JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY PART Ill I949 EDIT0RIAL It is easy to answer the critic who charges the Institute with a morbid concern about its own constitution and with expending an undue amount of time and energy in making frequent changes in the instruments of its government. It is true that from time to time a number of amendments have been made in the By-Laws of the Institute but this would seem to be a healthy sign for an institution or organism that fails to adapt its constitution to meet changes in circumstances or environment may be held to have passed the peak of its vitality and to be on the way to decadence and decay. The institution which adheres tenaciously to its established By-Laws and regulations without due reference to the changing needs of its members and of the community soon becomes incapable of fulfilling its true purpose.On the other hand we may well feel some concern for the healthiness of an organisation that is frequently altering the main directions of its policy as laid down in the instruments of its incor-poration for such evidence of infirmity of purpose is apt to under- mine confidence. It can hardly be said that the Institute has vacillated in its aims or deviated from the main course set for it by its founders for although in over 70 years of existence it has been necessary to navigate many stormy seas the sailing orders laid down in the original Charter of Incorporation have served as the guide for all occasions until the present day.When it is realised that the past 64 years have included two world wars and vast changes in the mode of life of most of the human race it is surprising that a Charter which was drawn up to guide the destinies of a small Institution in the Victorian era should have served as the foundation on which to construct a relatively very large organisation to deal with problems which were to a great extent unthought of at the time of its promulgation. Indeed it says much for the foresight of the petitioners for the Charter of 1885 that the powers which they sought and the responsi- bilities which they undertook were such as to allow these later developments to take place without appreciable hindrance of any [ 159 ] kind. This is all the more remarkable when it is remembered that in the original Charter the profession which the Institute was designed to promote had to be described as that of “analytical and consulting chemistry,” as this was held to be the only description then known and generally likely to be understood which would make it clear that the promoters had no desire to duplicate the duties or encroach upon the privileges of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.This reference to only one of the several branches of the professional activities of chemists was not accepted willingly or without protest for from its foundation the Institute had included among its members many chemists who were engaged in teaching in universities and schools and in industrial pursuits.Since that time and especially since the regulations for the admission of Fellows and Associates were substantially altered in 1918 the proportion of members in practice as analytical and consulting chemists has greatly diminished and for some years it has been generally recognised that a majority of members of the Institute are employed in industry of various kinds. The original description of the profession which the Institute was in fact serving had thus become more and more inappropriate and misleading and one of the principal purposes of the Council in drafting a petition for a new Charter was to secure the removal of this implied restric- tion upon the activities of the Institute by proclaiming that the Institute was concerned with the profession of chemistry as a whole.This was made possible by wider public recognition of the distinction between chemistry and pharmacy. In the belief that no objection was likely to be raised to the inclusion in the Charter of the Institute of a specification of the “profession of chemistry” as that which the Institute was designed to promote a petition for a new Charter embodying this description was prepared and after approval by the Annual General Meeting of the Institute in 1948 was submitted to the Privy Council. It was with great satisfaction that at the Annual General Meeting this year it was learned that H.31. The King had been graciously pleased to grant to the Institute a new Royal Charter in substitution for the original Charter of 1885 and the Supplemental Charter of 1944 and that the new Charter had been duly authorised by warrant under the King’s sign manual on 14 April 1949.In drafting the new Charter the Council took the opportunity of considering how far the present state of Institute affairs and possible future developments might require modifications or extensions of the terms of the original Charter for it was desired to cover as far as possible in the new Charter all foreseeableneeds that might conceivably arise in the next 50 years. It will be appreciated that obtaining the grant of asupplemental or a completely new Charter r 160 1 is something not to be undertaken lightly and that it is important to ensure that while the provisions of a Charter are sufficiently precise to protect the public and the members they should not be more restrictive than is necessary for this purpose.Thus in the original Charter the number of Vice-presidents of the Institute was exactly prescribed; this was surely a matter which should be governed by By-Laws and not by an instrument of such permanence as the Charter. In the new Charter therefore care has been taken not to be too specific about matters of detail in which changes can properly be made from time to time by the members in General Meeting or in some instances by the Council under the powers vested in them. Provision has also been made for the establishment of other grades of membership of the Institute corporate or non-corporate as may at some future date be considered practicable and desirable in pursuance of its objects.These provisions are permissive and their inclusion does not impose any obligation to establish additional grades of membership now or in the future but merely leaves the way clear to do so if and when conditions warrant. Again provision is made for the Institute to apply its funds to the furtherance of its objects either by itself or in con- junction with other bodies or institutions with an interest in pro- moting such objects. This opens the way to collaboration not only with other chemical bodies in this country but also if desired with chemical institutions overseas such as the sister organisations which have grown up in various parts of the Commonwealth. It also allows of collaboration with institutions serving other professions in matters of common concern and an immediate example of this is afforded by the scheme for establishing and maintaining residential clubs for elderly people in conjunction with a group of other professional bodies.In this connection powers have been granted to the Institute to use a part of its own funds for this and other charitable objects provided that such payments are sanctioned by a General Meeting. An entirely separate matter which is also dealt with in the new Charter is the title of the Institute itself. The original title “The Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland” was modified in 1944 by a Supplemental Charter which had as its sole purpose the granting of authority to include the word “Royal” in that title.For some time it had been felt however that the specific reference to “Great Britain and Ireland,” although it did not exclude from membership citizens of other parts of the Commonwealth-or indeed persons of any nationality-nevertheless might imply an almost exclusive concern with chemists residing in what used to be called “the British Isles”. Without prejudice to any steps that might be taken in future to relax the existing restriction of eligibility for election to membership to British subjects-a restriction which has never been required by the Charter but only under By-Laws-it was thought desirable to give expression to the wider interests of the Institute by dropping the words “of Great Britain and Ireland” from the title.This was possible because no other body held or was likely to secure the title of “The Royal Institute of Chemistry.” In reading the new Charter which will be in their hands at the same time as they receive this issue of JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, members will find we believe that while their interests and those of the community hatye been duly safeguarded the Institute now has an instrument of incorporation which will enable it in the future to extend its activities and services in all directions which are likely to become desirable for the advancement of the profession of chemistry. The Council of the Institute is deeply conscious not only of the extended privileges of the Institute of which it is the guardian but also of the increased responsibilities which it must shoulder on behalf of the members.The basis of every Royal Charter is to secure the benefit of the public to protect them against the unqualified or unprincipled person who claims to pursue an honourable profession. It is recognised that in order to achieve this purpose it is necessary that the professional body shall maintain high standards of competency and ethical conduct among its members and to do this it must use its powers to secure for those members such conditions of work as will enable them to give the best service to the community. The long experience of the Institute asa body incorporated by Royal Charter provides an assurance that the privileges conferred by the new Charter will be exercised wisely and that the responsibilities imposed by that instrument will be discharged effectively.We have received our new sailing orders. Let us go forward with gladness and with courage into the uncharted seas of the future. OUR NEW PRESIDENT Professor James Wilfred Cook was elected President of the Royal Institute of Chemistry at the Annual General Meeting on 29 April 1949. He had previously served as a District Member of Council for Glasgow and the West of Scotland 194144 and as a General Member of Council 1846-49. Resides being a member of several committees he had represented the Institute on the Joint Committee for National Certificates in Chemistry (Scotland) since 1940 and on the British National Committee for Chemistry of the Royal Society from 1942 to 1948.1 162 3 PROFESSOR JAMES WILFRED COOK Ph.D. D.Sc. Sc.D. F.R.I.C. F.R.S. President Born on 10 December 1900 he received his early education at Sloane Secondary School Chelsea and proceeded to University College London where he won the Tuffnell Scholarship and in 1920 graduated B.Sc with Honours in chemistry. In the same year he was appointed demonstrator in organic chemistry at The Sir John Cass Technical Institute and later lecturer. Busy as he was with teaching he yet found time to carry out numerous researches principally in the anthracene series independently or with E. de Barry Barnett and others for which he was awarded the M.Sc. of the University of London in 1922 the Ph.D.in 1923 and the D.Sc. in 1927. His connection with the Institute began as a Registered Student in 1920; he was elected an Associate in 1921 and a Fellow in 1925. After working as a research chemist at the Chemical Research Laboratory of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research 1928-29 he was appointed research chemist at the Royal Cancer Hospital (Free) where until 1939 he conducted a series of import- ant researches on the hormones bile acids and various polycyclic compounds with particular reference to cancer. He was Reader in Pathological Chemistry in the University of London 1932-35 and Professor of Chemistry 1935-39. In 1939 he succeeded the late Professor George Barger in the Kegius Chair of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow which he still occupies.He is one of the four Senate Assessors on the Court of the University. In the summer of 1938 Professor Cook was Professorial Lecturer in the University of Chicago and in 1941 gave the Romanes Lecture in Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh. He shared with Professor (now Sir) E. L. Kennaway the prize of the Union Inter- national contre le Cancer in 1936 was joint recipient of the first award of the Anna Fuller Memorial Prize in 1939 and received the Katherine Berkan Judd Prize of the Memorial Hospital New York in 1940. Professor Cook was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1938 and is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In 1948 the University of Dublin conferred on him the honorary degree of Sc.D.He served as Hon. Secretary of the Chemical Society 1936-39 and is now one of its Vice-presidents. He is President of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow. He is also a Governor of the Glasgow and West of Scotland College of Domestic Science and a member of the Council of the Scottish Marine Biological Association. In 1948-when with Professor E. C. Dodds he visited South America to represent the Royal Society at the Fourth South American Congress of Chemistry-he was elected an Honorary Member of the Chilean Chemical Society and a Corresponding Member of the National Academy of Exact Sciences of Buenos Aires. The Polish Chemical Society [ 163 3 elected him to honorary membership in the present year. In 1936 the Belgian decoration of Officier de l’Ordre de Leopold was con- ferred upon him.Winning early distinction in research particularly in the chem- istry of substances of biological interest Professor Cook has attained eminence not only in the field of organic chemistry but in the sphere of university administration. The Institute is fortunate indeed in the election of a man of such high scientific attainments and wide experience to be its President at a time when under its new Charter it can look forward to further important developments in numbers and in professional influence. There is every reason for confidence that Professor Cook will prove a worthy successor to the many distinguished chemists who have preceded him in this high office. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS BY G.ROCHE O.B.E. M.B. B.S. D.P.H. F.R.I.C. LYNCH (Delivered at the Annual General Meeting of the Institute on 29 April 1949.) When my predecessor Professor Findlay addressed you at the end of his period of office he was in the happy position of being able to express gratitude for the termination of the war with its toll of human suffering. Our buildings had survived though not without bomb scars which at that time-and indeed until last year -were still very evident. He felt that we might look forward to a period of peaceful reconstruction and to the advent of a new era for chemistry in which the Royal Institute of Chemistry had a particularly responsible part to play. During the war the import- ance of the chemist had at last been realised and it would be for the Institute to see that his status and usefulness to the community were further raised and developed in the years to come.Since that time the C,ouncil have been fully alive to this and have been actively engaged in reviewing the aims of the profession of chemistry and the functions of the Institute in furthering them. In 1946 we were beginning to feel a sense of satisfaction and of security but in the periodwhich has elapsed since then we have again become troubled by a feeling of insecurity and of apprehension as to what the future has in store. Nevertheless the Council has been concerned with great advances and it is with gladness that we have learnt that His Majesty has been graciously pleased to grant us a new Charter so that we are now in the happy position of being able to go forward fortified by its provisions.Indeed a Committee has been engaged for some time in revising our By-Laws and it is hoped that the first draft [ 164 3 will soon be available for consideration and criticism. Another Commit tee has under consideration the question of the regulations for the admission of Associates with a view to enhancing the status of this grade so that it will command even greater respect amongst those who appreciate all the things for which the Institute stands. Those of us who are impatient must have chafed at the delay due to the need to await the granting of the new Charter and I would warn you that further delay must occur before our new By-Laws can be completed and approved.But as I hope that these instruments once accepted and approved will stand for many years as our guiding principles it is only right that the utmost care and consideration should be given to them. The new Charter has been drawn in very wide terms to cover as far as is humanly possible every eventuality which can be foreseen thus avoiding any revision at all events for many years. In fact I understand that there was a paragraph in the new Charter which the Law Lords for a time thought might contravene the Statute of Mortmain but I am glad to say that upon reflection they acquitted us of so serious a charge! One of the provisions of the new Charter enables us should we so desire to set up grades of membership lower than the Associate- ship-but let me say at once that at the present time the Council have no intention of implementing this although of course I cannot speak for future Councils.This provision was added so that if in the future such a course was considered desirable there would be no need to go to the trouble of seeking a new Charter. Our membership on 31 December 1948 was 11,160-an increase during my Presidency of 1,519 which is a source of great satis- faction to me. It is not possible to form any accurate estimate of the number of chemists who though eligible for election to the Associateship or Fellowship have neglected to make application for admission. It may be that the number is several thousand. If the majority of these could be drawn into our fold then indeed the Institute would be in an even more powerful position to speak for the profession of chemistry.It must be in my view the earnest endeavour of future Councils to bring this about and I am glad to say that the Membership Committee are considering this matter. In this connection my thoughts have led me to wonder whether it would ever be possible to make chemistry a closed profession. As you all know I qualified first as a medical man and thus as a member of what is generally regarded as a closed profession; years later the Institute received me into its fold as a Fellow. So I have had the experience of practising in both classes of profession. It would seem to me that the subject is worthy of discussion more especially as to whether or not chemistry would benefit.[ 165 1 The closing of the profession could come about in two ways one by making membership of the Institute so important to the individual that he could not afford to be outside his professional organisation; the other by obtaining statutory powers to enforce the registration of those of adequate qualification who desired to practise. In this connection it is noteworthy that a Bill has been tabled in the South African Parliament which goes a long way to bringing about the registration of chemists and the closing of the profession. In that Dominion Pharmacy occupies a powerful position in that every company or organisation manufacturing or preparing sub-stances for the treatment of human ailments must have a registered pharmacist in control of operations.In England on the other hand the Poisons Rules made under the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933 make a similar provision but include on an equal footing Associates and Fellows of the Royal Institute of Chemistry. Thus at the present time in South Africa it may happen-and I gather that it does happen-that a chemist may have to act in a sub-ordinate capacity to a registered pharmacist and it would seem to me that this was one of the reasons for the promotion of the Bill which is to regulate and establish the profession of chemistry in South Africa. The Bill has been tabled and I think that it may be of interest to mention briefly some of its provisions. In general terms it would seem to have been constructed to pro\Tide powers on the lines of those possessed by the General Medical Council although of course there are points of difference due to differences in the two professions.I shall be mentioning the functions of the General Medical Council at a later stage. I note that in the South African Bill chemistry is defined as the science that treats of the composition of substances and the transformations they undergo. A chemist is not defined but a registered chemist means a person registered under this Act and in section 23 the Governor General of South Africa may prescribe by regulation the degrees diplomas etc. which shall entitle the holder to registration. Further provisions prescribe the under- graduate and graduate study amounting in all to 6 years which is necessary for registration.The Bill also envisages a lower grade that of “chemical technician,” defined as a person other than a chemist or student who is engaged under the direction of a chemist in chemical work and who has had not less than 6 years’ experience. Registration of these persons is also contemplated. Section 28 which is likely to be controversial gives power to the Governor General to schedule those industries and institutions in which it may be deemed advisable in the public interest that a proportion of the chemists employed shall be registered and to lay down the ratio of chemists to student chemists and [ 166 1 chemical technicians employed. All consulting chemists must be registered.There are penal clauses for improper or disgraceful conduct and the forms of punishment which may be inflicted are indicated. No one shall be entitled to practise without having obtained a certificate signed by the Registrar and the penalty for so doing is a substantial fine. Although excellent in intention it is to me doubtful if they can be enforced in practice as the evidence for conviction is likely to be as difficult to obtain as it is in other closed professions such as the Law and Medicine. So far as I am aware South Africa is the only country where such a proposition has ever been seriously put forward for chemistry. Is it possible or desirable that chemistry in this country should become closed in this manner? I have already alluded to the fact that Medicine is regarded