used for the electrical requirements of Government departments. After the war, hardened resin was cast in large quantities and in many different shapes for the manufacture of umbrella handles, cigarette holders, pipe stems, bangles, teapot handles and other articles, and resins were also made for the production of brake linings. During the year 1920-21 the manufacturing operations of the Company were transferred to a new works at Greet, Birmingham. The range of products was extended to include fast-curing moulding powders ,which rapidly became the major manufacture of the Company.In 1926Bakelite, Ltd. was formed, amalgamating the interests of the Damard Lacquer Go., Mouldensite, Ltd. and Redmanol, Ltd.,a union which brought together several competing interests in the production of phenol-formaldehyde plastics. The Mouldensite. Co. had been rrisnufacturing at Darley Dale, Derbyshire, since 1921, producing (‘Mouldensite ” moulding materials based on the patents of J. W. Aylsworth: Redmanol, Ltd. had been selling in this country materials made by the Redmanol Chemical Products Co. under the patents of Dr. L. V. Redman. Plant for the manufacture of laminated materials was installed at the Darley Dale works in 1927 and in the following year the company took over the activities of the Ideal Manufacturing Co., who operated a plant for the manu- facture of moulded laminated rod and tube at Kyotts Lake Road, Birmingham.By 1928the decision had been taken to concentrate all these activities on one site and the foundation stone of the new works was laid on a 30-acre site at Tyseley, Birmingham, on 15th April, 1930. Manufacture at the new works was begun in 1931 and the whole of the manufacturing activities of Bakelite, Ltd., was concentrated there a year later. Further buildings have been added year by year to keep pace with the increasing demands for the company’s products and the total number of people employed at Tyseley is now close on 800. The first lecture given in this country on phenol-formaldehyde synthetic resins was delivered by Dr.H. Lebach to the Birmingham Section of the Society of Chemical Industry; the lecture was entitled “Bakelite and Its Applications, ” and was given at a meeting held at the University of Birmingham on 17th April, 1913, with Mr. E. C. Rossiter in the chair. Non-Ferrous Metals. By J. R. JOHNSON, Member of Co.unciZ. Brass and Copper, the largest of the old surviving local industries, became associated with Birmingham after the Civil War. At that time iron had already been worked here for 200 years, so that skilled labour was available for metal work. Brass wire was first drawn mechanically in England about 1568 by Christopher Schutz, who was brought over to this country to establish the manufacture of brass near Tintern 203 Abbey, and to introduce mechanical wire drawing.The works did not prove successful. In 1702 the Bristol Brass Co. at Keynsham began operations, using copper ore from Cornwall and calamine from the Mendips. From the Keynsham works came many of the earlier employees of the works at Selly Oak, and we owe much to their skill. Turner’s Brass House in Coleshill Street, Birmingham, was set up in 1740, but this was not a success. In 1781 the Birmingham Metal Co. opened its works in Brasshouse Passage, and in the same year Emerson introduced the method of making brass by directly alloying spelter and copper, in place of the ancient method of melting copper with calamine. In 1793 Boulton and Gibbins formed the Rose Copper Co., and this functioned until 1821.At the end of the eighteenth century, the Birmingham brass trade was consuming at least 1,000tons of copper a year. Early in the nineteenth century there was increased local demand for brass; in 1803 the introduction of gas lighting called for brass fittings; the brass bedstead trade was begun about 1830; the development of the percussion cap and breech loader, about 1836, brought about increased production of brass and copper strip. Muntz metal was first made by Muntz in Water Street, Birmingham, in 1832. In 1836 the Birmingham Battery and Metal Co. was founded-the name “battery” being descriptive of the method whereby a wrought metal sheet was produced from a cast ingot by hammering, using heavy hammers for roughing from the ingot to sheet, and lighter ones for finishing.Four or more hammers were used, ranging from heavy to light -these were termed a “battery” of hammers. In 1869, James Elkington, of the famous Elkington firm,followed up his development of electro-plating, by the first commercial production of electrolytically refined copper. The Birmingham Mint was established about a century ago, when it took over the coinage plant of Boulton and Watt. The company has designed and struck coins for many countries, and this side of its work is well known. It has also long been recognised as one of the leading makers of tubes and other products in brass and copper. The history of the Birmingham business of Henry Wiggin & Co. is practically the history of the nickel industry in England.When on a visit to Poland, Askin, a local veterinary surgeon, saw some German spoons made of “Argentain,” one of which was accidentally broken. This showed a dull grey fracture, which to Askin seemed to suggest imperfections and impurities. On his return home Askin succeeded in making an ingot of “Argentain” which he was able to get rolled out to a glittering ribbon at a local rolling mill. With Henry Merry he immediately set up, in 1833, a successful business for the manufacture of the new alloy, “German silver,” using nickel residues from the potteries as raw material. A year later Askin left this firm to become the technical head of a new company, Evans & Askin. The nickel residues were soon exhausted and the company was in difficulties.Brooke Evans went to the Continent to explore the possibilities of obtaining supplies, and finally found, in the Carpathian Mountains , a nickel-cobalt-arsenic ore which was entirely unfamiliar to him. He brought back a big sample. The partners found themselves in possession of material containing at least two very valuable and important metals, but they had no means of separating them. The ore also contained arsenic, copper, bismuth and iron. It failed entirely to give the cobalt blue required by the potteries. Mr. White Benson of the British White Lead Co. (and father of Archbishop Benson) suggested the possibility of precipitating the cobalt by means of bleaching powder.The two friends set about their experiment inde- pendently: Benson had an ample supply of bleaching powder; using sufficient to precipitate the whole of the metals, he concluded the method was useless, since the deposit was found to consist of the two oxides of nickel and cobalt. Askin prepared for his experiment, but found he had only about half the bleaching powder he proposed to use. In desperation he emptied this into his solution and got, as he expected, only a small precipitate. To his joy, examination showed this to be pure oxide of cobalt, the nickel being left in the clear green supernatant fluid. It was a simple process to precipitate the nickel with lime, so the problem of separation of the two metals was solved. This method of separation has since been adopted in all wet refining processes of separating nickel and cobalt from arsenical ones.It gave Askin a supply of nickel he required, and it produced an enormous improvement in pottery ornamentation by yielding a pure cobalt oxide for all the principal pottery and glass works in the world. In 1865 Henry Wiggin took over this business, which still retains its prominence in the nickel industry, though the carbonyl process has largely superseded the wet extraction process. 205 April-May Examinations, 1940. Abstract of the Report of the Board of Examiners. Examinations were held as under:- No. No. For the Associateship in General Chembtry- Entered. Paaaed. At the Institute, in the Laboratories of the University of London, South Kensington, and at the University of Manchester,-28th and 29th March and 2nd-5th April ..57 32* (Some candidates took papers at local centres.) their theoretical For the Fellowship- Branch C. Organic Chemistry, with special refer- ence to Stereochemistry: at the Institute and at Battersea Polytechnic, London,- 8th-13th April .. .. .. .. 1 1 The Chemistry, including Microscopy, of Food and Drugs, and of Water: at the Institute, and at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London,- Branch E. 8th-13th April .. .. .. .. 10 4 Agricultural Chemistry: at the Seale- Hayne Agricultural College, Newton Abbot, Devon,-1st-5th April . . .. .. Branch P. 1 1 Industrial Chemistry, with special refer- ence to Oils and Fats :at the Institute, and in the Laboratories of Dr. H.E. Cox, Branch a. F.I.C.,-Sth-l3th April .. .. .. * Seven candidates failed to satisfy the Examiners in part only of the examination, and six candidates satisfied the Examiners in those parts of the examination in which they had previously failed. The following papers and exercises were set :-Examination in General Chemistry forthe Associateship. THURSDAY, 28th MARCH, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Attempt FIVE questions only. Answer concisely and to the point. Give formulae and equations where possible. ) 1. Describe the apparatus you would use and the detailed experi- mental procedure you would follow in making ONE of the following determinations :-(a) the molecular weight of a substance by elevation of the (6) the transport numbers of the ions of sodium sulphate in boiling point of ethyl alcohol; aqueous solution.2. Compare the mode of arrangement and motion of the molecules in a gas, a liquid, a crystalline solid, and a vibreous solid; and explain how differences in the properties of a substance in these various physical states can be accounted for in terms of the distribution and movement of molecules. 3. Describe the preparation and properties of FOUR of the following:- (a)hydrofluosilicic acid ; (b)potassium manganate ; (c) hydroxyl-amine sulphate ; (d) sodium nitroprusside ; (e) hypophosphorousacid; (f)chlorosulphonic acid. 4. Explain what is meant by the pH value of a solution and outline a method for determining this quantity.Give TWO examples of ths control of pH value in qualitative inorganic analysis, explaining in each case how the control is effected and the purpose for which it is applied. 5. Distinguish between the various types of valency bonds which are recognised in inorganic chemistry, and discuss with reference to typical examples the dependence of the properties of substances on the types of bond which they contain. 6. Give an account of EITHER beryllium and its compounds OR tungsten and its compounds. 7. At T"Abs. the heat evolved in the reaction H, + 40, = H,O (gas) is given by 57539 + 1.081'+ 0.00145T2 -0.00000074T3 calories; and the heat evolved in the reaction C + 30, = CO is given by 27070 -2.05T + 0.00225T2-0.0000004T3calories.Calculate the amount of heat evolved or absorbed when the reaction C + H,O (gas) = H, + CO occurs at 1000"Abs. 2 to 5 p.m. (Attempt FIVE questions only. Answer concisely and to the point. Give formulae and equations where possible.) 