as a closed profession-that is closed by statute-but Medicine is not the only profession to occupy this position in our national life.Both branches of the Law Dentistry Veterinary Science and Pharmacy are all in the same category but the tightness with which the door is closed varies greatly. Other professions not so controlled by statute have by virtue of their especial service to the public gradually approached this state. For example Accountancy although possessing two professional organisations the Incorporated and the Chartered Accountants is effectively controlled in the interests of the public and of the profession for it is highly unlikely that any organisation or company whose financial affairs require periodic examination would employ for this purpose anyone who had not obtained corporate membership of one or other professional body.Architecture is another example. In order to get a picture of what I may call this type of “mono-poly,” it is necessary to go back a long way into history-to the Guilds and Livery Companies formed chiefly in the City of London and to a lesser extent in other cities from the 13th to the 17th century. The Craft Guilds probably were in their origin demo- cratic bodies where each member had the chance of becoming a master craftsman and rising to some share in the control of his craft. With the increase of wealth and growing facilities for production a development took place in the Guilds the journeyman and master craftsman no longer had the prospects which existed before and the Guilds were transformed into the Livery Companies with their Courts of Assistants who were mainly wealthy men who held office for life and controlled the whole economic con-ditions of the trades and of the craftsmen.The Guilds and the Livery Companies were answerable only to the Lord Mayor and Aldermen and had very wide powers the most important of which were the maintenance of discipline ethical codes and education ; r 167 3 they were able to pre\wt anyone from carrying on his trade unless a member of the appropriate Guild. Nost of the powers were obtained by charter or by statute. Before anyone could open a shop or establish a business he had to be a Freeman of the City a status which could not be attained until a certain seniority had been reached-that of a Liveryman.Once he had obtained this he had considerable privileges and played his part in the government of the City. There are some 79 Livery Companies in existence in the City to-day but only a few any longer exercise the functions for which they were originally founded. In the Guilds and Livery Companies there were various grades of membership-apprentices journeymen liverymen and members of the Court each of the latter being eligible to serve in due course as Master of the Company. The Court presided over by the Master were responsible for the affairs of the Company. It is interesting to note some curious associations in the Guilds. The Barbers and the Surgeons were joined together under the name of the Barber Surgeons.The Apothecaries formed part of the Grocers until they received their own Charter from James I at the instance of Gideon Delaune who became the first Master of the newly-formed Company which was however called a “Society” and is the only Company in the City to be so described. Gideon Delaune was a remarkable man for two reasons-not only did he obtain the Charter but he was also the father of 37 children. I do not want to digress too much into history but the earliest diploma in existence given to a Barber Surgeon is dated 1497 and demonstrates the power which the Guild was able to exercise. In the preamble to the licence which sets out the authority to examine persons as to their proficiency we find that they had authority to see that the candidate was qualified in the treating of new wounds old sores and other lesions whatsoever they may be; also in the drawing of teeth ventosyng i.e.cupping scarifications and other such manual operations. In granting the diploma the examiners (who are named) stated that Roberd Anson the candidate “was openely examined in dyvers things and he is found able and discrete to ocopy and use the practise of surgery as well abowte new wounds as cancers fystelis ulcerations and many other diseases . . . and so he is licensed.” Their disciplinary power may be exemplified by a case in 1576 in which Thomas Hodes was found ignorant and was bound never to meddle in any matter of surgery. In 1635 L.Rylen a mounte-bank was ordered to pay a fine of j65 “for hanging his signs tables bladders and stones upon public posts and on the traitor’s scaffold at Tower Hill in an exorbidant manner being contrary to the laws and charters and this Court [the Court of the Barber Surgeons] doth order that these signs and bladders shall be demolished and L 168 1 lie is forbidden from further practising any part of surgery hereafter within London OT se\-cn miles compass of this city.” ‘41~0,one Hacche was summoned before the Mayor and Aldermen on a charge made by Roger Clerk of deceit and falsehood for having undertaken to cure Roger’s wife pretending to bc skilled in medicines whereas he was altogether ignorant of the art of phjrsic. He hat1 given the lady a parchment writing to put about her neck on which parchment he alleged a charm powerful against fever was written.He was condemned to be led through the city with trumpets and pipes he riding a horse without a saddle the said parchment and a whetstone for his lies being hung about his neck a urinal also being hung before him and another urinal on his back. I think you would agree that the Censors of the Institute might learn much from these old penal- ties if and when they ha\Te to deal with cases of unprofessional conduct brought to their notice-which however I am glad to say is uncommon. It is noteworthy that the Barber Surgeons established a register of certified surgeons in 1555. Gradually these City organisations lost their power and now have only a limited association with the trades and professions they at one time represented; as time marched on other professional organisations took their place.The profession of Solicitor or Attorney was governed by the Inns of Chancery e.g. Staple and Barnard’s Inns but these gradually fell into decay. Before their demise a society called the Gentlemen Practisers in the Courts of Law and Equity was formed about 1739. The Law Society which to-day governs the profession of Solicitors was formed about 1825 and may be regarded as the successor of the Inns and of the earlier legal societies such as the one I have just mentioned. A few years later a Royal Charter was obtained which has been superseded by a number of Charters the last being in 1909.The professional status of solicitors and especially of the Law Society has been further consolidated by a number of Acts of Parliament the last being in 1936. These Acts have virtually closed the profession for it is almost impossible for any person to engage in the practice of the law for monetary reward unless he is on the register and has taken out his certificate which he is required to do annually. It is true that any person may make a will or advise in the making of a will or other legal instrument but if this is done in the expectation of a fee he is liable to be prosecuted and punished. The Law Society keeps a register is concerned with education and examination and with ethical matters but strange to say a practitioner need not be a member of the Society.So far as the Bar is concerned the conduct of its members is controlled by the Bar Council and no one unless he has been called may plead-except solicitors in certain courts-provided always r lo!) 1 that an individual may conduct his own case. A further safeguard is that a judge would refuse to hear anyone who had not been called. Medicine does not occupy such a happy position as the Law; anyone may practise medicine and may even prescribe poisons. There are exceptions to this governed by statute namely the treating of certain special diseases such as venereal disease tuber- culosis and cancer. Unregistered persons however may not use certain titles specified in the Medical Act e.g. physician surgeon etc.and may be prosecuted for so doing. They may not prescribe dangerous drugs i.e. drugs of addiction and cannot sign any statutory certificates or recover fees in a court. The medical “Magna Carta” is the Act of 1858 which set up the General Council of Medical Education and Registration commonly known as the General Medical Council. Without going into details concerning the powers and functions of the Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons the Society of Apothecaries and the Universities and the controversies which raged in the first half of the nineteenth century I would point out that prior to 1858 any person could practise medicine and surgery with the flimsiest qualifications and indeed without any qualification at all. It is true to say that graduates of the Medical Colleges and of the Universities produced persons who were efficient and acceptance of ethical standards was demanded from the former.But for those who had not gradu- ated by these routes there was no control over training examination or fitness to practise and indeed diplomas could be acquired with financial advantage to the vendors. Or a young man might be apprenticed to a practising doctor and after a few years could set up for himself. This resulted in a competition often unfavourable to the genuine practitioner while the quack could practise to the detriment of the ordinary citizen. The unsatisfactoriness of this state of affairs had long been realised but it took nearly 50 years of discussion and controversy to obtain an agreed policy which resulted in the Medical Act of 1858.The effects of this Act were:-(1) to set up a General Medical Council; (2) to maintain a Register of properly qualified persons; (3) to approve courses of study; (4) to inspect and report upon examinations; (5) to remove from the Register if the Council thought fit persons convicted of felony or misdemeanour; (6) to remove from the Register if the Council thought fit persons guilty of infamous conduct in a professional respect and to define the nature of these offences; (7) to protect the names of physician surgeon etc. to those upon the Register; and to make other pro- visions which need not be mentioned here. It is perhaps worthy of note that the General Medical Council can only take disciplinary action as a result of a complaint and cannot on their own initiative institute proceedings before them c 170 1 or in the Courts.I mention this because the Censors of the Institute are bound by a similar rule a point that may not be appreciated by many members. All this however does not make medicine a completely closed profession; anyone can set up in practice and examine and treat patients-the activities of bone-setters afford a well-known example. The only limitations are those I have already mentioned. Moreover a person who has been struck off the Medical Register can continue to practise but his chances of having his name restored to the Register would be jeopardised if he did so. So far as Dentistry and Veterinary Science are concerned the position is in general similar and control is largely modelled on the provisions of the Medical Act although the details are different.There remains Pharmacy. This in many respects is the most completely closed profession for except in so far as under the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933 sellers of poisons who were not pharmacists were licensed for certain purposes (e.g. the sale of poisons used in horticulture) no one can sell by retail any poison unless he is a registered pharmacist or can dispense medicines containing those substances which are listed as poisons. There are herbalists of course and some do a thriving trade but if they should dispense a poison they become liable to prosecution at the instance of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.This body was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1843 and since that date it has been granted other Charters and has been fortified by various acts of which the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933 is the most important as it codified most of the provisions of the earlier Acts. Training examinations ethics and the keeping of a register all form part of the duties of this Society. In recent years Pharmacy has received recognition by several universities and the degree of B.Pharm. has been instituted but before a graduate can practise he must be on the Register as indeed must all pharmacists. From my dissertation which has wandered in various directions and has not been entirely apposite to the main lines of thought which led me to discuss the question of a closed profession of chemistry you will realise that whilst almost every trade or profession had in the Middle Ages and indeed up to comparatively recent times a Guild or organisation which exercised a monopoly there are but few left today which are endowed with statutory authority for their well-being.Indeed where this authority exists there are difficulties in enforcement because statutory proceedings are hampered by forensic difficulties. So the point emerges that it is one thing to legislate for the closing of a profession but another thing to make the closure effective. Let us assume that some enactment similar to the South African Bill became statutory in this country; a question immediately r 171 1 arises as to who should constitute the registering body.Law and Pharmacy perform these functions through their own professional societies constituted by charter and statute whose functions are far wider than educational registrational ethical and penal. The Institute also exercises a wide range of functions but unlike the Pharmaceutical Society has no statutory authority compelling all who practise the profession to be members. On the other hand the Medical Act set up the General Medical Council whose functions are solely educational registrational ethical and penal and it is left to the British Medical Association an eiitirely unofficial body so far as the Act is concerned to cater for thc many other professional needs of medical men. Should a statute on the lines of the South African Bill ever be passed in this country it would seem probable that a new registering body would be brought into existence with fiiiictions considerably different from those of the Tiistitute.If it were possible however to add these functions to the Institute considerable modification of our Council would no doubt be entailed with the inclusion of lay persons-for example nominees of the Privy Council. I would stress that today the only professions which have statutory control and are classed as “closed” are those whose members have direct and intimate contact with the person of the individual citizen and who have it within their power to endanger the life health and even the liberty of the individual. As chemistry can claim no intimate contact of this kind it has but little chance of receiving statutory recognition as a closed profession.Thus whilst in the public interest it is most desirable to have educational and ethical standards for all who practise chemistry it would appear that the duties of chemists are primarily to the community as a whole or to corporate bodies rather than to individuals. Therefore if we are to achieve our aims we must concentrate upon enrolling as many of our professional brethren as possible so that members may reap the advantages of an organisation which can protect the community and thus safeguard the individual. I would add that I have carefully avoided defining a chemist. I am conscious of the fact that there are many useful individuals practising chemistry who have not attained the educational standard required by the Institute and I would throw out a personal thought that at some time in the future consideration should be given to them.The South African Bill clearly recognises their existence and intends to give them an official status in the scheme of registration. Perhaps at this stage you may be asking yourselves what is in my mind and which course I think the Institute should follow. believe that the right course is to continue on the path which we have trodden for so many years especially as our membership is rapidly rising and not to seek to obtain compulsory powers to achieve our objects but to foster the inclusion in our ranks of all whose competence in chemistry is beyond question.I feel that our very power lies in the voluntary system for the individual whose support is worth having realises that membership carries with it something that has an unique distinction and is worth striving for. It is good that the public and industry should appre- ciate that chemists have of their own volition established standards of qualification and ethics which command respect and can thus offer an assurance to the nation that members of the professional body possess all those qualifications which are expected and demanded. Should statutory registration of the chemist ever be brought into being it would be necessary to register all who had complied with the regulations which for the time being were in force.No such elasticity as exists with us today would be permitted and it is possible that some who were not worthy might become registered. One of the many duties of a chartered body is the keeping of a register of its members with some outline of their career so that the public may know something of the individual. It seems to me unfortunate that the register of the General Medical Council a statutory body includes only the names addresses and degrees of those registered. However the Medical Directory an unofficial publication that has been maintained for over 100 years not only gives the above details but also some facts about each individual’s career and type of experience so that his worth can to some extent be assessed. The Institute Register goes some way towards meeting this need.During my Presidency I have continually urged the importance of issuing a Register which is informative and up-to-date. The last was in 1938 though there was an abridged one in 1940 issued in this form owing to the exigencies of war and being in effect virtually useless. It is with special gladness therefore that I welcome the Register of 1948 for the publication of this volume is in my opinion one of the more important duties which the Institute owes to the public. I would pay an especial tribute to the painstaking and hard work which has been put into the volume by members of our staff especially as the lapse of 10 years and a change in the layout entailed a complete re-writing. Had I had my way I should have included in our new Charter anobligation to produce a Register annually as many other bodies have to do.But if our staff are prepared to face a new Register every two years I shall for the time be content although I look forward to an annual publication which I believe the Institute ought to produce. For the time being too I appreciate that there is a Paper Controller and that there are publication difficulties. There are many matters to which I should properly refer in c 173 3 this address but time will not permit. However I must not fail to mention our Presidential Badge which I am. wearing for the first time. The Badge about whose unique design I shall have something to say in another place has been presented to us and it is through the generosity of Johnson Matthey & Co.Ltd. British Celanese Ltd. and Toye & Co. Ltd.