1. Summarise the more important contributions to chemistry made by THREE of the following:- (a) Kohlrausch; (b) van't Hoff; (c) Werner; (d) Mosoley; (e) Langmuir. 2. Give an account of TWO of the following:- (a) deuterium and its compounds; (b) the hydrides of the alkali and alkaline earth metals; (c) the inert gases; (d) intermetallic compounds. 3. Describe a method for determining the solubility of a gas in a liquid when the solubility is not very great.At 20" C. 1 C.C. of water dissolves 2.66 C.C. of hydrogen sulphide (measured at N.T.P.) when the gas pressure is 756 mm. Calculate the weight of hydrogen sulphide dissolved by a litre of water at 20"C. when it is saturated with the gas under a pressure of 2,000 mm. 4. Explain the precise significance of FIVE of the following terms:- (a) osmotic pressure ; (b) solid solution ; (c) critical solution (f)isotope; (9)free energy. 5. Give an account of TWO of the following metallurgical processes, temperature; (d) molecular refraction; (e) outectic mixture ; 207 with special reference to the chemical principles involved :-(a)the production of magnesium from magnesite; (b) the production of high-purity zinc from sulphide ores; (c) the extraction of gold from its ores by the cyanide process; (d) the recovery of the platinum metals from nickel ores.6. Write an essay on ONE of the following topics:- (a) the colloidal state; (b) the liquefaction of gases; (c) the catalysis of gas reactions; (d) artificial radioactivity. 7. State the proper chemical names, constitutional formulae and principal uses of any TWELVE of the following :-hyeolith; microcosmic salt; salts of lemon; pink salt; Glauber’s salt; Schlippe’s salt; Fremy’s salt ; sal volatile ; corrosive sublimate ; tartar emetic ; yellow prussiate of potash ; realgar ; cryolite ; fluorspar ; pyrolusite ; ilmenite ; scheelite ; selenite. FRIDAY, 29th MARCH, 10 a.m.to 1 p.m. (Attempt FOUR questions only. Answer concisely and to the point. Give formulae and equations where possible.) 1. Describe the usual method of preparing acetoacetic ester and give an account of its uses as a synthetical reagent. 2. Give an account of the reactions which occur when nitrobenzene is reduced under different experimental conditions. 3. Outline the methods of preparation of FOUR of the following reagents and give typical examples of their use:-(a)phenylhydrazine; (b) thionyl chloride; (c) methyl sulphate; (d) selenium dioxide; (e) phenylcarbimide (phenyl iso-cyanate) ; (f)acetic anhydride. 4. Describe the preparation of a typical Grignard reagent; outline 5. Give the evidence on which the structure of any ONE of the the preparative uses of these reagents.following compounds is based :-(a) camphor; (b) caffeine; (c) indigo. 6. Give a concise account of the chemistry of ONE of the following:- (a)atropine; (b) sucrose; (c)pyridine carboxylic acids. 7. Write a short essay on ONE of the following topics:- (a)tautomerism, OR (b)the orienting effect of a group of aromatic 8. By means of equations and short notes indicate how you would substitution. prepare from acetic acid, the following compounds :-(a) chloro-acetyl chloride; (b) acetone; (c) nitromethane; (d)acetonitrile ; (e) ethylamine; (f)methylamine; (9)glycollic acid; (h)glycine. 2 to 2.30p.m. Translation from French and German technical literature.208 TUESDAY, 2nd APRIL, 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. Identify compounds (A) and (B). (A =p-nitroacetanilide or p-bromoacetanilide; B = 8-naphthylsalicylate OR n-butylsalicylate.) WEDNESDAY, 3rd APRIL, 10 a.m. to 4.30 pm. Characterise as completely as time allows the two components of the mixture (C) and state the approximate proportions in which they are present. (C = Benzene and o-chloroaniline; OR toluene and dimethyl- aniline.) THURSDAY, 4th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. 1. Determine by a gravimetric method the percentage of P,O, in the sample (D), which is a mixture of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. (0.4-1.5 g. of the mixture is a suitable amount to use for a single determination.) 2. Determine volumetrically the percentage of available chlorine in the sample (E) of chloramine-T.A standardised solution of potassium iodate and an approximately decinonnal solution of sodium thiosulphate are provided. The VOLUMETRIC exercise must be completed TO-DAY, but the QRAVIMETRIC determination may be finished TO -MORROW. FRIDAY, 5th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. 1. Complete the gravimetric determination which was begunyesterday. 2. Make a qualitative analysis of the mixture (F),which consists of three pigments. (Lead oxide and mercury sulphate with either mercury or cadmium sulphides.) 3. Identify the substance (G). (G = Copper or lead thiocyanates.) Examinations for the Fellowship. Branch C: Organic Chemistry, with special reference to Stereochemistry. MONDAY, 8th APRIL, 10 a.m.to 1 p.m. (Answer FOUR questions.) 1. Discuss TWO examples in each case of optical activity in orgmiccompounds associated with the presence of (i) a nitrogen atom and (ii) a sulphur atom. 2. Give an account of recent researches on the stereochemistry of 3. Give a brief outline of investigations bearing on the subject of allene derivatives . “strainless rings.” 4. Give an account of optical isomerism due to restricted rotation. 5. By means of examples show how the extension of van’t Hoff’e principle of optical superposition by C. S. Hudson has been used in sugar chemistry. 6. Give an account of EITHER (a)organo-metallic compounds, OR (b) free radicals. 209 MONDAY, 8th APRIL, 2 to 5 p.m.write essays on TWO of the following topics:- (a) Pasteur’s investigations of the tartaric acids. (b) The Walden inversion. (c) Molecular dissymmetry in metallic co-ordination compounds. (d) Geometrical isomerism. (e) Molecular rearrangements. TUESDAY to BRIDAY, 9th to 12th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. Separate the /I-octyl alcohol provided into its optically active forms (not less than 10 C.C. of each) by the procedure described in OrganicSyntheses, Vol. VI, p. 68. Rotatory powers and melting (or boiling) points of all specimens should be carefully recorded. The P-octyI alcohol, which is a commercial specimen, contains a small amount of a ketone: isolate this ketone, purify it and prepare from it TWO crystalline derivatives.Branch E: The Chemistry, including Microscopy, of Food and Drugs, and of Water. MONDAY, 8th APRIL, 10 to 11.30 a.m. (Not more than THREE questions to be attempted.) 1. Without using the newer organic reagents, give an outline of a scheme for the detection and estimation of copper, lead, tin and zinc when present together in drinking water. 2. Various formulae have been suggested for the routine examination of milk by means of the determination of the specific gravity and the percentage of fat. How have these formulae boen devised? 3. Describe some modern form of colorimeter and state the principles 4. Suggest suitable specifications for any THREE of the following:- on which it is designed. White pepper; ground ginger ; cornflour; caustic soda (analytical reagent); baking powder; dripping; glycerin.11.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Not more than THREE questions to be attempted.) 1. What is digitalis and how is it standardised? Describe its 2. Describe methods for the identification of the following poisons pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses. in stomach contents :-(a) potassium cyanide; (b)oxalic acid; (c)barbitone; (d) arsenic. 3. Write a short account of the hormones, with special reference to 4. Write brief notes on the following drugs, giving the principal those which are of practical importance in therapeutics. pharmacological actions and therapeutic applications :-(a) precipitated bismuth; (b) codeine; (c) sodium nitrite; (d)amidopyrine.2 to 5p.m. (Not more than FIVE questions to be attempted.) 1. Give a short account of the changes in the law, as it affects the work and duties of a Public Analyst, brought about by the Food and Drugs Act, 1938. 2. Give a list of those vitamins which can be detected or estimated by chemical or physical means. Indicate shortly in each case the method which can be adopted. 3. Discuss the relative importance of (a) tho refractive index; (b) the saponification value; (c) the iodine value; and (d) the Reichert- Polenske value in the estimation of the compositioii of a mixture of fats. Give reasons for your answers and state what additional determinations may be necessary. 4. Outline the methods adopted for the determinations of the various compounds of nitrogen which may be present in fertilisers (either separately or together) and indicate any special precautions which may be necessary in the presence of chlorides.5. You are required to determine the original total milk solids in a sample of full-cream sweetened condensed milk which shows signs of decomposition. What special methods are necessary for the determination of the added sucrose? 6. Write a short essay on the treatment of flour with chemical substances. TUESDAY, 9th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Determine the ash and chloride in the sample of milk (A) and from the figures obtained make any deductions which you can with regard to its purity. (Contained 0-3 per cent. of added sodium chloride.) 2.Determine the proportion of lead in the sample of drinking water (B). WEDNESDAY, 10th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Determine the proportion of adulterant in tho sample of coffee (C). (Coffees with different proportions of chicory.) 2. Examine the sample of almond oil (D) and report on its purity. (50 per cent. peach kernel oil.) THURSDAY, 11th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Examine the sample of Gregory’s powder (€3) and report on its purity. (Incorrect proportions of ingredients.) FRIDAY, 12th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Examine the sample of “Glucose Syrup” (F) and report on its composition. (Honey.) SATURDAY, 13th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 pm. 1. Identify by microscopical examination the powdered drugs (G),(H), (I),(J),.(K), and submit annotated sketches of the diagnostic struc- tures.(Indian hemp, cascara bark, senna leaf, ginger, nux vomica.) 2. Examine the sample of poultry food (L)for a poison and determine the proportion present. (Ground maize, bran, finely powdered crystals of copper sulphate.) 8. Identify the substance (M). (Diachylon.) 211 Branch F: Agricultural Chemistry. MONDAY, 1st APRIL, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (AnswerFOUR questions.) 1. State the chemical nature of food fats. What changes do they undergo during digestion? How do food fats affect the nature of body fats ? 