-all of whom have freely contributed materials and skilled craft smanship-that this beautiful design has been possible. I am sure you will all join with me in tendering to them our grateful thanks and I hope that this Badge will be worn by many Presidents in the years to come. The resolution which has been before you today relating to Eire is a matter of some importance. Our By-Laws have so far required British nationality as a condition of admission to membership and the change in the status of Eire although not affecting existing members in that country has precluded the admission of new members. The addition of the words “or citizens of Eire” enables us to admit future members from that country whence my forebears came.Already there are awaiting decision a number of applications which depend upon this resolution. I think it right to point out that in the future there may be similar resolutions if we are to admit as members citizens of those countries which though today they form part of the British Com- monwealth of Nations may later acquire some other status. Much will depend upon what that status is. This however is a matter which must wait upon events and individual consideration will need to be given to each case. I personally should deprecate the widening of membership which would ensue from the deletion of the words “British subject,” as I venture to suggest that chartered bodies such as ours in this country are essentially an English institution having regard to their constitution and objects.It is also true to say that many of the institutions of the Dominions overseas have modelled themselves on this pattern. I do not know to what extent this applies in the United States of America. These great chartered bodies have set themselves up primarily to ensure that the citizen is served by members of the profession whose qualifications and ethical standards are such that the fullest confidence may be placed in them and only in a subsidiary manner do these chartered bodies concern themselves with the welfare of their members. It is for this reason that I feel that we must retain the word British and only open our doors to those who are or have been members of the Commonwealth and then only after careful consideration.RESEARCH AND PRODUCTIVITY IN INDUSTRY* By C. S. ROBINSON, C.B.E. M.A. F.R.I.C. M.1.Chem.E. The Chancellor of the Exchequer in his analysis of the Four Year Plan emphasised the need for an overall increase of at least 10 per cent. in national productivity by the end of the “Marshall Aid” period. This increase can be achieved mainly through the increased diligence of the millions of people employed in industry-broadly defined-through increased capital investment as outlined in the Plan and last but not least through the rapid application of existing scientific knowledge to the improvement of technical processes. It is sometimes claimed that the productivity of North American industry is double that of the United Kingdom and whilst it is not our present purpose to analyse the causes of this apparent superi- ority it is clear that in America processes and sub-processes are subject continuously to scientific examination and technical improvement in detail.We have only to look back at our own country in the recent War period for evidence and proof of the enormous and rapid influence of applied research on industrial output; the ammunition filling industry was a case in point. Between the two World Wars this industry was stagnant but in 1939 it was facing a period of tremendous expansion involving the construction equipment and manning of a number of new factories; the total personnel rose from about 6,000 to 170,000within a period of 2 years and a year later a greater total output was obtained with a reduced force of 100,000.Many factors contributed to this achievement but perhaps the most fruitful was the continuous overhaul of methods through detailed scientific examination. This function was discharged by a Technical and Development Section of the Filling Factory Depart- ment operating functionally from headquarters with delegation of authority information and duties to outposts distributed through- out the factories. This method of organisation somewhat similar to that practised today in large American concerns was dictated by the grave shortage of qualified staff and ensured the constant application of the scientific mind to production processes.As an example of the methods employed reference to the filling of a 25-pounder shell with TNT is of interest. The con- ventional process involved three separate stages. In the first about half the complete charge of TNT was added in molten form and allowed to crystallise. Next the crust was broken down by a hand-tool the remainder of the molten TNT was added and a * Based on a lecture delivered at a joint meeting of the Oxford University Alembic Club and the London and South-Eastern Counties Section of the Institute on 28 February 1949. [ 175 1 brass “former” placed in the shell so that a shaped firing channel was formed inside the solidifying chargc; tlic third stage consjste(1 in removing the brass “former” and adjiisting the height of thc TNT fillinq either by cutting back or by addition of a further small quantity of liquid TNT.These discontinuous stages werc hcld to be necessary to yield freedom from cavitation of the charge and the correct amount of filling-both being of great importance ballistically. Scientific investigation showed that if crystallisation of the liquid TNT took place at a controlled rate of cooling the com- plete charge could be filled in a single stage whilst over-filling could be prevented by a simple air-lock device. From this simple principle developed the first fiilly mechanised process for TNT filling of 25-pounder and other calibres of shell; productivity rose considerably and both quality and safety improved.Visits to the German filling factories after the War revealed that whilst the same principle was used the method of application lacked the simplicity which was a feature of our own mechanised lay-outs. Another scientific investigation which yielded rich results was the fundamental study of the influence of particle size on the physical properties of pyrotechnic and incendiary compositions used in vast quantities for filling small arms and 20-millimetre ammunition to fine tolerances. The inherited scheme consisted in either weighing each increment 011 a chemical balance or volume measurement by hand-operated scoops of various sizes. With the discovery of a method for producing free-flowing powders it became possible to adapt automatic volume filling machines and to mechanise the process fully; productivity rose twenty-fold.Whilst it is improbable that many of our established peace-time industries would offer so much scope for the scientific investigator there is little doubt that an attitude of continuous challenge to existing methods would yield impressive results. In general it may be claimed that perfect control of process conditions in contradistinction to unexplained and chance variations will both raise productivity and decrease costs. Thus the develop- ment and use of control instruments based mainly on the principles of physics is increasingly prevalent in industrial practices. Physical devices normally give rapid indications and have ceased to be purely academic research tools.Thus spectroscopic analysis serves to control the composition of non-ferrous alloys employed in rolling and extrusion processes ; and X-ray diffraction technique is used in checking the physical condition of the alloy at the successive stages of deformation and annealing on the way to the final product which may be tube or strip. In the dyestuffs industry rapid measurement of adsorption spectra is obtained by the Hardy Recording Spectrophotometer and in certain other sections of the chemical industry infra-red spectrometers are used to check the constancy of composition of intermediate products. In general engineering processes electronic devices for the automatic control of machine-tools and rolling-mills have been developed and in mining safetv doors can he operated by photo-electric mechanisms.The separation of solids from liquids involving filtration and subsequent drying is a frequently occurring process in the chemical industry and in fact in many other industries; the productivity of these processes can often be increased by scientific control of particle size or crystal shape. Thus it has been found that adipic acid will yield platy crystals in the presence of a trace of long-chain quaternary ammonium compounds and fine needles in the presence of a smzll concentration of a long-chain sulphonic acid. Common salt-normally cubic-delrelops extra faces at the corners if grown from solutions in which urea or caustic soda is present. Some compounds form one or more hydrates and in such cases the estab- lishment of the conditions which determine the isolation of the preferred crystal form can materially assist the filtration and sub-sequent handling of the solid; calcium sulphate is a case in point and its separation can be a very troublesome matter indeed.This brings us to the control of what might be termed surface- conditions and to the spectacular achievement of mineral separation by flotation. It is sometimes stated that the productivity level of an industrial nation depends on its consumption of non-ferrous metals and it is the successful development of the flotation process which has made available the vast quantities of these metals required today. In the Northern Rhodesian copper field the ore deposits contain little more than 3 per cent.of copper and its extraction at reasonable cost is scarcely possible by any other method than flotation-con- centration. The ore after grinding in tube mills is aerated in the presence of water and the addition of a small amount of a surface-active chemical compound causes the particles of copper sulphide to adhere to the liquidlgas interface and so to be floated to the top to yield a concentrate. Practically all metallic sulphides can be separated effectively in this way but partially oxidised ores are resistant. In general flotation reagents are chemical com-pounds which form strongly polar molecules on solution in water and include certain fatty acids amines xanthates and thio-ureas; the quantity consumed is of the order of 1 pound per 50 tons of dry ore mined.A further example of surface action in the mining industry is the grease-table which effects the separation of the diamond from the final concentrate containing garnets and other heavy minerals; carried down this inclined table by a stream of water the diamond alone is selectively held by the layer of grease on the table. [ 177 I In the chemical industry the addition of small amounts of surface-active compounds is sometimes effective in facilitating the separation by filtration of solids from water; they act through absorption at the solid interface to yield a hydrophobic in place of a hydrophylic condition. Then too the volume density of amatols for bomb-filling can be raised by somewhat similar additions which cause the TNT and ammonium nitrate crystals to adhere more closely to each other.In the result a denser and more effective filling is obtained. In general catalysts enable reactions to take place at manageable temperatures and pressures but the effect on productivity of an additional 50 degrees of temperature is not always appreciated by the research worker on catalysts. A catalytic unit will normally consist of a contact vessel followed by heat interchangers and coolers and sometimes preceded by a superheater. The wear and tear on such a unit will be much higher at 550" C. than at 450"C. and stoppages for repairs which involve appreciable heat losses lead to considerable losses of production. In a recent case the replace- ment of a catalyst by one able to function at a temperature reduction of 50" cut down the number of major stoppages for repairs from three to one annually.The rise in annual productivity wassub- stantial and moreover the cost of the product was reduced. In metallurgy and engineering large increases in productivity have resulted from slight modification of steels and non-ferrous metals; in a sense these may be regarded as examples of surface effects Thus a lead-bearing steel to British Standards specification gives a 40 per cent. increase in drilling rate over an unmodified steel and its availability during the War solved the supply problem for 20-millimetre shells. Similarly research has shown that the presence of about one half of one per cent.of tellurium in copper increases its machinability three-fold without apparently affecting electrical conductivity. The addition of tellurium yields a uniform distribution of copper telluride particles which cause the drillings or turnings to break instead of spiralling round the cutting tool and clogging it. Another type of development is impact extrusion which has arisen from intensive research into the behaviour of non-ferrous metals when subjected to suddenly applied loads. A thin-walled article can be produced from such metals as copper or aluminium in a single operation whereas the conventional method involves a series of drawings and annealings. Collapsible tooth-paste containers from lead and tin have been made in this way for many years but application to the harder metals is novel.In ferrous metallurgy both the productivity and the coke consumption of the blast furnace have been improved in recent times by closer attention to the physical condition of the ore burden. f 178 ] The temperature at the base of the furnace must be high enough to produce molten slag and iron and this is achieved through the heat of combustion of coke in the air of the blast. At this temperature only carbon monoxide can exist and ideally the whole of this should be converted higher up in the furnace into carbon dioxide through the reduction of iron oxide to iron; moreover as much as possible of the sensible heat of the ascending gases should be trans- ferred to the ore burden. It seems obvious that these conditions cannot be met without careful attention to the physical state of the ore charged into the top of the furnace and that in fact much of the carbon burnt may well leave the furnace in the form of carbon monoxide.Modern practice is therefore to crush the larger lumps of ore and to agglomerate the “fines” after screening; the result is an appreciable reduction in coke consumption per ton of iron and a greater throughput of ore in the furnace. Whilst such large scale installations for ore preparation are costly it is logical and scientific to secure ideal conditions in the blast furnace for the performance of its essential functions. It is perhaps of interest to refer to Operational Research of which much is heard; as its name suggests it arose during the War in connection with the study of military operations.In the early days of the War radar had made it possible to plan the interception of enemy aeroplanes by ground control and so to economise greatly in the use of our own fighters. A handful of scientists joined the Air Ministry and by careful analysis of training and operational experiences and of the technical performances of equipment succeeded in materially increasing the possibilities of interception ; this technique which was mainly statistical and mathematical was also extended to U-boat control by Coastal Command. In industry however the application of the scientific mind to the study of operations is no novel process for many firms finance research and technical departments which are constantly overhauling existing processes and seeking new ones.No doubt much more progress in these fields is both necessary and possible and the title of the technique is of no great significance; what is essential is the challenge of the scientific and analytical mind to almost every detail of existing methods and processes. Today the organisation of such a service is to some extent conditioned by the shortage of university graduates and in relation to our size and needs we are some way below American standards. This cannot be put right quickly for the facilities of the universities are overstrained and generally speaking their teaching staffs as well as those of the secondary schools are inade- quate in numbers.Moreover the post-war tendency greatly to expand joint consultation in factories and elsewhere-necessary as it may be-diverts the attention of scientifically trained operating [ 179 1 staff from technical to personnel matters. We must therefore devise and select a form of productive organisation which will ensure full use of existing technical experience. As already mentioned we were compelled to do this during the War and in the filling factories overcame a serious shortage of scientifically minded operating staff by a widely but thinly spread functional service of high quality No doubt the Research Associations which operate under the patronage and encouragement of the D.S.I.R. could serve in a similar manner with respect to the several concerns in their respective spheres of influence.This however might involve the extensive pooling of technical information and not all firms are willing to share their secrets with competitors in the same industry. For large concerns controlling a number of factories or establish-ments this particular difficulty does not arise but they are never- theless confronted by the common trouble of shortage of scientific staff in relation to intensified needs and by the problem of organisa-tional adjustments designed to render existing scientific skills fully available. To some extent also the requirements of the Four Year Plan conflict with those of longer term planning-the former relate intimately to quick improvements and the latter in the main perhaps to radical change and new discovery.The distribution of available resources of scientific manpower between these divergent objectives is a matter of high policy which is doubtless receiving the attention it merits. In some ways the years since the War have been marked by continuous efforts to attempt too much simultaneously but whilst selectivity is a difficult problem it is one which must be faced. THE APPOINTMENTS REGISTER By R. LESLIE COLLETT,M.B.E. M.A. F.R.I.C. Registrar. On receiving recently the Annual Report on the work of the Appointments Register it occurred to the Appointments and Economic Status Committee that an article on the subject written by one who himself obtained his first post after the 1914-18 war through the Register and who has been closely associated with the administration of the service for twenty-four years might be of some general interest to members.The Register has been in existence since the very early years of the century and has been available to members throughout Great Britain and occasionally overseas. It may therefore seem surprising that it now operates under licence granted by the London County Council and we are informed that this must be clearly stated. [ 180 1 Under their General Powers Act 1921 the L.C.C. very properly obt:ained authority to control employment agencies many of which are maintained by private owners for profit and occasionally may be open to abuse. When we were first informed by the L.C.C. in 1936 that our Appointments Register must be classed as an employ- ment agency under this Act objection was taken.It was pointed out that the Institute considered it a duty to provide the means whereby- the public might be helped to obtain the services of qualified chemists that no fees were charged to the public that in respect of candidates for posts the service was limited to our own members that no accommodation on our premises was provided and that our activities were not confined to the London area. The L.C.C. however took the view that it had no power under the Act to make exceptions and that licences must be obtained by all organisations operating from offices in the London area. This also applies to the Appointments Boards of the University of London and of the Imperial College of Science and Technology.It was not difficult however to explain that our Appointments Register was not a profit-making affair and indeed that it was a source of expense to the Institute and that proper care was taken for example concerning vacancies for women overseas. The officers of the L.C.C. have not therefore found it necessary to subject the Register to any onerous restrictions. Members who are unemployed receive the service free of any charge; those who are employed but desire to be kept in touch with possibilities of improving their positions are asked to contribute 10s. Od. towards the cost of preparing and posting the lists of vacancies for six months. At present these lists are circulated weekly. They contain particulars of snitable vacancies notified direct to the Institute.Suitable vacancies advertised in the technical and lay Press are also inserted with due acknowledgment. By this system every member using the service is informed of all vacancies known to the Institute and the responsibility of deciding whether to applv for any appointment remains with the individual member. The Officers have been asked from time to time whether some kind of preferential treatment could not be given to members who are unemployed. It is felt that any such policy would quickly defeat its own object for prospective employers would be reluctant to use a service if they feared that they would only hear from candidates who had been difficult to place. Every opportunity possible is however taken to call the special attention of an unemployed member to any vacancy which would seem to suit his particular experience.The Institute makes no attempt to select among candidates for any post for several reasons. Over two thousand vacancies are circulated annually and some three hundred members may be involved. Selection could be done only by a committee with intimate knowledge of the whole field of chemical activities sitting probably at least weekly. Furthermore it is maintained that really efficient selection can be done only by two parties-the prospective employer and the candidate himself. The employer knows not merely the outline of experience required but the kind of man who will best fit in with others on his staff; the candidate knows whether he has the right knowledge and experience which may have been obtained in some industry possibly quite remote from that to which the new appointment directly refers.Moreover members who are in employment may be pardonably reluctant to allow the fact that they are contemplating a change to be known to members of a committee among whom may be Fellows with whom they are directly associated. Neither the Council nor any Committee has ever required the Officers to disclose the names of members who are using the Appointments Register. The greatest possible care is taken to protect the interests of members. It may sometimes happen that a chemist is having let us say a little difficulty with his directors or chief on some question of pay or duties.As a precautionary measure he may begin to look for possibilities of other employment. At the same time his directors also merely as a precaution may begin to look for a possible replacement. A notice is issued under a box number describing the experience required and the chemist may think that the post so notified is just the one which he could fill and would like to obtain. He may thus apply for his own job and if the application were to be forwarded untold damage might be done. For this reason our formula in acknowledging the receipt of applications sent to the Institute in reply to vacancies notified under box numbers is always “will receive careful attention,” and we maintain the right to suppress any application if we have reason to suppose that it would be against the interests of the chemist to forward it.We thus try to respect the confidence of both sides. There is some diversity of opinion about the fairness or advisa- bility of the use of these box numbers. Everyone prefers to know to whom he is applying but there are cases where an employer may be legitimately unwilling to publish the fact that he is contemplating new activities or developments. From the office point of view the box number system has one rather interesting advantage. When the address of the prospective employer is disclosed candidates write directly to him and the Institute has no means of knowing how many have applied. Where on the other hand the Institute acts as a post office records can be kept and a useful index is available as to the kind of appointments which are or are not attractive.r 182 I In the early ’thirties when vacancies were few and candidates many the Officers used to spend a great deal of time and effort in endeavouring to induce and assist members to present attractive applications. At the present time consideration has to be given to persuading some employers to publish attractive notices. Fre-quently they are so anxious not to disclose more than the minimum of information that the chemist has little idea as to what would be required of him or even of the locality in which he would be required to work. In these days of housing shortage such information is particularly important and employers are advised to make some appeal to the interest and imagination of candidates.“State salary required.” A very frequent formula! Prospec-tive employers often argue that the value which a chemist places on himself is a useful indication of his calibre or that until they know who is available they find difficulty in deciding on a definite figure. It would seem unreasonable however that especially in applying to a box number the chemist should be asked to disclose himself in ignorance of whether the appointment is likely to be attractive to him and at present it is found that there is little or no response to notices in which no information is given as to salary at least within a range or quoting a minimum. During the time when unemployment was greater the request to state salary required was also undesirable as leading to tendering with the suggestion that the appointment would go to the lowest bidder.It should be remembered that in administering the Appoint- ments Register the Institute has a duty primarily to its members whether they are candidates for a post or as very frequently happens are employers or acting for an employer. It also has a duty to the public as a whole and to public authorities and has therefore without overdoing impartiality to be scrupulously fair to both sides. For this reason although vacancies which are defi- nitely unsuitable are never circulated it has been thought wise not to adopt an attitude towards prospective employers which might be regarded as dictatorial.The advice of the Institute is sought almost daily as to terms and conditions of employment. Honest advice must be given and any attempt to force up the market unduly would soon lead to cessation of requests for advice and defeat its own object. If in spite of advice the employer presses for the circulation of a vacancy at a salary which in the opinion of the Officers is on the low side it frequently happens that no useful applications are submitted ; the employer is taught wisdom by his own experience and is more willing to follow advice on subsequent occasions. The Institute is sometimes asked to protest against the publica- tion of unsatisfactory advertisements and to take energetic action to prevent their appearance. Whether a policy of that kind is desirable r 183 1 is a matter for the Council to decide but if the present writer may be allowed to express an opinion it is that the best method of dealing with such advertisements is to ignore them.Letters to the Press signed “Indignant Ph.D.,” complaining of being offered posts at L350 per annum are to the minds of uninformed employers tantamount to the display of a notice “Chemists are cheap to-day.” During the war years the work of the Appointments Register inevitably linked up with that of the Ministry of Labour and National Service. When the Central Register was first formed on a voluntary basis the Institute provided a large proportion of the qualified chemists included. Compulsory Registration and numerous Restriction of Engagement Orders followed but it was found possible to secure real and cordial co-operation between the Institute and the officers of the Ministry.In this connection the Institute and indeed the whole profession owes a great deal to Professor W. Wardlaw and his colleagues on the Technical and Scientific Register and in other Departments of the Ministry. During and since the recent war unemployment among members of the Institute has been very small and even in the worst days round about 1930 it never rose above two hundred. It should however be remembered that the number of unemployed at any given date is merely a section through the time-space curve and that the number unemployed on a particular day does not neces- sarily mean that that number of chemists are actually unable to obtain posts.Many may have been in employment a week before the date in question and others may be re-employed within a week after. One is apt to lose sight of this phenomenon not only when considering figures connected with our Appointments Register but also in connection with the much larger numbers involved in Ministry of Labour returns for the country as a whole. In the Report of Council for 1948 it will be seen that during that year over six hundred members used the Appointments Register at some time in the capacity of candidates. This number has risen as high as one thousand in the past. In addition there are those members who use the service as a means of obtaining assistants and staff.The hope may be expressed that such members will not regard the Institute’s Appointments Register merely as a means of obtaining the services of juniors. It is realised that the majority of really senior appointments are filled quite properly by promotion within an organisation or by private arrangement but where new developments are contemplated more experienced men may be required and members are asked to bring such vacancies to the notice of the Institute. This is important because at the present moment very few members are interested in vacancies at less than say E500 per annum; the majority now receiving the lists do not contemplate applying for posts carrying salaries less than fl800 [ 184 1 while a considerable number are only interested in vacancies over the four figure mark.The administration of the Appointments Register brings the Officers of the Institute into touch with a large number of members on matters which are often of a human and confidential nature and it is always a source of pride and gratification when by this means help can be given in times of uncertainty or difficulty. In conclusion the writer would like to express his thanks to Presidents and Councils for having allowed him within the frame- work of their general policy a very free hand in the general adminis- tration of the Appointments Register and to his predecessor in the office of Registrar Mr. Pilcher from whose wide human under- standing he learnt much especially in the earlier days.To Mr. Winder who has recently taken much of the detailed work off his shoulders and to his secretary Miss Brown he is also much indebted. CHEMISTRY AS A CAREER In the article “School Children Chemists of the Future” (JOURNAL ANL) PROCEEDINGS, 1949 11 91) an account was given of meetings for young people organised by the London and South-Eastern Counties Section and the Manchester and District Section respectively. In March 1949 two other Local Sections-the East Midlands and the Bristol and District-arranged very successful meetings with the same end in view. -4symposium with the title “Careers in Chemistry,” intended primarily for students and senior scholars was arranged by the East Midlands Section on 17 March at Nottingham Technical College.The central idea of the meeting was to give the audience some information on the three main channels of chemical careers namely in industry in academic life and in the Scientific Civil Service. To this end Dr. G. M. Dyson Professor L. Hunter and Major A. Sumner very kindly agreed to speak on these respective topics. The Section was also fortunate enough to obtain the very willing agreement of Professor H. V. A. Briscoe to take the chair at the meeting. The fact that the main centres of population in the Section are fairly widely separated caused some difficulty in organising the meeting. It was felt that to hold similar meetings at all four main centres would involve a great deal of repetition and would lead to difficulty in obtaining speakers.The committee finally decided to hold a large meeting at Nottingham where between 500 and 600 students could be accommodated. Free transport was considered to be a prerequisite to ensure a good attendance of those living at a distance from Nottingham since young persons could scarcely be expected to pay for in some cases a 60-mile bus journey. The provision of refreshments was also considered a necessity. The estimated cost of these arrangements was too high to be met by the Section’s normal grant but it was fortunate enough to obtain substantial financial help from some of the large chemical firms in the area. 185 1 Eventually about 300 students and scholars from the colleges and grammar schools of Leicester Loughborough and Derby were transported by special bus to Nottingham where they joined an audience of about 150 students from that city.Under the able guidance of committee member Mr. J. R. Rowlands refreshments were quickly served and disposed of almost as quickly. Mr. Rowlands had arranged a half hour of community singing before the meeting and this appeared to be thoroughly enjoyed. Possible this is the first time that a meeting of the Royal Institute of Chemistry has been so inaugurated! At 6.30 p.m. the speakers committee and visitors assembled on the platform to face an audience which had increased to over 500 completely filling the large Lecture Theatre of the College. Those ranks of keen and alert youth formed an impressive sight which will live long in the memories of those who saw them.Dr. H. H. Barber Chairman of the Section opened the meeting by a brief survey of the aim of the symposium and referred to the interest which the Institute always took in the training of the young chemist. He welcomed the visitors to the meeting who included Mr. E. T. Osborne a Vice-president of the Institute and Mr. J. R. Maddocks of the Staff Department of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. Dr. Barber then introduced the chairman for the evening Professor H. V. A. Briscoe. Professor Briscoe said that while many young people might feel that the Royal Institute of Chemistry was a remote and austere professional body this meeting was evidence enough that this was by no means the case and that the Institute was keenly interested in the student.Indeed it had a large number of Registered Students. Much experience of interviewing candidates for various appointments had convinced him that the one thing that mattered most was whether a man was alive or dead and the most important single influence in making a man live and keeping him vigorously alive was to do work he found really congenial. It followed that the greatest possible importance attached to choosing a career carefully and wisely. In order to do this young people required much more general knowledge than they usually had of the possibilities of various careers and what was really involved in their pursuit. Too many people became chemists or physicists simply because they had happened to do these subjects at school had felt themselves attracted by them and so just went on with them oblivious of the possibilities of other careers.It was the object of this sympo- sium to give a picture of what was involved in the profession of chemistry in its various aspects and this could not fail to be both interesting and useful. Professor Briscoe then introduced l)r. G. M. Dyson to speak on “Industrial Careers.” Dr. Dyson opened his remarks by pointing out the essential part played by the chemist in our everyday life. There were two routes to an industrial career in chemistry; first to go from school to a university and then after qualifying to go into industry or second,-the hard way-to enter industry straight from school learn from your job and from part-time classes and then take an External Degree of London University.Early specialisation should be avoided; it was far better to obtain a broad scientific background and to take an intelligent interest in borderline subjects. The word “resem-ch” had become invested with a rather spurious glamour and many junior students had the impression that revolutionary discoveries were made at frequent intervals. This was not the case and much research consisted of 90 per cent. routine work. He wanted to stress the advantages of the career of analyst. It Lvas not usually considered one of the best jobs and consequently there was a shortage of good analysts. Sowadays with modern analytical instruments the analyst had a most interesting job and the routine work was probaldy no more than that cnrrietl out 1)y the so-called research chemist.There were many other branches open to industrial chemists such as biochemistry process and development work research on road materials beer and fermentation fertilisers and horticulture and chemical engineering. The main essential was that one must have real enthusiam to become an industrial chemist. The next speaker Professor L. Hunter was concerned with “Academic Careers,” and dealt with careers in the teaching of chemistry-in schools in technical colleges and in universities He referred to the important place which science (and especially chemistry) should occupy in a liberal education and said that good teaching having due regard to the historical economic geographical industrial and other implications of the subject could make chemistry truly one of the humanities.No student should contemplate teaching as a profession unless he had real enthusiasm for it for to enter the profession solely for other reasons would lead only to disappointment boredom and bad teaching. The speaker then dealt in some detail with university teaching. Pointing out that salaries in universities were usually somewhat lower than in industry he proceeded to explain what were the “compensations” of university teaching i.e. the factors which in his view prevented an undue flow from the universities into industry. They were as follows. :-(1) Opportunities to teach adolescents and adults. This inevitably meant teaching chemistry to a higher standard than was possible in a school and for this reason it might appeal as being more interesting.(2) Opportunities for research. This together with freedom of choice of subject and freedom of publication was a potent attraction for many individ- uals. Jealously guarded by the universities there was little doubt that these freedoms given to the many revealed the supreme genius of the few. (3) Possibility of interchange with industry. This was an important outlet to personnel engaged in university teaching where promotion to the more responsible posts was obviously limited to relatively few. It was a useful safety-valve for the profession; and the reverse change from industry to university was a useful corrective to the somewhat academic outlook of chemistry in universities.(4) Realistic pension scheme. The Federated Superannuation System for Universities (F.S.S.U.) was a contributory pension scheme which provided for dependents as well as for retirement. The scheme was also adopted in many industrial concerns and by most Government sponsored research associations and was a powerful aid in facilitating the interchange between university staffs and industrial personnel mentioned above. (5) Equal status of men and women. One of the most eniightened policies of the universities was that men and women were given equal pay and opportunities and in the majority of university posts men and women were competing on equal terms. There was a great future for women in university teaching and already many of the most senior posts were occupied by women.Major A. Sumner was the last speaker and dealt with “Civil Service Careers.” He enumerated the various types of chemists required in the Government Service namely Research Chemists Experimental Officers Analytical Chemists and Production Chemists and mentioned in detail the salary ranges for the various grades in these classes. These salaries had recently been improved and were comparable with those in industry; they ranged from A230 p.a. for an Assistant Experimental Officer at age 18 to Ll,520 pa. for a Senior Principal Scientific Officer. There were posts at a higher level still and these carried salaries of i1,600 to @,OOO p.a. and in a few instances even higher. r 187 1 Major Sumner then went on to describe the type of work required.The research chemist had opportunities of a very wide range and if he gave an indication of the subject in which he was particularly interested during his interview efforts were made to appoint him to a Department whcre work of this character was in progress. He could be called upon to investigate the properties of radio-active materials at an Atomic Energy Establishment or a new type of explosive in the Research Department or again the properties of some new material of particular importance to industry at the Chemical Research Laboratory. Much of the work at the Government Establishments was naturally directed to applied research but it was now an accepted prin- ciple that opportunity should be provided at the Research Establishments for some proportion of the work to be of a fundamental nature and for encourage- ment to be given to the publication of such work wherever possible.For the analytical chemist the scope of work offered by the Government Service was equally satisfactory. A wide variety of raw materials and finished products subject to Government control or of interest to the Service Depart- ments had to undergo detailed analysis. Accuracy and speed of operation were of the utmost importance and to this end the methods of analysis were being continually improved and modified by new developments particularlj- of a physical-chemical nature. The production chemists were principally employed in the Ordnance Factories for operating the processes developed in the Research Departments and for assisting in the design and development of suitable plant in which the processes could be efficiently controlled.These posts required men with a flair for chemical engineering and works management. Many questions were asked by the audience among them being whether a student suffers a serious disadvantage by qualifying from part-time classes whether there is any discrimination between men and women chemists what type of work would be required in an atomic power research station and how a student could decide he was fitted to undertake a career as a chemist. These questions and many others were ably answered by the speakers and the meeting closed with a summing up by Professor Briscoe and a vote of thanks proposed by Mr.Cullum a student of Nottingham Technical College and seconded by Mr. Harrison a student of Wyggeston Boys’ School Leicester. The committee have received a number of letters of appreciation from the headmasters and science masters of the schools taking part ; some have asked to be kept informed of any further similar meetings. There seems no doubt that the meeting did provide some 1w-J-useful information on chemical careers to a large body of scholars. The second meeting originated from a short note published in JOURNAL AND on the “Careers” talk held in London in October following PROCEEDINGS which Mr. Peacock Headmaster of Newent Grammar School wrote to the Secretary of the Bristol Section and asked whether a similar talk could be arranged in North Gloucestershirc.With the co-operation of Mr. H. S. Need l’rincipal and Mr. li. Harrison Head of the Science Department the meeting was held at Gloucester Technical College on Friday afternoon 2% March anti 126 children mostly in the sixth forms assembled from schools in and around Glouccster. That there was such a gratifying response was largely duc to Ah-. J. RI. Eagles Headmaster of Marling School Stroud who undertook to notify the schools in the area. Mr. Harrison opened the meeting and asked Mr. €3. W. Minifie Hon. Secretary of the Local Section of the Institute to introduce the Brains Trust composed of Dr. 1’. AfaIkin (Jkpartmcnt of Orgaiiic (‘hcrnistry University of I188 J Bristol) Mr. G. H. Moore (Head of the Science Department Merchant Ven- turers’ Technical College Bristol) Mr.E. H. Jones (Director Messrs. Capper Pass Metal Smelters Bristol) and Mr. E. Lewis (Technical Director Messrs. Christopher Thomas Bros. Soap Manufacturers Bristol). Following the introduction short addresses were given by each member of the Trust lasting in all about an hour. Dr. Malkin spoke first and said that the meeting was intended to give students some idea of what chemistry had to offer as a career and the various courses of training in chemistry open to them. The choice of a career was always a serious matter and never more so than nowadays when it was so important to have the right people in the right posts. The aim therefore was to give the advice and information which would assist the student in making a proper choice.It was not at all the object to canvass for the profession of chemistry but to help the student to decide from a knowledge of his own inclination and abilities whether chemistry was likely to offer a full satisfying and worth-while career. Dr. Malkin then went on to discuss the most suitable qualifications for admission to University chemistry courses for Hons. Chemistry General Science and special degrees (Agriculture Biochemistry). He brieflv outlined the various courses for the B.Sc. M.Sc. and Ph.D. and indicated the types of posts available after qualifying in industry teaching the Scientific Civil Service agriculture and biochemistry. Following Dr. Malkin’s outline of University life Mr. G. H. Moore spoke of the students who by reason of lack of opportunity or finance were not able to pursue a University career.What had chemistry to offer them? To those who were prepared to work hard the Technical Colleges presented a means of obtaining a qualification while pursuing a job of work. To those who were successful in getting a degree or diploma there was an advantage gained over the University student in that practical works experience had been obtained while studying. Most laboratory assistants who were working for a degree were allowed by their employers the equivalent of one day per week to attend day classes which helped with evening classes to reduce the time required to complete the full course. Even so from 5 to 7 years were usually taken by a part time Technical College student to become fully qualified.Mr. Moore described the National Certificate Courses in chemistry and pointed out that these were also open to those who did not hold a University School Leaving Certificate. These National Certificates at the Ordinary and Higher levels were recognised by industry as indications of proficiency in the subject. The function of the Technical College in providing vocational courses apart from chemistry was also mentioned. These were designed to promote the application of scientific methods to industries and crafts which had been developed over very many years by trial and error. The third speaker Mr. E. H. Jones emphasised the competitive spirit which prevailed in industrial organisations; this was present in all parts of the business not excluding the chemical laboratories.The basis of all business was to make a profit in the face of competition and with inefficient working a profit was changed to a loss; continued loss meant that the business would cease to exist. As a result of this competition employees including chemists were judged largely on their merits and value to the firm and not solely on their academic attainments. A chemist in industry besides being a good chemist must know something of business methods be able to work with factory personnel and see the point of view of non-technical staff. Mr. Jones stressed the value of a qualification as it established a measure of personal independence and assisted a chemist to improve his position or change his employment if he felt so inclined.