2. Discuss the functions of the following in animal nutrition:-Iron, iodine, copper, cobalt, phosphorus and calcium. 3. Discuss the various methods of preserving young grass, the chemical changes involved, and the food values of the products.4. Distinguish between “protein equivalent,” “crude protein,”“true protein ” and “digestible protein.” State how each is determined. How has the protein requirement for various classes of stock been found. What is meant by albuminoid ratio, and how is it applied in rations for stock? 5. Discuss the chemical changes taking place during the manufacture of a hard cheese. 6. Specify three common insecticides and three fungicides. State the chemical composition of each and mode of action. MONDAY, 1st APRIL, 2 to 5 p.m. (AnswerFOUR questions.) 1. Discuss the methods and significance of soil analysis in ascer- taining soil fertility. 2. Give an account of our present knowledge of the nature of “humus.” Discuss modern methods of converting vegetable matter into “humus.” 3. What is meant by “base exchange”? What conclusions have followed the study of the composition of drainage waters? What effects other than the nutrition of plants follow the application to the soil of :-(a)Sulphate of ammonia; (b)nitrate of soda; (c) calcium sulphate; (d) magnesium sulphate; (e) quicklime. 4.Give an account of experiments on the application of lime, phosphates and nitrogenous fertilisers for the improvement of pastures. 5. Describe the manufacture of :-(u) synthetic sulphate of ammonia; (b) superphosphate of lime. 6. Discuss the problem of town refuse, including sewage, from thc standpoint of its agricultural value.TUESDAY, 2nd APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Determine the total nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen and aniirioniacal nitrogen in the sample of guano (A). [THIS EXERCISE MAY BE COMPLETED TO-MORROW.] WEDNE’SDAI’, 3rd APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Complete yesterday’s exercise. 2. Determine the exchangeable calcium, the pH, and the lime requirement of the soil (B). [THIS EXERCISE MAY BE COMPLETED TO-MORROW.] 212 THURSDAY, 4th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. 1. Complete yesterday’s exercise. 2. Analyse the foodstuff (C) and determine the P,O, content of the ash. [THIS EXERCISE MAY BE COMPLETED TO-MORROW.] FRIDAY, 5th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Complete yesterday’s exercise. 2. Report on the sample of milk (D). (Watered and containing preservative.) Branch G: Industrial Chemistry, with special reference to Oils and Fats.MONDAY, 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (FIVE questions only to be attempted.) 1. Describe the uses of flow sheets for materials, energy and time. Illustrate your answer by means of typical flow sheets for a process with which you are familiar. 2. Name the more important adsorbents in industrial use, and mention some of their applications. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, a large-scale process involving the principle of adsorption. 3. What steps would you take in order to collect information and data relating to the market for a chemical product before deciding to proceed with its manufacture. State precisely where you would look for the necessary information, and what authorities and organisations you would consult.4. The extensive use of water-tube boilers and high operating pressures hm made the study of the quality of boiler feed water of particular importance. Explain the significance of this statement, and give a brief account of modern knowledge and theories on the subject. 5. In what circumstances would you recommend the use of multiple effect evaporation, and what considerations have to be taken into account in deciding upon the number of effects required. Mention the different systems of condensation employed in conjunction with evaporating plants, and indicate any special peculiarities or advantages to each system. 6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of filter presses and continuous filters, indicating clearly the nature of the products and the conditions for which the various types are suitable.7. What factors would you take into account in considering a proposal for the replacement of manual labour by mechanical handling appliances. Illustrate your answer by detailed reference to some specific manufacturing operation. 8. Explain when it is necessary to take steps to insure any pressure vessels under your control against explosion. State briefly the principal requirements of any inspecting or insurance authority with which you are familiar. MONDAY, 8th APRIL, 2 to 6 p.m. (Answer FIVE gumtiom.) 1. Give an account of modern views on the theory of saponification and describe methods in industrial use, 213 2.Describe the production of glycerine on an industrial scale, and outline methods available other than those based on the saponification of oils. 3. What is the constitution of elaeostearic acid and how may it be proved? Give an account also of the properties of the oils in which it occurs. 4. Describe as fully as you can the methods available for the deter- mination of the glyceride structure of a fat. 5. Outline the evidence on the constitution of vitamin A and describe methods for its determination in oils. 6. Describe the structure and method of preparation of substitutes for soap. How may they be detected in detergent mixtures? 7. .Discuss the possibilities of molecular distillation as a method for the investigation of oils; indicate results which have been obtained and the practical difficulties involved in the operation.TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 9th to 12th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Examine the sample of crude glycerine (A) and report in the manner prescribed in the I.S.M. 2. Determine the proportion of iso-oleic acid in the oil (B). 3. Prepare specimens of dihydroxystearic acid and suberic acid from the oleic acid provided (C); note their melting points. 4. Examine the specimen of lard (D) and report on its purity. 5. Estimate the phenol in the sample of carbolic soap (E). FOR THE ASSOCIATESHIPEXAMINATIONS IN GENERALCHEMISTRY. AND PHYSICALINORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Theory Pa+ers.-The first paper was well answered by the majority of candidates.The question on types of valency bonds was a favourite and was adequately dealt with by almost all candidates. It was satisfactory to find that a considerable number of candidates tackled the calculation (Question 7) and that the majority of them handled it success- fully. The least satisfactory answers were those concerned with experimental methods of determining boiling point elevation, transport number and fiH value. It was evident that many of those who attempted these questions had never actually made such determinations in the laboratory. Many failed to realise that in the determination of boiling point elevation the thermo- meter bulb must be in contact with the boiling solution; and that in the transport number determination the choice of electrode materials and the design of the apparatus must be carefully 214 considered in order to avoid the disturbing effects of gas evolution.The answers to the second paper were rather less satisfactory on the whole. Some good essays were returned, especially on the colloidal state, and most candidates seemed to know a good deal about deuterium and its compounds, the inert gases, osmotic pressure and isotopes. On the other hand many were unable to describe a satisfactory method for deter- mining the solubility of a gas in a liquid or to make a simple calculation on this subject; and had no clear idea as to the significance of the terms “solid solution ” and ‘I free energy ”; and few among those candidates who attempted Question 5had much understanding of the chemical principles involved in the metallurgical processes concerned.Question 7 was generally popular and most candidates had evidently come across at least a dozen of these “trivial” names: confusion between corrosive sublimate and calomel was the commonest-and most potentially dangerous-error. Practical Examination.-In the gravimetric determination of phosphate, several candidates appear to have added insufficient molybdate to precipitate the phosphate completely in the first instance; and many were satisfied with one precipitation by molybdate, followed by weighing. On the other hand, most of the candidates obtained good results in the volumetric exercise and were able to make the necessary calculation correctly.The qualitative analysis of the mixture was only moderately well done. Some candidates seemed to be at a loss as to how to tackle a mixture that was partly insoluble in acids. In the mixture containing mercuric sulphide , the sulphide was fre-quently missed and often even the mercury. Most of the candidates correctly identified the metal in the single substance but some failed to recognise the thiocyanate radical. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Thzeory Paper.-The majority of the answers were moderately good, some very good and several very weak. A number of candidates who returned good answers to the more standardised types of questions such as those dealing with acetoacetic ester, Grignard reagents, camphor and atropine, showed very limited ability in applying the standard everyday methods of the 215 laboratory to the simple case of acetic acid and its derivatives required by Question 8.Several candidates who attempted the essay did not pay much attention to the request in the rubric at the head of the paper to answer concisely and to the point; some answers lacked coherence and orderly arrangement. In dealing with questions of structure far too little attention was given to the analytical evidence-a perusal of some of the answers would lead to the inference that when the empirical formula and one or two simple reactions of a complicated sub- stance such as camphor were known, someone evolved the correct structure out of his inner consciousness and proceeded to confirm it by a synthesis.Many of the answers implied that the synthesis was essentially a confirmation of a structure based on evidence which was not supplied and for which the question asked. Practical Examination.-On the whole the exercises were fairly well done. The tendency to refer to tables of melting points at too early a stage of the work was not nearly so marked on this occasion. Several candidates went astray through inaccurate work in testing for elements present in the compounds under exanination. TRANsLATIoNs.