[ 189 3 Finally he gave a brief account of the type of work done in the laboratory with which he was connected explaining the close co-operation with the production side. The last speaker Mr. E. Lewis emphasised the necessity for more rigid technical control in industry and substantiated Mr. Jones’ statement that chemists must be prepared to work well with other factory personnel if they were to be successful and to do justice to the profession. In business the technical executive staff who were frequently drawn from the chemists must cultivate the ability to manage men and gain their confidence. The meeting was then thrown open to questions which Dr. Malkin said the members of the Brains Trust would do their best to answer.As is usually found with young people in a meeting of this sort questions were not readily forthcoming at the beginning but after a few students had spoken others gained courage and at the end of the meeting the speakers were asked in- formally questions of all types. It will be interesting to record the main questions asked. The first was from a girl student who enquired what openings there were for girl chemists. Mr. Minifie replied that girls were employed as junior analytical chemists in most large laboratories and particularly in the food industry; they also seemed to be in demand for milk testing laboratories. Girls of School Certificate standard were particularly suited to routine work as they usually left to be married after four or five years and were replaced by new entrants.Boys did not take so kindly to routine work and naturally wanted to improve their positions as time went on. There was nothing however to prevent girls from becoming qualified chemists and reaching senior positions in a laboratory if they so wished. What openings were there for bio-chemists ? This question was replied to by Dr. Malkin and Mr. Moore who mentioned that bio-chemists were attached to hospital research staffs and many were employed in factories making pharmaceuticals. What openings were there for chemists in local industry ? This question of course applied to the Gloucester district and Mr. Read and Mr. Harrison gave details of firms who employed chemists with particular reference to the plastics industry at Stroud.What prospects were there for chemists in the Civil Service ? Dr. Malkin Mr. Moore and Mr. Minifie in turn gave information on this subject and mentioned that there were fixed scales of salary and grades applying to the Scientific Civil Service. It was stated that there were many opportunities for women in the various departments. When no further questions were forthcoming Mr. Minilie asked for a show of hands from those students who wanted to enter the various professions. Those responding amounted to about 60 per cent. of the audience and the numbers falling in the different categories were :-Chemistry 28; Biology as applied to Agriculture 17; Engineering 15; Physics 8; Teaching 5; Medicine 4.Some of the students who had not answered were then questioned and the replies given added considerable life to the proceedings and proved a fitting climax to the meeting. One student said he was all for private enterprise another wanted to be a professional sportsman while another later involved one of the members of the Brains Trust in an argument on politics! The meeting was then brought to a close by Mr. Harrison who asked Mr. Peacock to propose a vote of thanks Mr. Peacock said that the local schools were very grateful for the trouble the Royal Institute of Chemistry had taken in arranging the talks and he himself was very pleased to see such a splendid attendance. He also thanked the Principal of Gloucester Technical College for providing such excellent accommodation.THE TRAINING OF CHEMISTS FOR INDUSTRY A lecture delivered before the South Wales Section of the Institute on 26 March 1949 by W. G. HISCOCK, B.Sc. Ph.D. F.R.I.C. F.I.I.A. (Director and General Manager of the Imperial Smelting Corporation Ltd. Avonmouth) The process of bringing young people to the standard required by industry for work in the post-war world of to-day is one which requires major attention continual thought and very skilful handling. Former educational practices and the general lack of attention to human welfare by industry in past genera- tions are no longer tenable. The standards required by industry for its administrators ham to be something more than a certain standard in Latin and Greek and for its workers considerably more than a docile body complcte with hands and legs.The change in outlook on training for and within industry has been gradual since \IZ'orld War 1 but in more recent years the subject has assumed much greater importance due to the exigcncies of war between 1939 and 1945 the subsequent economic situation and the lead given on these matters in the V.S.X . e.g. "Training FYithin Industry," chemical engineering at such schools as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Tndustrial Psychology school at Harvartl IJniversity. The .Specific,utioa. It is the general practice in industry to provide specifications when pur- chasing the more important commodities and especially the raw materials. Ry far the most important factor in industry is the human being who administers the concern develops operates and supervises the process designs and repairs the plant and carries through all the other responsibilities ior which he receives the wherewithal to live and pay income tax.In certain industries particularly those manufacturing and using chemicals chemists are naturally the most suitable for the more important jobs in production research etc.; they arc the counterpart of the engineer in shipbuilding electrical and other engineering industries. In this discussion we are consider- ing the training of the chemist for industry; logically therefore we should say what we want or in other words submit our specification. Industry is made up of people millions of them.Success in a particular concern is normally achieved by the combined efforts of a group of these people all striving for the same end the efficient manufacture of zinc sulphuric acid fertilisers plastics T.N.T. or what have you. It is desirable that there shall be no misfits in the industrial team; careful selection helps very materially but it is essential that the individual employed in an industrial undertaking should have the right personality particularly if he is to take chargc of others or has to persuade others to apply his ideas. In short industry tlemands a normal individual a good mixer. Thc long-haired highbrow the eccentric the cantankerous individual in fact peculiar people of all kinds are really not suitable for industry because they may have an adverse influence on the many others with whom they have to deal and the bigger the concern and the wider its interests the less room is there for the temperamental misfit.The first essential in training for industry is that the parents the school the college should give the utmost attention to the develop- ment of personal qualities that something which we usually call personality or character. There can be no doubt that certain homes and educational institutions deliver to industry much better types than others. Recruits to industry should be trained to be alert to take an interest in everyday affairs 1 191 1 and to attack their tasks with vitality. The hangdog look the unkempt or dirty appearance the undisciplined bearing all have an adverse effect on the harmony of the team.I believe early environment and training have a profound influence on the outlook of the individual in these matters. It is extremely difficult to correct the situation after the impressionable years. The chemist in industry is no exception; he must if he is to be successful enter industry with the idea of adapting himself to the new environment ; he should be so moulded by previous teaching and example that he is wel- comed by his new associates be they managers or workpeople. The university student creates a bad impression if he affects an air of superiority when he enters industry. He may know his chemistry but there is still a lot for him to learn. The modern practice of spoon feeding the populace particularly in their early years must tend to kill the spirit of adventure which made us a great nation.The training of our future managers research workers and tech- nologists should be so designed as to encourage the young folk to be self-reliant and to fend for themselves. There are many characteristics common to all professional classes which could be added to the specification but I think before we enumerate other clauses it would be as well if we examine the field covered by the “Chemist in Industry.” There is no reason why a professionally qualified chemist should not under- take any job which industry offers provided he continues by experience or subsequent training to equip himself adequately. The main spans of interest are :-(1) administration (2) production control and management (3) research (4) inspection and quality control which involves mainly analytical work in addition to which there are numerous interests which involve the full-time occupation of chemists e.g.patent investigations production planning time and motion study safety and hygiene vocational training market research and so on. A chemist may with training even become a sales manager works accountant or purchasing officer. The first measuring stick applied to the chemist for all purposes is an acknowledged professional qualification. A chemist is certain to reach the required standard if he has a 1st or 2nd Class Honours degree of a University or is a Fellow or Associate of the Royal Institute of Chemistry.There are of course several other qualifications which may or may not reach standards set by different firms. The subject of the qualities required for the various jobs could form a discussion by itself and I will therefore only deal with the more obvious. For all the jobs the recruit should have been trained to think. He should have the art of self-expression fully developed so that he can explain either by word of mouth or in writing what he is thinking. The administrator and manager should tend to be practical rather than theoretical; he must be an active type with an urge to get things done; he must be quick in decision and readily acceptable in any environment. The research worker apart from his sound theoretical knowledge should have a disciplined imagination must be adapt- able with an intellectual vision above the average; moreover he must be able to get on with his colleagues particularly under criticism.It is important that the research worker should not be of the secretive recluse type. The analyst must be persistent thorough and of a very high level of mental integrity; he must be patient and methodical. Manual dexterity is also an advantage for the laboratory worker. [ 192 ] ’The characteristics of the nliscellaneous type vary of course and as 1 said before would take much too long to deal with effectively. Whilst there are a number of chemists who keep to one field for the whole of their industrial life it is desirable that chemists should not be side-tracked into a limited field.As a consequence the all-rounder is the best type for industry generally. Amongst all the recruits there are bound to be those who are natural leaders and from whom the hierarchy can be trained. Training for the higher posts should of course start at the very early stages and it is most important for young men to realise that their final position in life is often made for them in the first five years of their industrial life. There are many who after the long years of the strain of examinations and studies at school and university are inclined to rest on their laurels when they get their first job and wake up at some later date to find they have missed the boat. Although they may not appreciate it the eagle eye of management is watching them from the very day they arrive in the factory or laboratory.The Training. In consenting to open this discussion 1 was fully cognisant of the fact that I may be hopelessly out of date in my opinions of modern school and university education so I hope you will forgive me if I show ignorance in any criticism I may make. In my opinion the education of an industrial chemist can be divided into three stages viz. :-( 1) school (2) pre-graduation (3) post-graduation. During each of these periods of time certain fundamental aspects which I have already mentioned e.g. training to think development of character art Qf self expression must be given prime consideration. Organised games and recreation and competitive sports are also important ; the chemist who is good enough to be selected for works teams has a definite advantage in being accepted into the bosom of a works community.The debating society the dramatic club the many activities which go to make up the corporate life of the school or college all go to complete the general education of the young person and fit him for the subsequent competition he will have to face in industrial life. My view is that these aspects of training are in all respects as important as the acquisition of academic qualifications. On the question of scholastic attainments my view is as follows :--Stage l-School. The ediication of the chemist in embryo during his school days should in my opinion be no different from that of any other child.After all the many centuries of experience in school education it would be presumptuous on my part to attempt to build up an alternative. There are of course on? or two directions in which I think matters might be improved ; for instance I consider Latin a waste of time-it was in my case-and that equivalent training could be obtained by teaching modern languages. I also believe that it is very important that the three R’s should receive the very highest consideration. It is most annoying to have to read bad writing and in my opinion it takes very little more time to write legibly. Bad writing is generally a sign of laziness or affectation which should be corrected at the earliest stage. Children should be encouraged by teachers to take an interest in things outside the normal school curriculum.lily experience of the Boy Scout movement as a Scout Master left very pleasant memories of a most useful movement and gave me an early insight into the problems and difficulties of leadership. The present tendency to let youngsters at an early age take only those subjects in which they areainterested or which they want to take breeds mental laziness and certainly discourages mental discipline. I193 I Perhaps niy Inairi criticism is that schools yay far too niuch attt.ntion to examination results perhaps there is an incentive for teachers particularl}. headmasters to encourage children to cram for exams. as the school may be judged on the number of school leaving certificates etc. it obtains each year.I think this is all wrong. I remember having a last year at school after I had obtained my matriculation; I was apparently too young to go on to the university. I have a lasting impression that during that year I actually benefited more in general education than I did in the years I had to cram in order to pass examinations. .C;tuge 2-Pye-grudziritioiz. My humble opinion on this matter is that in no circumstances should the undergraduate be allowed to specialise; his education during this very import- ant period should be of a general nature. Obviously he must have a complete knowledge of the fundamentals of chemistry but the other aspects of educa-tion should not be neglected. I consider the most important aspect both at school and college is that the fundamentals should be thoroughly understood.It is far more important to understand why than to have an encyclopaedic knowledge which can be obtained at any time from a reference book. Perhaps the most important requirements of a chemist outside his know- ledge of chemistry are those of physics and mathematics but I have found that it would have been most useful for me (luring thc course of my career if T had had some knowledge of the elements of geology and engineering. 1 realise of course that the wider we extend the field the \verse it becomes for the poor student; but then again a chemistry student has for his examination to remember long syntheses an accumulation of facts all of which must be remembered in detail. lhere is no reason why such matters cannot bc covered without examination-the fundamental knowledge n.ill have been put over.:Inother matter on w-hich I have very strong opinions and to which I have already referred is that of the art of self cxpression. Tt is very surprising to find that some 1st and 2nd Class Honours graduates cannot express them- selves in the King’s English properly. I once had the honour to be an external examiner in technical chemistry at one university and I found if oft-times very difficult to understand what the examinee was attempting to convey. I notice in The Tinics of 20 1)eceniber last year Professor Kendal of Edin- burgh states that he actually sets a series of essays not necessarily on chem-istry to his students and although the experiment was at first unpopular he has been very gratitictl with the results.T consitlvr many others of our university professors might copy this innovation. Unfortunately the pre-graduation stage of training is nut R siiiiple onc ti describe; there are certainly three methods practised liz. :--(a) the straightforward continuation of academic training frnm the scliool (b) the recruitment by industry of “school lcavrrs” for routine analyses to thc university or technical college; or other laboratory tasks. Industries often assist and encourage snch employees to continuc. their studies with a view to attaining profes- sional qualification ; (c) a inixture of (a)and (b),or the so-called “sandwich” courses. I am satisfied from my own experience that the most desirable method of training chemical graduates for industry is by the method (a),that is contin-uation of academic training from the school to the university.1 advocate this method because in the first place the young student has developed the art of concentration at lectures the habit of mixing relaxation and studies out of college hours and more particularly he has usnall!. acquired a hahit of taking examinations without undue fear. 194 1 The years following school are those in which the young animal is most buoyant in spirit and most easily moulded. These are the years when certain repressions should not be encouraged. The university student meets people of his own age similar interests and like intellect; he is usually in competition with them and he develops the community spirit which makes hiin useful in later years.Moreover as a general rule he is not over-blessed with money and has to scheme to make ends meet. He is thus taught self-denial and this often sharpens his wits on commercial matters. I am not really competent to make comparison with the training given by the university and the technical college but from what I have seen in the past the training given by the technical college at this stage is much less complete than that given in the university. In my view the technical college should specialise in a different way and leave the stage 2 training to the university. There is one further aspect which I feel I must repeat and that is that universities and technical colleges should discourage what we knew in my young days as the “brown bagger”-that was the day student who came to his classes and immediately went home to stew in his own juice.The method of training under (b) is in my opinion less satisfactory than that under (a),the main reason being that life at this particular age becomes much too hard. I feel that no young person should have to work hard all day in a works laboratory and then be subjected to lectures and more labor- atory work in the evenings. Usually the day-time work in the industrial laboratory helps very little in the actual curriculum required for obtaining the necessary qualifications; whereas the university student takes 3 or 4years to take his final the laboratory assistant working in industry takes several years more.This constant grind at very impressionable years leaves its mark on the average trainee; certainly there are a number of most prominent industrialists who went through this mill in their young days but it is a question of the survival of the fittest the fittest being men who would have attained the same goal even though they had gone through the ordinary university career. I have been able to make the comparison between my own brother and myself. I remember in our young days how he was com- pletely exhausted at the end of a week and used to fall asleep over his meals; 1 am certain it has had its effect on his subsequent career. During these impressionable years the normal human animal if he is going to remain normal must have certain outlets and to tie him down to work study and very little play is entirely wrong.Personally I see very little chance of correcting the situation in the next few years anyhow because industry must have laboratory assistants and laboratory assistants iiormally have ambitions. Yaturally industrial managements will always assist good employees to attain a higher status. My view is that instead of punishing the ambitious laboratory assistant as is practised at the moment industry and local authorities should assist him to finish stage 2 of his training as a full-time job. Those who are not so ambitious should remain laboratory assistants and not be subjected to the strain of qualification beyond the National Certificate stage.Whatever method is employed in training laboratory assistants either as laboratory assistants or for higher status I suggest that this is where the technical college can be of most use. The technical colleges in the past have served a most useful purpose they brought technical education within the reach of those who could not atford to go to tho university and generally did it extremely kvell. With the present trend towards giving equal opportunity to all I do not think the technical colleges ~vould disagree with me in contending that there should be no overlap of the duties of the universities and technical colleges. I believe the technical college has still a very useful function in [ 195 specialisation and in giving those who have to work the chance to study in their spare time.This specialisation would probably have a local bias; e.g. in steel towns special courses on steel technology in plastics areas courses in plastics technology and so on. Some matters of general application would be found in all; e.g. fuel technology engineering for chemists chemistry for engineers etc. The main responsibility for the education of its citizens is that of the State but at the same time there is a responsibility on industry to encourage higher technical education. Apart from the humanitarian aspect there can be no question that it pays handsomely to raise the status of training of all those employed. Industrial managements should therefore arrange classes where the industry is remote allow people time off to take important classes give permission for laboratory use and supply apparatus where required and in other ways help the lad who has not been able to attend the university for some particular reason or has developed later than the normal child.With regard to the “sandwich” method it is not a common practice for chemists although it is quite common in the engineering industry. I have known many cases however where laboratory assistants after 2 or 3 years’ experience in the works have found enough money to enter the university. There are of course several modern firms who give scholarships to help to defray the expense for promising laboratory assistants. Whilst this method has points in its favour I still believe that the con- tinued education under (a) is the better for several reasons the chief of which is that there is continuity of education the adolescent outlook is not interfered with the discipline engendered during school days has not been destroyed the habits and opinions of adults such as backing horses have not superseded those of school days.In spite of this argument there is of course a certain type of individual who benefits by the experience gained in the “sandwich” course. To sum up therefore my view is that the niost satisfactory method of training chemists between school and graduation is by direct entry into university taking the normal Honours chemistry course but being compelled to attend lectures and attain certain standards in other subjects such as physics mathematics geology etc.with particular attention to the art of self-expression. Stage 3-Post-graduation. After the long grind of school and yre-graduation training there is bound to be a violent reaction in the young person’s mind against further study. It is true that a certain number continue at the university to take post- graduate courses or to do research and there can be no doubt that for certain specialised purposes in industry this training is of the greatest use. I have said that I want a well-educated graduate; I do not believe in specialisation before graduation but I consider that a certain number of post- graduates should be encouraged to practise research work under experienced university research workers or to specialise in those fields between recognised sciences; e.g.between physics and chemistry-the physical chemist the colloid chemist the nuclear chemist ; between chemistry and engineering-the chemical engineer; between chemistry and medicine-the biochemist ; between chemistry and agriculture-the agricultural chemist and so on. It is in these limbos that the Americans have advanced much further than we have. Our comparative backwardness in chemical engineering is particularly noticeable. Whilst we have very definitely roo111 for a certain percentage of trained research chemists and specialists such as chemical engineers the bulk of the chemists recruited into industry are those who have just graduated. In the [ 196 3 old days their further education was their own affair; they read the literature did research in the works laboratories in their own time watched other people and usually made themselves a nuisance by asking innumerable questions.I suppose there is something to be said for gaining knowledge in this way but it is usually slow and is often wrong. Old bad practices are copied and repeated little advance is made and most of all the company’s policy and intentions are often misconstrued. There can be no doubt that the modern practice of training within industry is sound from every conceivable point of view. I suggest that industry should have a plan something of this type :-1. Induction. It is of course unfair to dump a young graduate straight into industry without some form of induction. I suggest that each organisation should have somebody in authority preferably the Personnel Manager whose duty it is to arrange a special course of a day or two initiating the recruit into the industry.In the first place he should be seen by the Works Manager Research Manager or even General Manager who gives him a welcome. This should be followed by an introduction to the senior members of the staff nearest to him and to his colleagues. He should then have a conducted tour and be shown the plant and processes and a flow diagram of the principal manufactures and samples of products. He should also be given details of the Company’s amenities such as hostels canteens and in particular arrange- ments should be made for him to be introduced into the recreation club if there is one.It is in the recreation club that he can meet a useful cross- section of the industry’s community in their leisure hours. The Personnel or Staff Manager should inform him that there is a follow-up system whereby his career will be watched and he should be told at definite intervals what progress he is making. At this intc~rview the Manager should join in the discussion. 2. Initial Work. His first job should not be haphazard nor should it make him feel the slightest bit frustrated. Some companies set apart a period in which the young recruit travels from department to department getting an idea of the business. Personally 1 do not approve of this as the recruit often feels in the way and the hard-working staff have little time to give him real attention.Other companies on the other hand believe in putting the recruit direct on to manual work such as the operation of a process and even insist on his going on shift. This is a little bit drastic but it certainly gets his feet on the ground very early in his industrial life. I think the method if handled well is a very good one. It is usual not to give the recruit too much responsibility to start with and he should definitely have somebody to whom he can appeal or discuss matters with when he is searching for information. 3. Training Within Industry (T.W.I.). All recruits to industry if it is intended that in due course they have to take charge of others should pass through the Ministry of Labour and Xational Service’s course of Training Within Industry.The Job Instruction Job Relations and Job Methods discussion groups are most useful in developing good leadership qualities. 4. Vocational cowse with discrwions. Organisations which are above a certain size should have in their employ- ment a Training Officer whose duty it is to organise a vocational training c 197 3 for professional c~u~l)loycc:s.'l'his roiirse in the case of chemists shollltl cover :--(a) The chemistry of the processes (b) The main features of engineering design (c) The problems of plant maintenance (d) The Company's labour policy (e) The Company's staff policy (f) Trade Union relations (g) Joint consultation (h) The principles of management (i) The Factories Act (j) Other statutory regulations such ns the 'l'rnck &Acts Chemical \Voi-ks Regulations 1922 the Alkali .kt (A) .-\ccident prevention (1) Industrial hygiene (MZ) Time and Motion Study.5. Scholarships and Exhibilions. Those industries which can afford it can give incentive to selected young chemists in their employ by granting scholarships and exhibitions for post- graduate work at the universities. 6. Co-operation with Technical Colleges and Universities. It should be the duty of a recognised senior member of the Company's staff to maintain co-operation with the local schools technical colleges and universities. The senior management should encourage their staff to attend specialised courses which can be arranged in collaboration with the extra- mural authorities of the schools and colleges.It may be necessary for industry to give time off although the employee should make most of the sacrifice himself. 7. Management Training. In recent years management has become more of a science than an art and certain recognised principles have now been laid down. There are a very great number of books dealing with this subject but some technical colleges now have courses on management and organisation under the aegis of the British Institute of Management and the Institute of Industrial Adminis- tration. The latter body sets examinations and awards suitable qualifications. 8. Original Research. Many industrial research workers still maintain their interest in academic research and oft-times like to carry on their work after hours.Industry should assist in this as much as possible. Before concluding there are one or two matters on n-hich I should like to express an opinion as I consider them important. Examinations. Having taken a considerable number of examinations in my early days and being the father of several children I have seen and experienced the ordeal through which young people have to go before they are qualified in a pro-fession. In my opinion neither schools colleges nor universities are sufficiently sympathetic in their treatment of these young people. I realise of course that there is no alternative measuring-stick to examinations and favouritism is liable to creep in if the matter is left for judgment by individuals.At the same time there can be no doubt that those who are best at examinations are not always the most efficient at their subject. I believe that the awful long- drawn-out ordeal can be shortened by developing the oral examination idea further but 1 would make a special plea that oral examiners should be well chosen and trained before they are allowed to undertake this very important job. In industry our interviewers for recruitment or discipline are trained people whereas I know of oral examiners who frighten the life out of the young people apparently as a policy. I'acation Courses for Young Graduates. I have already stated that I do not advocate any specialisation in the pre-graduation period but since there are such long periods during which the students are on vacation I believe they can occupy their time best by getting some idea of what they are in for later on.It can broaden their outlook give them confidence in carrying out analytical work and incidentally give them an opportunity of earning a little pocket money. Xaturally industry will expect them to do something worth while and they can either carry out a small investigation on the plant or relieve the analytical people during their holiday period. My company have co-operated with various universities for several years with considerable success. Co-operation of Iditstry with Schools and Universities. There is a considerable feeling in industry that professors and teachers are not sufficiently in touch with industry.I suppose the accusation can also be levelled at industry itself for their lack of knowledge of modern education. Be this as it may I consider that the time is ripe for a much better co-operation. 'The universities can undertake researches for industry but I think the greatest benefit could be achieved if the universities recruited some of their teachers and lecturers after they have served not too short a period in industry. There is a considerable passage of people from the university to industry I personally should like to see a few more suitable people taking the return trip. Military Service. Owing to our international coniiiiitnients conscription has been forced upon us and as a consequence military service is seriously interfering with the training of our young people.All of those in their normal senses realise that this is a condition which has to be faced and I think nobody in ordinary cir- cumstances would suggest that any section of the community should be cxempted. On the other hand owing to modern developments and our all-out war effort we are pitifully short of technologists particularly chemists. The result is that in our attempts to catch up with othcr countries particularly the United States we are bound tu fall tiehind. I believe the Ministry of Labour and Kational Scrvice arc under the ini- pression that they have been very generous in their trcatinent of the chemical industry this year but I am certain from my knowledge of the situation that if all the graduates were released to industry this year there still would be a very great shortage.I havc been informed that the graduates in chemistry who have no previous military service this year will be put into special sections of the Services and others will be esenipted for certain sections of the Civil Service. I am convinced that with the situation as it is to-day the break in their training for industry will not do them any good and will leave us short in the coming years. Having travelled in Australia and U.S..l. since the war and having studied their methods a little I would say in concluding that in spite of any criticisms I have made I would rather have our system of training up to graduate stage but I wish our universities and technical colleges would copy certain American universities in their specialised post-graduate training.1 199 1 SUMMARIES OF LECTURES PROPERTIES OF GASES AT HIGH PRESSURES By Professor -1.MICHELS ;Tees-side Section 17 Sovember 19483 In order to study interaction between molecules it is necessary to investi- gate physical properties when the molecules are at different distances froni each other. Practically any physical constant when studied at different densities can pay its contribution to our knowledge of molecular interaction. For the alteration of the distances between the molecules the physicist has two tools at his disposal-variation of temperature and variation of pressure. It must however be understood that the former variable has a complicated effect.All forms of kinetic energy be they translational rotational or vibrational will increase with increase of temperature. It may even be that the effective diameter of a molecule will alter with increase of temperature when higher vibrational levels are excited. These effects are coupled with the ordinary temperature expansion. It is by no means certain n priori which effect will dominate in altering the physical property. A typical example is found in the viscosity of compressed gases. When a liquid is heated the viscosity normally decreases whereas the viscosity of a gas at 1 at. goes up with temperature. It was found however when the viscosity of nitrogen was studied up to a pressure of 1,000 at.that up to a pressure of 300 at.the gas follows the normal rule of increasing its viscosity with increase of temperature at constant pressures. But at about 300 at. the temperature coefficient of the viscosity changes sign so that the viscositj. decreases with increase of temperature at constant pressure. Thus the compressed gas appears to behave as a liquid. If however the viscosity is plotted not at constant pressure but at constant density this curious effect disappears completely and at 1,000 at. nitrogen behaves like a normal gas increasing its viscosity with temperature. From this example which can be augmented by others it is clear that it will be essential to separate the two variables and either measure a physical pheno- menon at constant density as a function of temperature (which involves applying pressure when the temperature rises) or measure at constant kinetic energy i.e.constant temperature as a function of density. This again requires application of pressure. From an experimental point of view however neither of the two ways of approach is very attractive and therefore in general the following procedure is applied. The relation between pressure temperature and volume of the substance under investigation is measured. This can be expressed in this way that the equation of state is determined:-f(9,v T) = 0 Thus it is always possible to calculate densities at any pressure and temperature within the experimental range. After this the physical property under examination is measured as a function of pressure and temperature.From the experimental data and the equation of state the value of the physical property can then be calculated at a given density and temperature. It may however be noted that the equation of state besides providing the information necessary for this sort of calculation also directly supplies the means of calculating any thermodynamical property. Entropy energy [ 200 1 and enthalpy can all be obtained and even caloric values such as specific heat at constant volume or pressure are included in the booty as is well known to anybody who has studied thermodynamics. These thermodynamical con-siderations also supply some idea of the accuracy required in the measure- ments for instance from the formula:- 1 ac T (2) T -(%JV it can be seen that a quantity- (”) aT2 v which even in the case of a gas obeying van der Waals’ equation is zero must be determined with such an accuracy that integration over a temperature range will be possible.It can be said in general that measurements less accurate than one part in ten thousand are of little value. Therefore high- pressure studies require high precision technique. It is well worth while to remember that an accurate knowledge of the equation of state can even give information about phenomena occurring in the molecules themselves under high pressure. Each molecule can be con- sidered as being built of nuclei and electrons and it is therefore possible to consider a quantity of gas not as an assembly of molecules but as an assembly of nuclei and electrons.If now the virial law is applied to this assembly on the assumption that for the force between the particles Coulomb’s law holds the following expres- sion is obtained for the kinetic energy (AE) of the assembly:- AE=~APv-AU where AU is the change in the total energy for compression of the system from one pressure to another. Experimental evidence and thermodynamical calculation show that for gases sucb as hydrogen nitrogen carbon dioxide and ethylene AE for com- pression from 1 to 3,000 at. may have values between 3,000 and 12,000 cal. This is much greater than can be accounted for by changes in translational rotational or vibrational energy of the nuclei (molecules). The only place where the kinetic energy can be stored is the electrons.That this is so has been verified by wave mechanical calculation in the simplest case atomic hydrogen. A simple approach to an explanation is as follows. At high pressures and densities molecules of gases are forced so close together that the electrons of neighbouring molecules repel each other. This forces the electrons in the outer shells into orbits of smaller radii. Their potential energy is thus decreased and their kinetic energy increased. As already indicated all measurements have to be carried out with the highest accuracy possible. In this connection two special points may be mentioned. First of all the measurements of the pressure itself. These are carried out with a dead weight pressure balance of the differential piston type.If the piston is rotating above the critical velocity of about 80 rev.p.s. even with the tightest fit there is no metal to metal contact between the piston and the cylinder as can be shown from the electrical resistance between the two. Under these conditions the actual friction is very small (of the order of 0.5 g. on the total load of 300 kg.) and the leakage along the piston can be reduced to less than 1C.C. per hour at pressures of about 3,000 at. For absolute measurements the functional area of the piston must be known with a corresponding accuracy. As however this area varies with pressure as a result of the mechanical stresses it cannot be calculated c 201 3 from the geometrical dimensions at 1 at.and a method is therefore used by which the diameter can be determined under the pressures themselves using a differential method and a mercury column of the order of 100 ft. high. As for temperature it was necessary to devise a method of measuring this variable with a corresponding accuracy. As the melting point of ice is not constant enough the triple point of water was suggested in 1927 as a better alternative the reproducibility being better than 1 part in 10,000 of a degree centigrade. At the latest conference in Paris in May 1948 this suggestion was adopted by the International Assembly. In order to avoid the difficulty of using the boiling point of water as a second fixed point it is suggested that by definition the absolute zero be taken as -273.15".In the van der Waals laboratory other properties are under investigation at high pressures besides the equation of state. Amongst them may be mentioned electrical resistance of metals Curie-points vapour pressures of liquids and solids viscosities thermal conductivity dielectric constant refractive index and ultra-violet absorption. SOME EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN THE CHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN COMPOUNDS (Thirty-fi rst Streatfei Id Memorial Lecture) By Professor J. C. EARL,Ph.U. D.Sc. F..