-Genera~y these were fairly well done, parti- cularly the French. EXAMINATIONSTHE FELLOWSHIP.FOR BRANCHE: The Chemistry, including Microscopy, of Food and Drugs and of Water.The standard reached by the successful candidates was reasonably good. The manipulative work was well done, but those candidates who failed did so largely through inability to co-ordinate their practical work in such a manner as to produce suitable reports on the composition of the samples submitted. The general standard in therapeutics and pharmacology was good and sufficient for the practice of the profession of Public Analyst. A fair degree of proficiency in the identification of powdered drugs by means of the microscope was obtained. The identification of lead oleate (diachylon) gave little diffi- culty to the best candidates, but it was surprising to find other metals, such as bismuth and mercury, returned by some candi- dates.216 PASS LIST. Examination in Qeneral Chembtry for the Aasociateship. Booth, Alan, City Technical College, Liverpool. Boylin, James Laurence, Central Technical College, Birmingham. Cameron, William Mitchell, Technical College, Paisley. Cathro, James, Royal Technical College, Glasgow. Cope, Leonard Charles, B.Sc. (Lond.), Technical College, Derby. Curran, Michael Joseph, The Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. Fell, John, Harris Institute, Preston. Field, William Edwin John, B.Sc. (Lond.), Chelsea Polytechnic; Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London. Fletcher, Walter, Technical College, Huddersfield. Harding, John David Dermott, Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol ; and Woolwich Polytechnic, London.Hesford, Edward, College of Technology, Manchester. Hill, Donald Harold, Battersea Polytechnic, London. Hoult, Eric, College of Technology, Manchester. Johnson, Sydney, B.Sc. (Lond.), University College, Leicester. Lay, Maung KO,M.Sc. (Lond.), University College, Bangor; and Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Lowe, Edward Henry, Birkbeck College, London ;and University College, Nottingham.McKerrigan, Angw Alexander, City Technical College, Liverpool. Meldrum, Robert Scott, The University and Royal Technical College, Glasgow.Neech, Frank Donald, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Powell, Roy, City Technical College, Liverpool. Pritchard, Bernard Edward, King’s College, London.Roach, John, City Technical College, Liverpool. Roberts, Charles Tindal, Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh. Roberts, David John, Ph.C., Central Technical College, Birmingham; and City Technical College, Liverpool. Tee, Frederick William, College of Technology, Manchester ; and Royal Technical College, Salford. Walker, Brian Yeoman, City Technical College, Liverpool. Wall, Leslie Lakey, Rutherford Technical College, Newcastle upon Tyne.Wheeler, Edgar Philip, Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London. White, Eric Newman, Battersea Polytechnic and Woolwich Polytechnic, London. Williams, Francis Derek, College of Technology, Manchester. Woodthorpe, Thomas John, Technical College, Derby. Woollard, Leslie Delano, Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London.Examination for the Fellowship. In Branch C : Organic Chemistry, with special reference to Stereochemistry. Duveen, Denis Ian. In Branch E : The Chemistry, including Microscopg, of Food and Drugs,and of Water. Hurt, Noman Albert. Law,Norman Heyworth, M.Sc. (N.Z.).Lyne, Francis Arthur, B.Sc. (Lond.).Minor, Roland Gordon. In Branch F : Agrkultural Chemistry. Mitra, Sachindra Nath, M.Sc. (Lond.). 217 Notes. Fees €or Scientific Witnesses.-A note on the profes- sional fees of scientific witnesses in courts of law appeared in the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGSof the Institute in 1925, p. 279, wherein the Council expressed its indebtedness to Sir Archibald Bodkin, then Director of Public Prosecutions, for his observa- tions on the fees and allowances due to scientific witnesses in criminal cases.At that time, Sir Archibald quoted a section of the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1851,which provided that these witnesses should receive such allowances for attending to give evidence as the court might consider reasonable, including where necessary, allowance for qualifying to give evidence. Cases bearing on the subject have recently come before County Court Judges. In a case tried at the Westminster County Court on the 4th May, 1936, before His Honour Judge Dumas, K.C., a scientific witness claimed fees from a client irrespective of the amount allowed by a Taxing Master. The defence set up was twofold, namely (a) that the Taxing Master had determined the proper measure to be paid by the client, and (b) that the plaintiff’s account was excessive having regard to the work he had done.After hearing evidence His Honour gave judgment for the plaintiff for the whole of his claim, remarking that the plaintiff might have asked for higher fees. In a case heard before His Honour Judge Lilley at the Marylebone County Court on the 29th May, 1940,a Fellow of the Institute sued a client for fees in connexion with a case, in which he had carried out an analysis and had been subpoenaed to attend Court. The defence set up was (a)that his fees should be only those fixed by the Taxing Master, but this defence was not proceeded with, and (b)that, in view of a decision made in 1830, he could not ask for fees for attendance at Court, when he had been subpoenaed and had not been called upon to give evidence.In giving judgment His Honour held that the scientific witness was entitled to his fees for attendance at Court whether he had been subpoenaed or not. He was of the opinion that it was advisable that a scientific witness should arrange his fees for attendance at Court when first approached with 218 regard to a case and, in the particular instance, bearing in mind that the analyst was not called upon to give evidence and that no fee had been arranged previously, he decided that a fee ofLIO 10s. per day was reasonable. His Honour further decided that an assistant of the analyst should not have been subpoenaed to attend Court in conjunction with his employer and that the employer was entitled to full expenses for such assistance.He further held that the analyst’s fees for work carried out in preparation of the case were reasonable and should be paid. Broadcasting.-The British Broadcasting Corporation has in progress a series of “Talks for Fifth Forms on Science and the Community,’’ the first of which was given on 7th May. This series, planned by Mr. J. A. Lauwerys, Associate, is given on Tuesdays from 11.40to 12 noon, and will be continued during the summer term until 25th June. The talks include-The Basic Materials; The Chemical Revolution : Lavoisier ; Cheaper Steel : Henry Bessemer ; Colours from Coal-Tar : W. H. Perkin ; Electricity in the Service of Man; Nitrates from the Air; and Science and World Resources.The Institute of Fuel has announced arrangements for the annual award of a Student’s Medal and Prize (value j3) for a paper by a Student Member under 25 years of age, on a subject relating to the preparation and utilisation of fuel or allied subject, to be selected by the student. Particulars can be obtained from the Secretary, the Institute of Fuel, 30, Bramham Gardens, London, S.W.5. Messrs. Longmans, Green &Co., Ltd. ,announce the publication of “A New Dictionary of Chemistry” by Dr. Stephen Miall, assisted by over twenty contributors; in one volume: Royal 8v0, nearly 600 pages; 42s. net. The subjects treated include physical and inorganic chemistry; organic chemistry; carbohydrates ; minerals and crystals; chemical engineering ;drugs ;biochemistry; biographies; chemical and physical tables ; and much miscel- laneous information on chemical matters in general.Mr. J. Davidson Pratt has been appointed an additional Deputy Director-General for Chemical Research, Experiment and Development in the Ministry of Supply. 219 Obituary. HIRSTASQUITHWILLIAM ARTHUR died at Worcester Park, Surrey, on 9th January, in his 35th year. Educated at Holyhead County School, he proceeded in 1922 to Liverpool University, where he graduated with honours in chemistry in 1925. From 1927 to 1934 he was a chemist on the staff of Colas Products, Ltd., and from 1934 until his death with the Shell Marketing Co., Ltd.He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1926. Information has recently been received that ARTHUR BRENNAN died at Newport, Mon., in February, 1939, in his 58th year. Trained at Armstrong College, Newcastle upon Tyne, he was prizeman in 1903, and graduated B.Sc. (Dunelm) with distinction in chemistry in 1904. He con- tinued as a demonstrator in the college until 1906, and was then, for two years, scientific adviser in the oil-fields department of Messrs. S. Pearson & Son, Ltd., in Mexico. In 1909 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry in Truro Technical School, and from 1910 to 1917 was lecturer in chemistry,biology and bacteriology at the Municipal College, Portsmouth. From 1917 until his death he was head of the Chemistry and Natural Science Departments in Newport Technical Institute.He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1918. GALLOWAY,WALTERJOHNSTONE whose death is reported to have occurred on 7th September, 1937, at the age of 39 years, was educated at Bickerton House, Birkdale, Lanes., and at the Royal Grammar School, Worcester. From 191 7-1919 he served with the British Expeditionary Force in France as a Lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery, later being seconded to the Royal Engineers. He studied at the University of Manchester from 1919 to 1923, was Le Blanc Medallist (1922-1923) in Fuel, graduated B.Sc. with honours in chemistry and proceeded to M.Sc. in Engineering. From 1923 to 1924 he was assistant chemist and assistant mines superintendent with the Demarara Bauxite Co.,Ltd., British Guiana, and from 1924 until his death was engaged with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Ltd.He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1934. PERCY HOWESEDMUND died at Handbridge, Chester, in September,1939, in his 30th year. Educated at the Chester City and County School, he gained a scholarship to the University of Liverpool in 1928, and graduated B.Sc. with first class honours in chemistry in 1931. He continued at the University as a demonstrator and research student until 1933, when he was awarded the degree of Ph.D., and subsequently held appointments with the Liverpool Grain Storage and Transit Co., Ltd., and with Messrs. J. Bibby & Sons, Ltd. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1932.220 CHRISTOPHERRAWSONdied at Manchester, on 30th May, in his 81st year. He was for three years a pupil under M. Knowles of Bradford, before taking a course of chemistry under Professor-later Sir-Edward Frankland, at the Royal College of Chemistry, South Kensington. He was for nearly four years assistant to Professor A. H.