\.C.I. F.K.I.C. [Delivered before the Institute in London 19 November 1948.l The topic chosen for this lecture harmonises with the viewpoint of 1;.lir. Streatfeild and with the Finsbury tradition in that it gives an account of experimental investigations in the field of nitrogen chemistry.The investiga- tions described were concerned with a chain of connected problems leading one to another. The starting point was the reaction between pinene nitroso- chloride and aniline first studied in detail by Wallach in 1889. In this re- action pinene is regenerated instead of a nitrolanilide being formed as might be expected. It recalls the behaviour of those nitrosochlorides such as tetramethylethylene nitrosochloride in which the nitroso-group is attached to a tertiary carbon. Since pinene nitrosochloride yields nitrosopinene when boiled in carbon tetrachloride solution it is evident that a hydrogen must be attached to the carbon bearing the nitroso group. -1closer examina- tion of this contradictory behaviour of pinene nitrosochloride revealed that if precautions are taken to neutralise completely the hydrochloric acid generated during the reaction it proceeds normally and pinene nitrolanilidc if formed.Under conditions in which neutralisation is not quite com-plate e.g. by conducting the reaction in chloroform solution in the presence of powdered lead acetate pinene and diazoaminobenzene (m.p. 91" C.) are formed. Under Wallach's conditions in which hydrochloric acid was not neutralised the second product was aminoazobenzene. Although pure diazoaminobenzene melts at 99 to 100"C. several supposed isomers of low melting point have been described and the product under consideration was assumed to be one of them. It is significant that the supposed isomers all melt at lower temperatures than the normal pure product and also possess the property of giving a crimson- red colour with alcoholic alkalies which the carefully-purified high-melting compound does not.However when pure diazoaminobenzene is treated with a trace of hydrochloric acid in alcoholic solution its melting point is lowered and it acquires the property of giving a red colour with alcoholic alkalies. Presumably then the supposed isomers are all mixtures of diazoaminobenzene 1 202 I with a substance formed by the action of acids upon it. It remained there- fore to separate the unknown contaminant and to identify it. Recrystallisa-tion from the usual solvents is not effective as a method of separation. At the time the work was done the chromatographic method was not so highly developed or so widely known as it is now otherwise it could probably have been used successfully.The unknown substance could be detected in any of the methods used for converting diazoaminobenzene into aminoazobenzene-for example heating with aniline and aniline hydrochloride or dissolving in cold alcoholic hydro- chloric acid or in glacial acetic acid. Although the separation of the wanted substance from diazoaminobenzene was so difficult it was easy to separate it from aminoazobenzene. Therefore all that was necessary was to dissolve diazoaminobenzene in glacial acetic acid and allow the reaction to proceed until most of the diazoaminobenzene had disappeared. On dilution of the reaction mixture with water the aminoazobenzene being basic remained in solution while most of the other products were precipitated as a tar.By dissolving the tar in hot aqueous alcohol and allowing the solution to cool a crystalline substance was obtained which after further purification melted at 119.5' and was identified as benzenediazoaminoazobenzene. This substance had been made previously by coupling diazotised aminoazobenzene with aniline. It gives an intense crimson-red colour with alcoholic alkalies and mixtures of it with diazoaminobenzene resist separation by crystallisation from solvents. Similar difficulty in separating mixtures of diazoamino-compounds has been experienced by many workers including Meldola and Streatfeild. The foregoing work led naturally to a study of the diazoamino/aminoazo conversion.The older explanation of this change was based mainly on the work of Goldschmidt and his collaborators who concluded that it was intra- molecular and involved the migratioeof a diazo group from nitrogen to the para carbon of the nucleus. More recently evidence has accumulated that fission of the diazoamino compound takes place into amine salt and diazo compound. Under the conditions of the experiment these fission products re-unite in the aminoazo way. The formation of benzenediazoaminoazo- benzene supports this view. In any method of conducting the conversion it appears early in the process and its ultimate disappearance indicates that the conversion is complete. Reduced to its simplest statement the whole conversion resolves itself into a competition between the two reactions :-diazo salt + aminep diazoamino compound ?I aminoazo compound Among the conditions which can be varied to favour one or other of these alternative reactions are acidity and temperature.All the methods for changing diazoamino into aminoazo compounds use acidic reagents but it is known also that very acid conditions retard the azo type of coupling. About the influence of temperature not much is on record but a pair of comparative experiments may be quoted. Inthe first aniline hydrochloride was dissolved in methanol at 1 to 3" C. and a solution of less than half a molecular proportion of sodium nitrite in the same solvent was added gradually with stirring. At no time during the next 65 min.did the reaction mixture give a red colour when added to alcoholic alkali. When the mixture was finally poured into cold aqueous caustic soda a little diazoaminobenzene was precipitated but free aniline was also liberated. The same proportions of the reagents were used in the second experiment but the temperature was kept at 14-16' C. During most of the experiment samples of the reaction-mixture gave an intense crimson-red colour with alcoholic alkali. The mixture was finally made [ 203 1 alkaline as before and extracted with benzene. 011 passing hydrochloric acid into the benzene solution the characteristic violet crystals of aminoazobenzene hydrochloride were precipitated in good yield. These two experiments suggest many interesting possibilities.In the first the liberation of aniline on making alkaline indicated the possible presence of aniline nitrite. In following this up the hitherto unknown aniline nitrite was isolated and studied for the first time. The possibility also arose of the diazoamino and aminoazo couplings being related to different isomeric states of the diazo compound at the two temperatures. This led to a study of the whole very large question of the nitrosation and diazotisation of all classes of amines. The immediate bearing on the present problem of the results obtained was that it was unlikely that different isomeric forms of the diazo- compound were involved. While the simplest statement of the diazoamino/aminoazo conversion was that it was a competition between two reactions it is obvious that the actual state of affairs must be rather more complex.There are three hydrogens in aniline each of which is replaceable by a diazo group:- Besides aminoazobenzene and diazoaminobenzene in both of which only one hydrogen is replaced by a diazo group there are two possible compounds in which two hydrogens are replaced by diazo groups and both are known. Any or all of the four compounds may result from a coupling under any specific set of conditions. Another interesting by-way resulting from the work described may be mentioned. The nitroso/oximino change observed in compounds in which the nitroso group is attached to carb6n is duplicated by the nitroso/diazo change which can happen when a primary amine is nitrosated.Both changes have some resemblance to keto-enol tautomensm. One special example of keto-enol tautomensm is the well-known behaviour of 6-and y-keto-acids when treated with acetic anhydride. The question therefore suggested itself of studying the behaviour of a carboxylic acid containing a nitroso group instead of a carbonyl group in the appropriate position. Such a compound is N-nitrosophenylglycine and when treated with acetic anhydride it gives a crystalline substance which is difficult to formulate on conventional lines. One can summarise its reactions by writing it as-It has been named phenylsydnone after the city of its birth and represents one of a large class of stable crystalline substances. The molecular structure raises a number of theoretical problems and work on them is still in active progress.THE CHEMISTRY OF DUSTS By Professor H. V. A. BRISCOE, D.Sc. A.R.C.S. D.I.C. F.Inst.F. F.R.I.C. [London and South-Eastern Counties Section at Slough 25 January 19491 This paper deals with the results of the work on dusts at Imperial College begun with the support of the Royal Institute of Chemistry and with the collaboration of Dr. J. W. Matthews when she was Pedler Fellow. [ 204 3 New methods were first devised for the collection of solid aerosols without chemical change using filters of soluble solids such as salicylic acid or ace- naphthene or of volatile solids such as anthracene or naphthalene; or using a labyrinth of metal plates in which dust is deposited by impingement.The first result of the application of these methods to the study of dusty atmos- pheres in mines and factories demonstrated the extraordinary reactivity of dust solids. Typically ielspars or asbestos normally regarded as relatively inert substances while still suspended in air as fine dusts and within a few seconds undergo hydration to the extent of 5 to 10 per cent. This water of hydration can be removed only at a red heat and its absorption is accompanied by the release of a corresponding quantity of caustic alkali which can be leached from the collected dusts even by alcohol. Such active dusts deposited on phenolphthalein jelly give so strong a reaction as to show that in their vicinity a pH of the order of 10-11 is reached immediately and maintained over long periods.In the case of asbestos it is noticeable that release of alkali occurs only at the ends of fibres or at breaks along their length and thus coincides exactly with the accumulations of dead organic matter which were long ago observed at similar points in the “asbestosis bodies” seen in the lungs of victims of asbestosis. It is very important to realise that a freshly formed dust is “live” and reactive and that on collection or deposition this reactivity is quickly lost so that dust out of a bottle cannot be expected to show those chemical properties which characterise a freshly formed and dangerous dust. It is for this reason that much past experimentation by physiologists had no real significance in relation to the causation of silicosis.To the eye of the chemist there is much evidence that contrary to the firm belief of the medical profession as a whole silica itself may well be a harmless material and silica solubility of relatively little importance. There are many instances indicating that the inhalation of silica is not in itself necessarily harmful. It is not unlikely that the implication of silica in the causation of silicosis rests solely on the fact that silica is peculiarly able to form with alkalis silicates which when carried into the lung can slowly hydrolyse and give over long periods a local high alkalinity capable of causing damaging fibrosis of the tissues. It did seem indeed that the most profitable method of experiment in this case would be to treat the animal as a reagent for detecting the existence of dangerous properties in a dust and so by linking animal experimentation with exhaustive chemical examination to determine what in fact were the chemical properties responsible for damage.Early in the War a chance occurred in collaboration with Dr. J. A. Kitchener and others to apply this general method in studying the use of dusts to control the grain weevil. It had been suggested that dusts killed weevils by causing their “desiccation,” but there was no clear evidence to show that this was true and still less as to how it might occur. Using weevils on wheat under standard conditions of temperature and humidity as a reagent to measure the effectiveness of dusts an explora-tion was undertaken to determine which were the operative properties.A silica dust of moderate effectiveness was altered chemically in various ways by extraction with water solvents or acids and by coating with monomolecular films of stearic acid. Such changes had no influence on the effectiveness of the dust and this led to an experiment with highly purified diamond dust as the extreme example of a chemically inert material. This was found to be by far the most effective dust yet tried and other very hard mattrials like carborun- dum proved also to be but slightly less effective. Other studies showed that the death of dusted weevils was accompanied by loss of weight and that the loss was almost entirely due to water; yet the dusts that were most effective were clearly quite incapable of acting as desiccating agents.The explanation [ 205 > of these observations was found eventually in the fact that the survival of the weevil who lives on dry wheat and never has a drink depends upon water retention by virtue of a very thin film of wax-like material covering his hard cuticle. Hard sharp dusts presenting minute clean crystal faces to this wax- like coating apparently have the ability to attract it preferentially and so to break the continuity of the weevil’s waterproofing. This permits as can be demonstrated experimentally greatly enhanced transpiration of water vapour leading to water loss and death. The probability of this hypothesis is greatly strengthened by the fact that it can be simulated using an artificial membrane of celluloid enclosing water in a cell.Such a membrane when clean has a measurable permeability to water which is reduced greatly by the application of a film of beeswax about 2 molecules thick but is restored almost to its original value when that film is dusted with fine carborundum or similarly effective dust. This mechanism explains also why the “weevil reaction ” distinguishes sharply between wet-ground and dry-ground dusts of the same material say quartz of similar particle size distribution the wet ground dust being much the more effective. We now know from electron microscope studies that in a dry-ground dust the particle faces are likely to be contamina- ted with very firmly adherent smaller particles so that in this case effective contact with the wax film is minimised or prevented.WOODPULP-SOME CHEMICAL ASPECTS By J. GRANT,M.Sc. Ph.D. F.R.I.C. [East Midlands Section at Derby 27 January 19491 Woodpulp is manufactured from forest trees by several processes most important of which are the mechanical and chemical processes. The latter include (a) the sulphite process (b) digestion with caustic soda (c) the Kraft process in which the cooking liquor is a mixture of caustic soda and sodium sulphide. So far as the Mechanical Pulping Process is concerned probably the diffi- culty of major chemical importance concerns the pitch content of the pulp since this constituent often interferes seriously with the paper machine opera- tion. Attempts have been made to minimise this by ageing the wood and by the use of adsorbing agents.The latter method is of special interest and involves the addition to a suspension of the pulp of a slurry of finely-divided diatomaceous earth. This by adsorption keeps the fine particles of pitch in suspension and so distributes them throughout the paper thereby eliminat- ing aggregations of the pitch which give rise to trouble on the wires and felts and cause black spots in the paper. The chemistry of the Sulphite Process has been studied very fully but some of its most interesting chemical aspects are connected with the problems of dealing with the efluent and with the by-products. The sulphite effluent is particularly objectionable having a high biological oxygen demand while the sulphites and other constituents present also render it poisonous to fish.Normally this process is operated in countries where the rivers are big enough to take the effluent without harm but even so for every 100 tons of wood processed approximately 50 tons of organic matter are rejected to waste in the form of calcium ligno-sulphonate and other organic compounds. It has been calculated that on the American Continent alone 2,500,000 tons of lignin and 700,000 tons of fermentable sugars are lost in this way from sulphite mills every year. Much work therefore is being carried out with the object of utilising this liquor profitably thereby solving together the two problems of effluent disposal and the economic recovery of by-products. Unfortunately most of 206 I the methods so far evolved will absorb only a relatively small proportion of the total quantity of sulphite liquor produced.Among the more interesting of these methods is the use of the liquor as a tanning agent and large quantities are disposed of profitably in this way. The tanning action appears to be due to the lignosulphonic acid which produces a viscous colloidal mass in contact with gelatin. The tanning properties are sometimes aided by a preliminary fermentation which is particularly effective towards the hexoses pentoses and pentosans present. Another important use for the liquor is for the manufacture of yeast. In such cases the liquid is first aerated and neutralised with limestone and then decanted from the solid matter present.Malt culms are added and fermenta- tion is started with the aid of molasses. Baker’s yeast and fodder yeast are obtainable in this way and the product has even been used (especially in Germany) as food for humans. Attempts have been directed towards the development of a special strain of yeast which reproduces itself at the expense of the yield of raw alcohol and in such cases a yield of yeast equivalent to 60 per cent. of the fermentable sugars has been obtained. As might be expected this work has been studied closely in Germany and it was calculated during the recent war that the German sulphite pulp mills could provide 100,000 tons of dried yeast containing 50 per cent. of protein per annum. In an analogous but older process the same operation is conducted so as to obtain the maximum yield of alcohol which is then dehydrated and distilled when it can be used for power or even potable purposes.The yields are of the order of 1 per cent. of the original volume of liquor and the biological oxygen demand of the eflluent is reduced by 40 to 50 per cent. There are many other uses for sulphite liquor of a minor nature. One such is for the production of vanillin but the waste liquor from a few large mills would suffice to supply the whole of the world with this concentrated flavouring matter so that it is obviously not a universal solution of the disposal problem. Sulphite liquor is also used as a binding agent in fuel briquette production as a sizing agent as a source of certain black dyestuffs of the sulphur group and after neutralisation with ammonia as a fertiliser.Coming now to the Alkaline Processes some interesting chemical problems arise on cornparing the use of ordinary caustic soda with a mixture of caustic soda and sodium sulphide as in the Kraft Process. With caustic soda it is necessary in order to ensure complete digestion to add at the beginning sufficient caustic soda to carry the reaction to completion and to leave an adequate residual excess ; this may be described as a “sledge-hammer ” method of extracting the non-cellulosic constituents and the excess of alkali reduces the strength of the cellulose. In the Kraft Process however tht sodium sulphide present is hydrolysed progressively to caustic soda during the digestion process thereby maintaining the concentration of the latter at a level which is sufficient to ensure adequate digestion without being excessive at any time.The result is a pulp of greatly increased strength although some whiteness of colour has to be sacrificed. This latter difficulty has been overcome in recent years by iniproved methods of bleaching. These involve bleaching in stages so as to remove the lignins (which are largely responsible for the colour) in a selective way (as chlorolignins) without damaging the fibres. A typical and simple cycle for a bleaching process of this kind is as follows:-(a) Treatment of the digested but unbleached pulp with chlorine to form chlorolignins by substitution ; (b) a water wash to remove much of the hydrochloric acid also formed in (a) (c) an alkaline wash to dissolve the chlorolignins out of the pulp; (d) ordinary calcium hypochlorite bleaching; (e) a water wash; (f)a second milder hypo- chlorite bleach; (g)a final wash with water and dilute acid (sulphurous acid is sometimes used).In this way a high degree of chemical purity and a good 1 207 J colour can be obtained whether from a Kraft or sulphite pulp but in some cases further stages of a similar nature are introduced where a particularly high degree of purity is required. This degree of purity is indicated by a high alpha-cellulose content and low copper number. The alkaline proccsses also give rise to effluent difficulties but a solution exists in the use of the well-known soda recovery process.In this process the waste liquors from the digesters are evaporated the residual viscous liquor being burned so as to form sodium carbonate on destruction of the organic matter in the presence of the sodium organic compounds. This sodium carbonate is then dissolved in water and causticised with lime to regenerate the caustic soda. In spite of the fact that modern soda recovery plants achieve a high efficiency in this way it is felt in many quarters that just as with the sulphite process it is wasteful to destroy or reject the valuable organic constituents from the original tree. Attempts have therefore been made to recover the lignin which is the major constituent of this organic matter by treating the liquors with carbon dioxide produced from flue gases.The precipitated lignin is filtered off washed and dried and it may be used as an.extender for certain phenolic plastics. Applications of this kind have not yet been brought to a wholly successful commercial conclusion mainly because the flow proper- ties of lignin in such mixtures are poor. More recent work has indicated that chemical modification of the isolated lignin may yield a more promising plastic material and if an inexpensive process of this nature can be evolved it may be that lignin which was formerly an embarrassment will become a remunera-tive by-product in the future. SOME RECENT STUDIES IN OIAZO-CHEMISTRY By HERBERT M.A. B.Sc. Ph.D. F.R.I.C. H. HODGSON [Liverpool and North-Western Section 3 February 1949j The diazo-reaction was discovered by Peter Griess in 1858 and the present paper deals with the results of work carried out by the writer’s research school in this field at Huddersfield during the past 30 years.The first notable observation was that in the diazotisation of 3-bromc- 4 6-dinitroaniline and subsequent decomposition of the diazo-compound with acid cuprous chloride in the Sandmeyer reaction both nitro-groups were replaced by chlorine and the resulting product was 1 2 4-trichloro-5-bromobenzene. Attempts