-later Sir Arthur-Church, at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, and then became chemist at Marchfield Dyeworks at Bradford, in which city he subsequently established a practice as an analytical and consulting chemist, devoting special attention to dyes and dyewares and to investigations relating to the art of dyeing and to textile manufactures, at the same time holding an appointment as lecturer on technical chemical analysis at Bradford Technical College. Later, he practised in Manchester before he became head chemist to the British Cotton and Wool Dyers’ Association, of which he was eventually director. He contributed many papers to the Journal of the Society of Dyersand Colourists, and other technical journals; he was co-author with R.Loewenthal of a Manual of Dyeing, of which the ninth edition was published in 1933, and compiled (with others) a Dictionary of Dyes,Mordants and other Compounds used in Dyeing and Calico Printing, of which the fourth edition was published in 1926. He was elected a Fellow of the Institute in 1888. HARRYSHANItsTER died at Greenwich, on 22nd April, in his 57th year. Educated at the Municipal College, Grimsby, he worked for two years with Mr.J. E. Saui, Fellow, attended courses at the School of the Pharma- ceutical Society under Professor A. W. Crossley, and qualified as a pharmaceutical chemist. He also studied at the South London Poly- technic, under Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin, PeZEow, and from 1908 to 1910 at the Finsbury Technical College, under Professor Meldola. From 1911 to 1914 he was head chemist to Messrs. A. Boake Roberts & Co., Stratford, and after a short period as plant superintendent of the Picric Acid Plant of Messrs. Brotherton & Co., Ltd., Leeds, joined the Chemical Inspection Department, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, in 19 15, where he continued until his death. He became chemist in charge of the High Explosives Branch of the Department and was later principal chemist in charge of the Explosives Division of the Department.He was an authority on Service Explosives and largely responsible for the training of staff for the inspection of explosives.He contributed articles on the subject to Thorpe’s Dictionary of Chemistry, and in 1937, in collaboration with Mr. T. H. Wilde, published a paper on “The Estimation of Nitroglycerine.” He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1910, and a Fellow in 1920. HUBERTHENRYSTROUDdied at Walthamstow on 8th February, in his 33rd year. From 1925 until 1937 he was engaged as a junior chemist and later as chemist and bacteriologist on the staff of Messrs. J. Lyons & Co., Ltd. He studied at West Ham Municipal College and Birkbeck College, and graduated B.Sc.(Lond.) with honours in chemistry, subse- quently being awarded the degree of Ph.D. and gaining the Diploma of the University in bacteriology. In October, 1937, he relinquished his appoint- ment for further study at the School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and two years later returned to Messrs. J. Lyons & Co., Ltd. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1931. 221 JOHNWHITE died at Sutton ColdGeld on 30th March, in his 77th year. He studied chemistry for three years under C. J. Woodward at the Birmingham and Midland Institute, and was articled for three years to Dr. A. Bostock Hill, to whom he became chief assistant in 1884. He was also for several years demonstrator in practical chemistry, and assistant in toxicology to medical students at Queen’s College, Birmingham.In 1893, while still with Dr. Bostock Hill, he was appointed Public Analyst for his native town, West Bromwich, and in 1894, County Analyst for Derbyshire. Later he held appointments as Public Analyst for the County Borough of Derby and the Borough of Glossop, Official Agricultural Analyst and Water Examiner for the County and County Borough of Derby, Gas Examiner for most of the Boroughs and Urban and Rural District Councils in the County, Consulting Chemist to the Glossop Sewage Works and to the Derbyshire Agricultural Society. He retired in 1933. Mr. White was a Vice-president of the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists in 1907-1908 and again in 1927-1928, and a Member of the Council of the Society for four other periods.He was also, for a period, Chairman of the Nottingham Section of the Society of Chemical Industry. He contributed papers both to The AnaZyst and to the Journal of the latter Society. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1888 and a Fellow in 1891. He was a Member of Council from 1910-1913. HARRYWHITHAMdied, as the result of an accident sustained while on holiday, at Llandudno, on 6th April, in his 48th year. Educated at Cheetham Secondary School, he received his chemical training at the Manchester College of Technology, where he attended the courses from 1909 to 1915. For 34 years he was engaged with Mr.P. G. Jackson, PeZZow, consulting chemist to the National Boiler Insurance Company at Manchester and in 1915 joined the chemical staff of Lever Brothers, Ltd., at Port Sunlight, where, in 1917, he was appointed manager of one of their analytical laboratories. In 1921 he took up a managerial position in the Toilet Products Department and in 1932 he was transferred to the Central Technical Department of Lever Brothers & Unilever, Ltd., where he was in charge of research work on toilet products until his death. He was elected an Associate in 1918. 222 Books and their Con tents. The following books have been kindly presented by the authors and publishers, and may be seen in the Library of the Institute. Calculations of Quantitative Analysis.Carl J. Engelder. Pp. viii +174. (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 12s. Introduction. Calculations of volumetric analysis ; general calculations of volumetric analysis ; calculations of volumetric precipitation analysis; calculations of neutralisation analysis, and of oxidation and reduction processes;calculations of gravimetric analysis ;general considerations of gravimetric analysis ; equilibria in gravimetric precipitation analysis ; calculations based on analytical data ; systematic quantitative analysis ; computations based on percentage composition. Problems ;Appendix ; Tables; Index. Colloid Chemistry. A Textbook. H. B. Weiser. Pp. viii +428. (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 24s.net. The colloidal state ;adsorption ;sols;gels ;emulsions and foams ;aerosols and solid sols; applications of colloid chemical principles to contact catalysis, dyeing, and clay. Indexes. College Chemistry, Introductory. Neil E. Gordon and William E. Trout. and Edition. Pp. xiv + 752. (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 21s. net. Non-metals : water ; some fundamentals of chemistry; the atmosphere; acids, bases, and salts ; the oxygen-sulphur family; the halogen family ; the classification of the elements; the carbon family; the nitrogen family; colloidal chemistry. Metals : the metallic elements; the alkali metals; the metals of the alkaline-earth group. The ammonium sulphide group ; the hydrogen sulphide group ; the hydrochloric acid group ; procedures and tests in qualitative analysis ; other periodic families.Appendix. Index. Chemicals of Commerce. F. D. Snell and C. T. Snell. Pp. viii +452. (London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 28s. Introduction ;inorganic acids ;bases or alkalies ;.sodium salts of inorganic acids; potassium salts of inorganic acids; sodium and potassium salts of organic acids ; ammonium and lithium compounds ;calcium compounds ; 223 barium, strontium and magnesium compounds; compounds of nickel, cobalt, manganese and zinc; compounds of aluminium, chromium and iron; arsenic, antimony, and tin; copper, cadmium and bismuth; lead, silver, gold and mercury; miscellaneous metals and compounds ; carbon and miscellaneous non-metals with their oxides and related compounds; hydrocarbons, other than those from petroleum, and their simplehalogen derivatives ; petroleum hydrocarbons and related products ; alcohols; phenols and their derivatives; aldehydes and ketones and their derivatives ; organic acids and closely related compounds ;amines, nitro compounds, and various organic nitrogen derivatives ; esters ; fats and fatty oils ;waxes ;ethers ; organic dyes ;toners, lakes and reduced colors ; natural plant products ;extracts of natural products ;alkaloids and their salts; essential oils and oleoresins; natural gums, resins and balsams; synthetic resins ; carbohydrates; proteins.Appendix-A. Caustic Poison Act; B. Medical terms defined; C.Summary of the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (U.S.A.). Introduction to Chemical Science. W. H. Hatcher. Pp. viii + 424. (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 18s. net. Inorganic Chemistry. In the beginning; the chemist’s stock in trade; more about water; the composition of water-hydrogen and oxygen; the atmosphere we breathe; carbon ; chemical longhand and shorthand ; gases; a chemical family-the halogens ;some common oxidising agents ; sulphur and its compounds; metals and non-metals; liquids and solutions; nitrogen and phosphorus; an atom-what is it ? ;the periodic classification of the elements; the periodic table-groups 0 to VIII; what is a chemical reaction?; still more about aqueous solutions- colloids;carbon-oxygen-life ;the chemistry of living things. Organic Chemistry.The first steps; pictures from the parafhs; common aliphatic compounds ; cyclic and aromatic compounds ;organic nitrogen ; the carbohydrates ;fats and oils-soap-paint ;explosives-antiseptics-dyes. Food Chemistry. Foods and their values; digestion and assimilation; some common foods and their importance; diet. Industrial Chemistry. Raw materials and their sources; industrial chemistry ; metallurgical processes; reduction, double decomposition, addition ; ceramics; catalysis, electrolysis; organic processes; the cellulose industries ; power; retrospect and prospect. Index. Thermodynamics and Chemistry. F. H. Macdougall, M.A., Ph.D. 3rd Edition. Pp.x + 492. (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc. ; London : Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 30s. Temperature ;actual gases; mathematical apparatus ;heat, work and the first law of thermodynamics ;applications of the first law; the second law of thermodynamics; deductions from the first and second laws; thermo- dynamic functions and thermodynamic equilibrium ;fusion, evaporation and sublimation; the phase rule; applications of the phase rule; chemical equilibrium in ideal systems ;fugacity, activity and activity coefficient; strong electrolytes and the theory of Debye and Huckel; special cases of ionic equilibrium ; gravitational, centrifugal and electric fields, surface tension; electromotive force and free energy of cell reactions; third law of thermodynamics; radiation.Statistical mechanics. Indexes. 224 Thermodynamics for Chemical Engineers. Harold C. Weber. Pp. viii + 264. (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 19s. 6d. Fundamental concepts of thermodynamics; the first law of thermo-dynamics; equilibrium and the phase rule; phase relations; heat capacity and heat of reaction ; properties of materials ; perfect gases ; generalised pressure, volume, temperature relations; the second law of thenno-dynamics; interpretation of the second law principle; fluid flow; power cycles; steam engines and turbines ; refrigeration ; fugacity and activity; equilibrium constants ; effects of pressure, volume and temperature on thermodynamic properties of substances ; partial molal quantities ; electrochemical effects; the third law of thermodynamics. Appendix.Index.The Director of the National Physical Laboratory has forwarded a copy of the Report of the Laboratory for the year 193g,-published by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and obtainable from H.M. Stationery Office, price 2s. 6d. The Association of British Chemical Manufacturers has forwarded a copy of Supplement No. 3 to the Second Edition of “An Index to Acts of Parliament and Statutory Rules and Orders affecting the Chemical Industry,”-March, 1940. Price gd. (Remittance with order). Obtainable from the Association, 166, Piccadilly, London, W.I. The Director of the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, has forwarded a copy of the Journal of the College, Volume 4, Part 4, January, 1940, containing fifteen papers on various subjects contributed by members of the college.The Dean of the College of the Pharmaceutical Society has forwarded a copy of the Annual Report of the Research Depart- ments of the College. The British Standards Institution has lately issued :-No. 890-1940 for Building Limes. No. 894-1940 The Determination of the Flow and Drop Points of Fats and Allied Substances (Apparatus and Method of Use). No. 895-1940 Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Butter (2s.od. each; 2s. 2d. post free). and Slips CF (GS) 5296 Corrigendum to B.S. 717-1936 “Combustion Testing” of Domestic Gas Appliances. CF (C) 5394 Corrigendum to B.S.734-1937. Density Hydrometers for Use in Milk. REVIEW. The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats. T. P. Hilditch, D.Sc., F.I.C. Pp. xi + 438. (London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 35s. net. The development of the chemistry of the natural fats is a fascinating story of painstaking research of which the latest chapters are admirably summarised for the first time in this work. The fats have long been recognised as compounds of fatty acids and glycerin, but quantitative separation of the various glycerides in each has until recently proved difficult or impossible even though, in many cases, comparatively few fatty acids enter into their structure. The various mixed and simple triglycerides have mutual solubilities which prevent separation by the simpler classical methods and, on this account, attention was confined for many years to a search for physical or chemical “characteristics” serving to distinguish one fat from another, so that each might be recognised and its proportion determined in admixture with other fats.During this period attempts were made to ascertain the nature and proportion of the various fatty acids present in each fat, but many of the results of such attempts were realised to be erroneous and a drastic overhaul of the situation became more and more necessary. This was undertaken by Professor Hilditch at Liverpool and, during the last two decades, he and his co-workers have intro- duced new devices and improved old ones with such success that the major difficulties have been swept away and a clear survey of the true chemistry of fats has now become possible. An immense amount of detailed and difficult work has been required, and the manner in which it has been carried out and the great success that has attended the efforts of the workers con- cerned deserve the congratulations and thanks of all chemists.Until the appearance of this book much of the work has been available only in the original papers, but now Professor Hilditch has collected his own work and that of many others and has examined critically the field as a whole, so that light is thrown on to the manner in which nature works in producing fats for the specific needs of animals and plants. The book includes as much as possible of relevant data published up to the end of 1938 and some that appeared in 1939; it deals with about 420 fats from plant species, 80 from land animals and IOO of aquatic origin. Less attention is paid, than hitherto, to many of the “charac- teristics” referred to above, since these are adequately dealt with in other authoritative works and in general give only average figures which by no means serve to indicate detailed composition.The individual fats are discussed from the point of view of modern indications of the proportions of their several component acids and of the chief component glycerides; for the most part the compositions are given in these forms alone. Using such data as a basis, the author considers the relation between the compositions of the fats classed together from anatomical and morphological considerations and confirms the important conclusion that not only can the natural fats be classified according to their major component acids, but that this classification follows closely upon that developed from biological considerations of the parent organisms. In many cases also the minor component acids are shown to be similarly characteristic of a fat-group.The fats of the simplest and most primitive organisms are usually built up from a complex mixture of fatty acids, but as biological development has proceeded the chief component acids have become fewer in number. This simplification is seen most markedly in the higher land mammals and in vegetable seed fats; the aquatic animals and reptiles yield more complex fats.In the fats from all fresh-water life only one type appears, the component acids being relatively rich in unsaturated C,, and C,, acids with low concentrations of C,, and C,, acids. In the marine world, on the other hand, the C,, and C,, acids are reduced in amount and the C,,, and C,, acids increased. In the latter case the acids are often associated with abnormal proportions of non-fatty compounds such as the hydrocarbon, squalene; or glycerol ether esters or non-glyceryl esters may be present and a specific degree of unsaturation is to be expected according to the nature of the non-fatty fraction. In the depot fats of the higher land animals the important acids are oleic and palmitic, the latter forming 25 to 30 per cent. of the total, even in such widely different cases as the rat, rabbit, pig, sheep, ox, reindeer, horse and birds, whereas unsaturated C1,acids are present in but small amounts.The amphibian and reptile fats contain less unsaturated C,,, C,,, Czz acids than the fish depot fats and the unsaturation of the C,, and C,, acids though still high is not so marked as in the fish oils. The unsaturated hexadecenoic acid so characteristic of aquatic and lower terrestrial animal life appears in quantity in the fats of bacilli, yeasts and the spores of other cryptogams, but has been observed in only very small proportions in seed and fruit-coat fats. The fruit-coat fats include-with only one or two exceptions-palmitic and oleic acids as sole major com-ponents; but the seed fats contain also major proportions of linoleic (or linolic) acid.Often the fats of members of a natural plant family are found to include a specific acid almost wholly confined to that family; thus, erucic acid is present in all cruci- ferous seed fats, petroselinic acid in those of the Umbelliferae and chaulmoogric and hydnocarpic acids in the Flacourtiaceae. The author shows that the very striking and characteristic differences in the fatty acid mixtures combined as triglycerides in fats are not reflected in the manner in which the triglycerides themselves are put together, for with few general exceptions the latter are woven together on the same simple general principle whatever their origin.This principle is that nature strongly favours the elaboration of “mixed” and not simple triglycerides and there is a tendency to maximum heterogeneity. The only divergences from the rule occur in the depot and milk fats of the Ungulata (ox, sheep, pig, buffalo, etc.), in palm oil, olive oil, laurel oil and the fat of Myristica malabarica. From a detailed account of these facts and principles Professor Hilditch passes to further aspects of the biochemistry of fats and deals with their synthesis in plants and animals, possible mechanisms for their production from carbohydrates, assimilation of preformed fats by animals, mobilisation of reserve fats, rancidity, and similar phenomena.In some ways this section is the most interesting in the book and particular attention may be drawn to the summaries of work on the nature and quantity of fats in seeds and fruits, at various stages .of their development; the profound effect of ingested fatty matter and the effect of variations of body temperature on the fat of animals. Throughout there is striking evidence of a very careful and orderly control in nature designed to produce a fat suited to the needs of the parent organism and operating on comparatively simple principles even though the results are often of a complex nature. 228 Chapters IX and X describe the chemistry of the natural fatty acids, higher aliphatic alcohols and glycerol ethers and deal with synthetic glycerides, while Chapter XI reviews in a full and very lucid manner the modern methods of separation which have been applied in the quantitative investigations described earlier in the book.These methods, so largely developed by Professor Hilditch and his co-workers, have inspired widespread interest and the collected details now appearing in connected form will prove of great assistance to all who have hitherto been obliged to consult the original papers.-K.A.W. 229 The Register. At the meetings of Council held on 19th April and 17th May, 1940, 3 new Fellows were elected, 21 Associates were elected to the Fellowship, 89 new Associates were elected, I Associate was re-elected, and 42 Students were admitted. The Council records with regret the deaths of three Fellows and six Associates.New Fellows. Pearson, Thomas Gibson, D.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Dun.), Marego, Melton Avenue, Lower Walton, Warrington. Preston, Eric, Ph.D. (Sheff.), D.Sc. (Birm.), 68, Archer Lane, Sheffield, 7. Rendle, Theodore, The Poplars, Histon, Cambridge. Associates elected to the Fellowship. Acharya, Cadambi Narasimha, B.A., M.Sc. (Madras), Ph.D. (Lond.),Indian Institute of Science, Hebbal P.O., Bangalore, India. Balfe, Michael Philip, B.A., Ph.D. (Lond.), British Leather Manufacturers’ Research Association, 1-6, Nelson Square, London, S.E.1. Cornwell, Charles William, M.Sc. (Lond.), 75, Beattyville Gardens, Ilford, Essex. Dickie, William Alexander, B.Sc. (Lond.), 22, Hanover Square,London, W.1. Duveen, Denis Ian, College de France, Laboratoire de Chimie Organique, Paris, Ve. Graymore, John George, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), Cherry Trees, Chester Road, Woodford, Cheshire. Griffiths, Leslie Herbert, M.Sc.Tech. (Manc.), 9, Dryburgh Road, Putney, London, S.W.15. Hopkins, Ernest Henry, B.Sc. (Lond.), 126, Brunswick Road, London, W. 5. Hurt, Norman Albert, 14, Oaklands Road, Swinton, nr. Manchester. Law, Xorman Heyworth, MSc. (N.Z.), 11, Cumberland Avenue, Chilwell, Beeston, Notts. Lyne, Francis Arthur, B.Sc. (Lond.), 137, Beaufort Street, London, S.W.3. Melville, Professor Harry Work, Ph.D. (Cantab. and Edin.), D.Sc. (Edin.), Trinity College, Cambridge. Minor, Roland Gordon, 18, Thornhill Road, Llanishen, Cardiff.Preece, Isaac Arthur, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Birm.), 7, Blinkbonny Road, Edin-burgh, 4. Raymond, Walter Desmond, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), Medical Laboratory, Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika. Redfarn, Cyril Aubrey, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Liv.), Quality House, Quality Court, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.2. Shipston, Geoffry Thomas, B.Sc. (Lond.), 37, North End House, West Kensington, London, W.14, 230 Stephenson, James, B.Sc. (Lond.), Government Laboratory, Clement’s Inn Passage, London, W.C.2. Stephenson, William Frank, B.Sc. (Liv.), 537, Maidstone Road, Wigmore, Gillingham, Kent. Thomas, Garfield, M.Sc. (Manc.), 38, Kelmscott Road, Harborne, Birmingham, 17. Timmins, Arthur Alfred, 140, Westridge Road, Kings Heath, Birmingham, 14. New Associates.Ahrens, Herbert Waldemar, B.A. (Cantab.), B.Sc. (S.A.), P.O. Dynamite Factory, Cape Province, S. Africa. Allison, Harry, B.Sc. (Reading), 41, Meadow Drive, Portmadoc, Caerns. Ambrose, Douglas, B.Sc. (Lond.), 29, Palmerston Road, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Banks, John, B.Sc. (Liv.), 103, South Mossley Hill Road, Liverpool, 19. Bell, George, B.Sc. (Lond.), 1, Boughton Street, Sunderland. Berridge, Norman James, B.Sc. (Birm.), St. John’s Hill, Shcnstone, Lichfield. Booth, Alan, 7, Regent Road, Widnes. Boylin, James Laurence, 65, Lottie Road, Selly Oak, Birmingham, 29. Buckler, Ernest Jack, M.A. (Cantab.), Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd., Pointe- a-Pierre, Trinidad, B.W.I. Cameron, William Mitchell, 67, Towerhill Road, Glasgow, W.3. Cathro, James, 55, Douglas Street, Carluke, Lanarkshire.Chatterjee, Hrishikesh, M.Sc. (Dacca), Technological Research Laboratories, Tollygunge, Calcutta, India. Choudhury, Dhirendra Chandra Roy, M.Sc. (Calcutta), Reliance Firebrick and Pottery Co., Ltd., P.O. Barakar (E.I.R.), India. Cole, Henry George, B.Sc. (Lond.), 19, Sandringham Avenue, London, s.w.20. Collins, William Jonathan Henn, B.A. (Cantab.), B.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), A.R.S.M., 80, Mount Durand, Guernsey, C.I. Cook, James Stewart, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., Crossways, Osborne Road, Windsor, Berks. Cope, Leonard Charles, B.Sc. (Lond.), 35, Rutland Street, Derby. Culbert, Robert Claude Alexander, M.Sc. (Dunelm), Glenridding, Wood- lands Road, Cleadon, Sunderland. Curran, Michael Joseph, 21, Pound Park Road, London, S.E.7.Davey, William, B.Sc. (Lond.), 168, Barrow Hill, Chesterfield. Eade, Douglas Grey, M.Sc. (Wales), 10, Elba Avenue, Taibach, Port Talbot, Glam. Ellis, Stephen Robert Mercer, M.Sc. (N.Z.), 14, Old Hill, Bolsover, Derby- shire. Evans, Arthur Wallace, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Liv.), 32, Westbourne Terrace, Bishopton Lane, Stockton-on-Tees. Fell, John, 20, Seaborn Road, Bare, Morecambe. Field, William Edwin John, B.Sc. (Lond.), 38, The Ride, Boston Manor, Brentford, Middlesex. Fletcher, Walter, 14, Leslie Road, Toll Bar, St. Helens. Fraser, Robert Alexander, B.Sc. (Lond.), 117, Uxbridge Road, Hampton Hill, Middlessex. Gaunt, Joseph Frank, B.Sc. (Leeds), 2, Norfolk Avenue, Batley, Yorks. Gordon, James Joseph, B.Sc., Ph.D.(Lond.), 87, Oakfield Road, Newport, Monmouthshire. Gray, William, B.Sc. (Glas.), The Firs, Lanark Road, Carluke, Scotland. Greenwood, Harry Stanley, 368, Bradley Road, Bradley, Huddersfield. 231 Harding, John David Dermott, Fulligrove Cottage, Woodwell Road, Shirehampton, Bristol. Harrison, George Arthur Frederick, B.A. (T.C.D.), 78, Hollybrook Road, Clontarf, Dublin. Hesford, Edward, A.M.C.T., 25, Birkdale Street, Cheetham, Manchester, 8. Hill, Allan, Jr., B.Sc.Tech. (Manc.), Newlyn, Middleton Road, Heywood, Lancs. Hill, Donald Harold, 55, Hendham Road, London, S.W.17. Hoult, Eric, A.M.C.T., 8, Victoria Avenue, Grappenhall, Warrington. Johnson, Sydney, B.Sc. (Lond.), 73, Clarendon Road, Hinckley, Leics. Kahan, Ralph Sidney, B.Sc.(Lond.), 111, Claremont Road, London, E.7. King, David Wylie, B.Sc. (Lond.), 79, Marlborough Mansions, Cannon Hill, London, N.W.6. Lawrence, Leslie Aubrey, BSc. (Lond.), 29, Clare Avenue, Bristol, 7. Lay, Maung KO,M.Sc. (Lond.), 3, Bayley Street, London, W.C.1. Lowe, Edward Henry, 59, Sidney Road, Beeston, Notts. Maclntyre, Donald Brodie, B.Sc. (Glas.), A.R.T.C., 8, Beech Road, Bebington.Marsden, Ewart, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), 6, Albany Road, Dalton, Hudders- field. McKerrigan, Angus Alexander, Y.M.C.A., Whetstone Lane, Birkenhead. Mehl, Ernst, Ph.D. (Vienna), Beverston, Clevedon Road, Newport, Mon. Meldrum, Robert Scott, 50, Willow Road, London, N.W.3. Moir, Murdo Logan, B.Sc. (Aberd.), Roy Cottage, Evanton, Ross-shire. Munden, Alick Robert, B.Sc.(Birm.), 9, Light Lane, Coventry. Murray, Wilfred, A.M.C.T., Clare, Trouthall Lane, Plumbley, Cheshire. Neech, Frank Donald, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., 14, Princes Mews, Hereford Road, London, W.2. Nicholson, Benjamin Eric, B.A., B.Sc. (T.C.D.), Hoddersfield, Crosshaven, Co. Cork. Packer, Harold Kingsley, B.A., B.Sc. (Oxon.), 8, Bourne End Road, Northwood, Middlesex. Parkes, Robert Arthur, Holbeche Mount, Kingswinford, Staff ordshire. Parkin, George, A.Met. (Sheff .), 23, Carnaby Road, Sheffield, 6. Patient, David James, Woodcote, Elm Park Road, Pinner, Middlesex. Pellowe, Ernest Frank, B.Sc. (Reading), The Grammar School, Ripon, Yorkshire. Powell, Roy, 1, Sherburn Close, Barlows Lane, Fazakerley, Liverpool, 9. Pritchard, Bernard Edward, School House, Hernhill, Paversham, Kent.Rawlings, Harry, M.Sc. (Lond.), Trent College, Long Eaton, nr. Nottingham. Read, Dennis Rouse, B.Sc. (Lond.), 35, New Street, Salisbury. Roach, John, 6, Chestnut Avenue, Widnes. Roberts, Charles Tindal, View Park, Foulford Road, Cowdenbeath, Fife. Roberts, David John, Ph.C., 47, Egerton Street, Liverpool, 8. Roberts, Richard John, M.Sc. (Wales), 4, Troedyrhiw Road, Mountain Ash, Glam. Routledge, Donald, B.Sc., Ph.D. (St. Andrews), Burrows Cottage, The Links, Pembrey, S. Wales. Saxton, Frederick William, M.Sc. (N.Z.), 53, Fairview Crescent, Wellington, New Zealand. Scott, Ernest Ingram, B.Sc. (Lond.), 25, Victoria Avenue, Hull. Simons, Benjamin, 20, Wolves Lane, London, N.13.Sirimanne, George Arthur Colvin, B .Sc. (Lond.), Government Analyst’s Department, Colombo, Ceylon. Smith, Miss Janet Mary, B.Sc. (Lond.), 6, St. John Street, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire.Stephens, Bruce Ashley, B.Sc. (Lond.), 53, North Park, London, S.E.9. 232 Subba Ramaiah, Kanavenahalli, M.Sc. (Mysore), D.Sc. (Madras), Govern-ment Test House, Alipore, Calcutta, India. Tee, Frederick William, 112, Longford Road, Manchester, 21. Thom, Charles Bell, B.Sc. (Glas.), 43, Dalry Road, Kilwinning, Ayrshire. Tonks, Eric Sidney, M.Sc. (Birm.), 1498, Coventry Road, South Yardley, Birmingham, 25. Turnbull, John Alston, B.Sc. (Glas.), 22, Langley Park, Mill Hill, London, N.W.7. Walker, Brian Yeoman, 40, Tynwaltl Hill, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.Wall, Leslie Lakey, 54, Strathmore Crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 4. Watson, Charles, B.Sc. (Glas.), A.R.T.C., 31, Ormiston Avenue, Glasgow, w.4. Wheeler, Edgar Philip, 47, Park Hill Road, Wallington, Surrey. White, Eric Newman, 37, Roslea Drive, Dennistoun, Glasgow, E.1 . Wild, Eric Herbert, B.Sc. (Lond.), 9, Rusland Road, Woaldstone, Harrow. Williams, Francis Derek, A.M.C.T., 27, Palm Street, Off Slade Lane, Longsight, Manchester, 13. Wiseman, Leonard Albert, B.Sc. (Lond.), 47, Park Avenue, London, N.13. Woods, Leslie, M.Sc. (Liv.), 236, Robins Lane, Sutton Oak, St. Helens. Woodthorpe, Thomas John, 87, Blackpool Street, Burton-on-Trent. Woollard, Leslie Delano, 3, Pellerin Road, London, N. 16. Re-elected Associate. Sands, Reginald Robert, B.Sc.(Lond.), 126, Bushey Mill Lane, Watford. New Students. Adam, John Doig, M.P.S., Ph.C., 76, Wingrove Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 4. Atkinson, Denzil Malcolm, 347, Green Lanes, London, N.4. Barrett, John, Bishop’s Stortford Station, Herts. Baxter, Eric George, 33, Lithos Road, London, N.W.3. Chalmers, Robert Alexander, 97, Ellerton Road, Erdington, Birmingham, 23. Cooper, Richard Herbert Alexander, 18, Roberts Road, Rainham, Kent. Draper, Alfred John Mountfort, 22, Wimbledon Park Road, Southsea. Edwards, Clarence William, 79, Middleton Place, Loughborough. Edwards, Gordon Westland, 23, Roseneath Road, Urmston, Lancs. Elliott, George, 89, Hamilton Road, Gillingham. Evans, Philip Geoffrey, c/o D. A. MacCallum, Esq., F.I.C., 93, Hope Street, Glasgow.Green, John Herbert, 23, Highlands Heath, Putney, London, S.W.15. Harriman, Albert Richard, 5, Leicester Road, Anstey, Leicester. Hawkins, Dennis Ernest, 129, Hazelbank Road, London, S.E.6. Hersom, Albert Charles, 65, Chandos Road, London, E.15. Holdsworth, Eric Spencer, 49, Newall Carr Road, Otley, Yorkshire. Hopkins, Robert William Brent, 72, Westbury Road, London, N.12. Jeffers, Francis George, 112, Hare Street, Rochdale. Johns, Harold Myrddin, 79, Surrey Road, Dagenham. Jones, Ronald Arthur Charles, 13, Nechells Park Road, Birmingham, 7. Keyser, James William, 18, Coniston Avenue, Perivale, Middlesex. Lerpiniere, William Henry, 54, Stanley Avenue, Queenborough, Kent. Llewelyn, David Arthur Bosworth, Belgrave Vicarage, Leicester.Lumb, Melvyn, 44, Edward Street, Sowerby Bridge, Yorks. Oliver, Jack, 43, Delacourt Road, Fallowfield, Manchester, 14. Owen, Cyril Horace Purser, 20, Durham Road, Sidcup. Pearcy, Victor Joseph, 73, King Street, Southsea. 233 Phillips, John Leslie, 36, M’avertree Nook Road, Broadgreen, Liverpool, 15. Rayner, Hugh Boynton, 33, Grasmere Road, London, N. 10. Reed, Rowland Ivor,145, Tuffley Avenue, Gloucester. Roberts, Eric, 20, Dunster Avenue, Rochdale. Roley, Leonard Matthew, 11, Fernbank Drive, Baildon, Yorks. Sampson, Richard Archibald Symonds, 61, St. Luke’s Road, Maidstone. Shaw, Bernard, 240, Melton Road, Leicester. Six, Charles Georges, 8, Fillebrook Road, London, E. 1 1. Tame, David Alan, 1, High Street, Milton Regis, Sittingbourne.Thompson, James Oliver, 150, Regents Park Road, London, N.3. Vance, William John, 688, Tollcross Road, Glasgow. Watson, James Stoddart, 49,Barrhill Road, Old Cumnock, Ayrshire. Williams, Gerald Douglas, “Black Bull” Inn, Cliffe, Rochester. Kent. Wilson, Birkett, 10, Bolney Court, Portsmouth Road, Surbiton, Surrey. Yiend, Ronald Williarn James, 74, Gledhow Lane. Roundha)-, Lccds, 8. DEATHS. Fellows. Christopher Rawson. Harry Shankster. John Whe. Associates. William Arthur Hirst Asquith, BSc. (Liv.). Arthur Brennan, B.Sc. (Dunelm).Walter Johnstone Galloway, M.Sc. (Mane.).Percy Edmud Howes, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Liv.).Hubert Henry Stroud, B.Sc. (Lond.). Harry Whitham. CHANGES OF NAMES. Miss Alla Ter-Akopoff, Associate, to Mrs.STAPms,-on her marriage. Miss Ailsa Anderson McKellar, Associate, to Mrs. Ailsa Anderson MARsDEN,--On her marriage to Mr. A. W. Marsden, Associate. Miss Annie Marion Ross Sloan, Associate, to Mrs. T. F. HARVZY,-on her marriage. 234 General Notices. In the prevailing circumstances, Fellows and Associates are asked not invariably to expect formal acknowledgments of communications addressed to the Institute unless replies are necessary. Active Service.-Fell0 ws, Associates, and Registered Students who are on active service with the Navy, Army and Air Force are requested to notify the Registrar of the Institute, giving such particulars as qay be permissible, as to their rank, unit, etc. Register.-In the present circumstances, the Council, in accordance with advice received from the Press and Censorship Bureau, has decided to publish the new edition of the Register without addresses or particulars of the occupations of the Fellows and Associates.The Register will contain the full names, qualifications and dates of admission to Associateship and Fellowship. The work is now in preparation, so that members who wish changes to be noted in initials representing membership of other qualifying institutions, etc., should notify the Registrar without delay. In accordance with the By-Laws, Fellows and Associates who are in arrear with their subscriptions for more than 12 months are liable to have their names removed from the Register. Examinations.-It is hoped that examinations will be held in September.Full information will be given at a later date. Lectures.-Dr. J. H. Quastel, F.R.S., Director of Research, Cardiff City Mental Hospital and Honorary Lecturer in Bio-chemistry in University College, Cardiff, has kindly consented to give a lecture before the Institute on “The Chemistry of EnzymeAction ” in October next. Further particulars will be announced in due course. The Meldola Medal (the gift of the Society of Maccabaeans) is normally awarded annually to the chemist whose published chemical work shows the most promise and is brought to the notice of the administrators during the year ending 31st December prior to the award. The recipient-must be a British subject not more than 30 years of age at the time of the completion of the work.The Medal may not be awarded more than once to the same person. The next award will be decided in January, 1941. The Council will be glad to have attention directed, before 31st December, 1940, to work of the character indicated. Sir Edward Frankland Medal and Prize for Registered Students.-A medal and prize KIO 10s.) for the best essay, not exceeding 3,000 words, will be awarded in January, 194r, and will be presented at the next Annual General Meeting, or at a meeting of the Local Section to which the successful competitor is attached. Entries are limited to registered students who are less than 22 years of age at the time of forwarding the essay. The object of the essay is to induce Registered Students to develop a sense of professional public spirit and to devote thought to questions of professional interest and to the position of chemists in the life of the community-the essay to be on a subject of professional, rather than technical or purely chemical importance.Having due regard to the objects stated above, Registered Students are informed that the Council is prepared to consider an essay on any subject which has a bearing on chemistry or chemical work, provided that it does not deal with any purely chemical, technical, or historical subject. Each essay must be sent to the Honorary Secretary of the Local Section of the district in which the competitor resides (see list of Local Sections at the end of the JOURNAL) on or before the 31st December, 1940,and must be accompanied by a signed declaration that it is the independent work of the competitor.Essays will, be valued partly for literary style and technique, but mainly for the thoughts and ideas contained therein. The Committee of each Local Section will be asked to select, from those received, not more than three essays considered to be worthy of the award. The essays selected by the Local Sections will be referred to assessors appointed by the Council. On the report of the assessors the Council will decide whether, and to whom, an award shall be made. The award will not be made more than once to any individual. competitor. Notices to Associates.-The Council desires to encourage all Associates to qualify for the Fellowship.Copies of the regulations and forms of application can be obtained from the Registrar. Appointments Register.-A Register of Fellows and Associates who are available for appointments, or are desirous of extending their opportunities, is kept at the offices of the Institute. For full information , inquiries should be addressed to the Registrar. Fellows and Associates are invited to notify the Institute of suitable vacancies for qualified chemists. Students who have been registered as Students of the Institute for not less than six months and are in the last term of their training for the Associateship, may receive the Appointments Register of the Institute, provided that their applications for this privilege are endorsed by their professors.Lists of vacancies are forwarded twice weekly to those whose names are on the Appointments Register. Fellows and Associates who are already in employment, but seeking to improve their positions, are required to pay 10s. for a period of six months. Members and Students who are without employment are ordinarily required to pay 6s. 6d. for the first period of six months, and, if not successful in obtaining an appointment will thereafter be supplied with the lists gratis for a further period if necessary. For the time being the payment of 6s. 6d. is suspended. The Institute also maintains a List of Laboratory Assistants who have passed approved Preliminary Examinations and, in some cases, Intermediate Science Examinations. Fellows and Associates who have vacancies for Registered Students or Laboratory Assistants are invited to communicate with the Registrar.The Library.-The Library of the Institute is open for the use of Fellows, Associates, and Registered Students between the hours of 10a.m. and 6 p.m. on week-days (Saturdays, 10 a.m. and I p.m.), except when examinations are being held. The Library is primarily intended for the use of candidates during the Institute’s practical examinations. Under the Deed of Agreement between the Chemical Society, the Institute of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical Industry, dated July, 1935,the comprehensive Library of the Chemical Society is available for the use of Fellows, Associates and Registered Students of the Institute wishing to consult or borrow books.Owing to the war, the Library cannot now be available during the usual hours. It will be open from 10a.m. to I p.m. and from 2 p.m. to 5 p.m. on week-days (Saturdays from 10a.m. to I p.m.). Members and Students of the Institute using the Library of the Society are required to conform to the rules of the Society regarding the use of its books. The Institute has entered into an arrangement with The Science Library, Science Museum, South Kensington, S.W.7, whereby books may be borrowed on production of requisitions signed by the Registrar or the Assistant Secretary of the Institute. In addition to its comprehensive sets of literature on cognate subjects, which are not available in specialised libraries, this Library contains an exceptionally extensive collection of works on chemistry.Nine thousand scientific and technical periodicals are received regularly in the Library. All publications added to the Library are recorded in its Weekly Bibliography of Pure and Applied Science, which has a wide circulation among research workers and institutions. Boots’ Booklovers Library.-Under the arrangements made on behalf of Fellows and Associates of the Institute, subscriptions to Boots’ Booklovers Library expired on 1st March. The subscriptions rates are 6s. 6d. for Class B, and 16s.6d. for Class A. Application forms can be obtained from the Registrar of the Institute. Further information is obtainable from the Head Librarian, Boots’ Booklovers Library, Stamford Street, London, S.E.I.238 Lewis’s Lending Library.-Any Fellow or Associate who is not already acquainted with this Library of scientific and technical books may obtain a copy of the Prospectus from the Registrar of the Institute. Covers for Journal.-Members who desire covers (IS. zd. each) for binding the Journal in annual volumes, are requested to notify the Registrar of their requirements, indicating the years for which the covers are required. Arrangements may be made with Messrs. A. W. Bain & Co., Ltd., 17-19,Bishop’s Road, Cambridge Heath, London, E.2, to bind volumes of the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGSon the following terms: buckram cover, IS. 2d.; binding, 2s. gd.; postage and packing, 9d.; in all, 4s. 8d. Lantern Slides for Lecturers.-A collection of slides is kept at the Institute for the use of members who are giving lectures.Enquiries should be addressed to the Registrar. As the slides are frequently in demand, members are requested to notify their requirements at least 14 days before the date on which the slides are to be used. Changes of Address.-In view of the expense involved through frequent alterations of addressograph plates, etc., Fellows, Associates and Registered Students who wish to notify changes of address are requested to give, so far as possible, their permunent addresses for registration. All requests for changes in the Register should be addressed to the Registrar, and not to the Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections. Copies of 11 The Profession of Chemistry (Fourth Edition, 1938)will be supplied gratis to any Fellow, Associate or Regis- tered Student who has not yet received one, on application to the Registrar .239 Institute of Chemistry Benevolent Fund Founded in 1920 as a memorial to Fellows, Associates and Students who died in the service of their country, 1914-18. Contributions may be forwarded to The Hon. Treasurer, BENEVOLENT OFFUND,INSTITUTE CHEMISTRY, 30, RUSSELLSQUARE,LONDON,W.C.1. APPOINTMENTS REGISTER Fellows and Associates are reminded to notify the Institute of suitable vacancies for qualified chemists. All communications to be addressed to the Registrar.