to retain the nitro-groups intact led ultimately to a modification of the Sandmeyer reaction in which the usual procedure for the introduction of chlorine and bromine via cuprous salts in their respective acids was replaced by the use of mixtures of copper sulphate with sodium chloride and sodium bromide respectively in sulphuric acid solution.Attempts to get the Kekul6 isomers from l-amino-3-chloro-4 6-dinitrobenzene and l-amino-3-bromo-4 6-dinitrobenzene by replacing the amino-groups with bromine and chlorine respectively led to the same 1-chloro-3-bromo-4 6-dinitrobenzene in each case. The next event was that of an almost universal method of diazotisation which was discovered when a solution of an aromatic amine in glacial acetic acid was added to one of sodium nitrite in concentrated sulphuric acid. By this procedure the first diazotisations of 2-nitro- and 2 :4-dinitro-l-naphthyl-amines were effected while ,%nitro- and 1 :3-dinitronaphthalene were thereby rendered easily available for the first timc.Many successful replacements of the amino-group by hydrogen were also made possible by the above method. The current myth of the unique character of cuprous salts in the Sandmeyer reaction was likewise dispelled by the sole use of cupric and iron salts in r 208 I various decompositions. Hantzsch’s failure to diazotise 4-amino-mono-methylaniline was shown to be due to the presence of p-phenylenediamine in his initial material. This had been made during the reduction of i-nitroso- or 4-nitro-monomethylaniline with zinc and acetic acid whereby the methyl group had been unknowingly partially eliminated as methyl acetate. When the reduction was effected by iron powder in the presence of aqueous ferrous or ferrous ammonium sulphate a smooth reduction was obtained and the 4-amino-monomethylaniline now free from p-phenylene- diamine was found to diazotise quite normally.This method of reduction has proved to be of general application especially for the preparation of diamines from dinitronaphthalenes and by it the production of objectionable odours is avoided. In regard to the structure of the diazo-cyanides the writer’s view is that Hantzsch’s alleged syn-cyanides are isonitriles on analogy with the now indisputable facts that the syn-diazo-sulphonates are diazo-sulphites and the absence of geometrical isomerism in the aryl diazohydroxides. The yellow syn-and red anti-diazocyanides cannot have the same spectra as was found by Hantzsch whose results are accounted for by transformation of the sy?t- into the aniz-compounds under the conditions employed for the spectroscopic experiments.The argument used by Professor Le Fbvre that coupling reactions take place only in ionising media is invalidated by the fact that the writer and his co-workers have obtained ready couplings in benzene chloro- forni and alcohol. Le Fbvre’s transformation data however would seem to indicate an intermediate condition during the intramolecular transition from iso-nitrile to anti-cyanide which could well be a geometrical isomer of the syn-form though it would not be Hantzsch’s coupling syn-diazo-cyanide. If this speculation be true then all the anomalies disappear and coupling power will still be vested in a compound (the isonitrile) which splits at an N-N bond and so be in line with the whole of chemical experience; whereas the coupling Hantzsch syn-compound if existent would be the only one of its kind.In all the data submitted by Hantzsch’s supporters no evidence has been forth- coming that their alleged syn-compounds were pure (i.e. 100 per cent.) or what was their composition in terms of syn-and anti-forms when the various physical experiments were commenced or what was their composition in terms of syn- and anti-forms when the experiments were concluded. The above challenge repeated by the writer on several occasions has not yet been met. Finally there is the fundamental fallacy of the free radical hypothesis of Professor Hey and Dr. Waters as applied to the decompositions of aromatic diazo-compounds.This concerns the mode of splitting of the single bonds in the covalent diazo-compound I I I I R-h’= K-X. 1 I (b) !a) In the J.C.S. of December 1946 Waters favoured simultaneous splitting and the production of two free radicals. After the writer’s reply however which was published in J.C.S. 1948 p. 348,Hey and Waters in a joint response (J.C.S. 1948 882) repudiated simultaneous fission and favoured a split at (a) on analogy with the decomposition of I * .. .. 1 R -N = N -C(CeH& I (b) (a) which first splits at (a). In Chern. & Id.,1948 p. 687 and also in the L 209 J J. Royal Institute of Chemistry October 1948 p. 267 Hey favoured the split at (b) with the production of highly hypothetical radicals such as .... *X = N -X. So far as the writer’s experience goes however all the experimental evidence whether of friend or foe indicates that when diazo-compounds lose their nitrogen it is from the diazonium form; this indicates the split at (a) and not at (b) to be valid. The confusion caused by the free radical protagonists can well be imagined from the above statements. THE BIOCHEMISTRY OF EGG SHELL FORMATION By Professor CYRILTYLER,B.Sc. Ph.D. :\.K.I.C. [London and South-Eastern Counties Section at Brighton 5 February 1949.1 The intensity of calcium metabolism in the laying hen will be realised when it is stated that a pullet coming into lay contains about 35 g. calcium in its body and yet in a year it may secrete 500 g. as shell material.So wonder then that the many biochemical problems associated with shell formation form a fascinating field of study. The present paper is an attempt to trace the calcium and its associated elements from the time the food is eaten to the final laying of the egg. The food is swallowed and enters the crop which acts as a store allowing food to pass to the stomach and gizzard at regular intervals. In the gizzard the food is thoroughly ground and mixed with the gastric juice from the stomach and experiments show that by this stagc the calcium of a normal diet is entirely in solution. From the gizzard the food passes to the small intestine and along this portion of the tract various changes occur. The pH rises along the tract and chloride diminishes whilst carbonate increases ; thus although some calcium is absorbed some is reprecipitated as carbonate and some which has been absorbed may even be re-excreted.Phosphate and chloride are also absorbed. The blood of the non-laying hen contains about 10 mg. calcium per 100 nil. serum consisting of about 6 nig. calcium ions xvhich are diffusible and 4 mg. non-diffusible calcium made up of a calcium phosphate complex and a calcium proteinate. Bones have a CajP ratio of about 2-2 and many suggestions have been put forward as to their chemical structure. At present the idea seenis to be accepted that the protein matrix is impregnated with a mixture of tri-calcic phosphate and calcium carbonate. In birds it is further suggested that therc may be a “real” skeleton and a more easily niobilised portion the latter having a much higher Ca/P ratio than the bone as a whole.With this general information we can now consider what happens in the bird. The non-laying bird consumes its ration and absorbs a fair quantity of calcium but this not being required is partly re-excreted and the net result is only a little retention. All this retained calcium and some of thc retained phosphorus will go to the bone. The blood calcium level remains at about 10 mg. and there are no obvious bone changes. The picture with the laying bird is quite different. The bird absorbs somewhat more calcium but also re-excretes far less and hence the net retention is considerably increased. This increased retention starts about fourteen days before laying and the bird therefore has extra calcium in her bones when laying commences.On the first day of lay the bird will retain about 1 g. calcium from the food but will lose 2 g. in the shell; thus she will have to draw on her bones for the extra 1 g. calcium and although she draws on the readily mobilisable portion of high Ca/P ratio she will nevertheless remove sonie phosphorus at the saiiie tiine; since this is not required for the shell it is excreted and gives a definitely higher phosphorus content to the excreta at that time. If no egg is laid on the next day then the bird will store about 1 g. calcium. Clearly the balance between storage and removal will be decided by the rate of laying and we know that if calcium is lacking in the diet egg laying will cease in about ten days.On the other hand the very heavy layers appear to achieve their success by retaining calcium better and by giving thinner shelled eggs. The blood calcium of the laying bird shows a great change and values as high as 40 mg. have been noted; there is also a rise in phosphorus and protein. The rise appears to be entirely associated with the non-diffusible fraction; however values as low as 8 mg. have been observed and it is believed that the blood calcium level is really a reflection of the balance between rate of bone mobilisation and food absorption on the one hand and rate of shell secretion on the other. The most interesting fact about this rise in blood calcium however is that it can be brought about by injections of sex hormones.In the laying bird the bone also shows considerable change and the long bones particularly are of interest. In the non-laying stage the bones have a shaft inside which is the marrow; this marrow is red and glistening and the inside wall of the shaft is smooth. Before laying commences tiny spicules of bone grow from the inner surface of the shaft and invade the marrow until ultimately the marrow is grey and friable. This bone fluctuates in amount according to the time being removed when shell is forming and replaced when no shell is forming. Again the point of interest is that this type of new bone can be produced in resting birds by injections of sex hormones. It thus appears that the increased retention of calcium the high blood calcium and the extra store of bone material formed in the laying bird are all associated with the increased production of sex hormones which occurs at this time.The place of the parathyroids which are also known to be associated with bone and blood calcium is not settled in the case of birds. When an egg yolk escapes from the ovary it passes along the tube and becomes coated with albumen and membranes finally reaching the shell gland ; here the mechanical stimulus of its presence appears to initiate the secretion of shell material. The chemical mechanism of shell secretion is probably on these lines. Calcium ions arise from the breakdown of the calcium proteinate and the calcium phosphate complex of the blood these substances in turn having come partly from the food and partly from the bone.The carbonate ions arise by the effect of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase which shifts the equilibnum- 2 HCO,’ + H CO + CO,” J-carbonic anhydrase H,O + CO to the right by removing carbonic acid. The calcium and carbonate ions coming into contact with the egg white at a pH of 8 to 9 are then precipitated as calcium carbonate. It is known that the process of shell secretion is a steady one over a period of about 20 hours and of great interest is the fact that small doses of sulphanil- amide produce soft-shelled eggs due to the inhibitory effect of the drug on the carbonic anhydrase. The shell consists of calcium carbonate with a little magnesium chloride and phosphate in a matrix of protein and is bounded on its inner surface by a membrane of keratin.It may be that the chloride and phosphate are adsorbed on the shell and are not part of the structure. The shell consists of two layers the inner layer being composed of large irregular granules of calcite with spaces r 211 1 between and the outer layer consisting of tightly packed crystals also of calcite. On the surface is another thin layer of organic matter including pig- ment. The outer mineral layer is pierced by pores which communicate with the spaces of the inner layer. These pores are plugged with protein and they form the channels whereby interchange of water vapour and gases takes place between the egg and its environment. Birds on calcium deficient diets will lay eggs with successively thinner shells but long before a soft-shelled egg is produced the bird stops laying.On the other hand high calcium diets have been shown to cause soft-shelled and other abnormally shelled eggs. High temperatures also reduce shell thickness. The porosity of eggs has been measured quantitatively on the basis of weight losses under standard conditions and there is considerable variation The first egg of a clutch seems to be less porous than succeeding eggs; the thickness of normal shells is not related to porosity but very thin shells are highly porous. The chalky dead white shells described by most practical poultry-keepers as porous are oftcn far less porous than normal ones. This brief account of shell structure completes the story and at the same time serves to stress our ignorance of the chemical physical and mechanical properties of the shell.In fact when we speak of the biochemistry of egg shell formation we are speaking about a field of research as yet scarcely touched. ACTIVATION ENERGY IN THE SENSITIVENESS OF EXPLOSIVES By Professor A. R. J. P. UBBELOHDE, M.A. D.Sc. F.R.I.C. [Belfast and District Section 9 February 1949.1 . The stimulus required to initiate progressive energy release in an explosive determines its “sensitiveness” A very large number of tests on sensitiveness are carried out to ensure safety in handling. These tests aim to imitate various practical hazards such as exposure to heat to an impact from a heavy body to friction and to a number of other conditions in which the explosive may become activated.Owing to the applied nature of most tests on sensi-tiveness it is not always easy to elucidate the physico-chemical process of activation from the results. In addition to sensitiveness tests designed to avoid unwanted explosions in handling tests are also carried out to determine the minimum activation which will ensure efficient release of the energy when required e.g. from a charge of a mining explosive. For this purpose it is usual to employ increasingly powerful initiating charges till the explosive under test can be just brought to detonation. Here again the object of the tests is in the first instance the practical one of efficiency in the use of explosives. The physical chemistry of the activation processes which lead to detonation are not clearly brought out in such applied investigations.Recently published investigations on the basic processes which lead to progressive energy release in explosives have drawn attention to some new aspects of physicochemical activation. Three main problems may be dis- cussed-(i) In the sensitiveness of explosives to impact friction and the like how the mechanical energy which is dissipated serves to activate the explosive. (ii) How the progressive energy release which can start in a local region in the explosive can be communicated to the whole mass. (iii) When a detonation wave travels through an explosive by what means the layer of molecules immediately ahead of the detonation wave is activated so as to react at the very high rate involved.Before these problems can be investigated scient~cally it is necessary to obtain data on the thermal decomposition of explosives under quiescent conditions. By using sufficiently small quantities and by taking certain other precautions it is possible to measure the initial rate of chemical decomposition at various temperatures. These decomposition reactions are analogous to any other chemical reaction in that they have positive temperature coefficients and require substantial activation energies. The decomposition of many explosives is catalysed by the reaction products. In the light of data on the quiescent thermal decomposition of explosives it is possible to study how various mechanical effects lead to explosion.When the total mechanical energy dissipated e.g. in impact or friction sensitiveness is calculated it can be shown that if this energy were merely converted into heat which then heated the explosive uniformly the rise in temperature would not be nearly sufficient to give the violent decomposition rates actually observed. The simplest explanation is that in most mechanisms of sensitive-ness the mechanical energy is Iocalised in some way. This concentration of the mechanical energy into local “hot spots” is comparatively easy to elucidate in two typical kinds of sensitiveness. In grit sensitiveness the explosive is mixed with particles of hard grit and subjected to blows of increasing violence. It can be shown in various ways that when the blow is sufficient to ensure explosion of the whole mass what happens in the first instance is that the mechanical energy is converted into heat around each particle of grit.The local high temperatures produced lead to rapid decomposition which liberates more heat since all explosives decompose exothermally. Provided that this “trigger process” is of sufficient intensity the rate at which the heat is liberated by the blow and the chemical reaction will exceed the rate at which heat can be conducted away. Under these conditions each “hot spot” grows progressively and the whole mass is brought into reaction by conduction of heat from the original “hot spots.” Instead of using particles of grit in liquid explosives small gas bubbles may be used.When these are compressed adiabatically the rise in tempera- ture can lead to “hot spots” which will spread whenever the rate of liberation of heat exceeds the rate at which heat is conducted away. These typical sensitiveness reactions illustrate a feature of outward growth of chemical reaction from a “hot spot” or “thermal nucleus,” but they do not present any essentially new type of activation. A new problem arises with explosives in that some types of sensitiveness may involve a direct transfer of mechanical energy into the energy of activa- tion of chemical bonds without the mechanical energy first being degraded into heat which later activates the molecules thermally. This process of direct transfer from mechanical to bond energy may be termed “tribochemical activation,” to distinguish it from “thermal activation.” The simplest case in which tribochemical activation may lead to “hot spots” which grow into explosions is that of explosives such as lead azides which are ionic crystals.When such crystals are broken various evidence suggests that the ions at the surfaces of cleavage can be activated so as to initiate chemical decomposition. In cases where the chemical decomposition is progressive even comparatively few “hot spots” formed by tribochemical activation can be detected owing to their growth into explosion. The second problem of activation refers to the modes of growth of the “hot spots” initially formed in an explosive. A very important mode of growth involves the process of “self-heating.’’ All explosives are exothermic compounds.In their chemical decomposition unless the heat liberated can be conducted away the temperature of the system will rise and with it the decomposition rate will be accelerated. As was first pointed out by Van’t Hoff such “self-heating” exothermic reactions will eventually give rise to [. 213 1 “thermal explosions.” Thermal explosions are chiefly controlled by the heat liberated per unit volume of explosive decomposed and by physical constants such as the thermal conductivity. Their rate of propagation usually ranges around a few tens of metres per second. The propagation of explosion by self heating does not present any essenti- ally new mechanism of activation. But in addition there is evidence that decomposition of explosives such as lead azide can be propagated by a “non- thermal” mechanism akin to chain-branching in gaseous explosions.It seems likely that the atoms of lead which are formed in the course of decomposition can act as further nuclei so that the progressive decomposition of lead azide accelerates due to the multiplication of these nuclei in the course of the decomposition. A third problem of activation refers to the mechanism whereby explosives are activated during the passage of a detonation wave so that they can liberate the heat of reaction during the very short time available. Various theoretical considerations can be advanced. The principal experimental method of study depends on the fact that the hydrodynamically calculated detonation velocity in a system depends on the pressure and specific volume on both sides of the detonation wave.For example the greater the pressure behind a detonation wave front the greater the velocity. Observed detonation velocities in cylind- rical charges are found to lie somewhat below the calculated value but approximate more and more closely to it as the diameter of the charge is increased. This behaviour is explained in terms of the fact that the walls of the tube used to confine the charge begin to open outwards through the action of the very high pressures of the order of los atmospheres in detonation. The rate at which the walls begin to bulge can be calculated from their physical properties. If the expansion due to this effect is at all appreciable before the molecules of explosive have completed their decomposition in the detonation wave this results in a lowering of the effective pressure which controls the detonation velocity.From observations on the relations between charge diameter and detona- tion velocity with various explosives the time required for chemical decom- position can be calculated. It is found that at the high pressures and tem- peratures present in the detonation wave of a substance such as T.S.T.,the thermal decomposition is not controlled by processes with high activation energies This contrast with thermal decomposition under ordinary pressures and at ordinary temperatures is explained on the basis of the nature of the physico-chemical processes taking place in a detonation wave.The supply of free atoms and active molecules is so abundant both on account of the high temperature and because of the mass motion of molecules in a detonation wave that the molecules do not have to “wait in the queue” for their supply of thermal activation energy. On the other hand evidence has been obtained that with solid explosives the rates at which processes such as the volatilisation of the crystals can occur in the detonation wave control the activation. SOME ASPECTS OF THE SELECTIVE HYDROGENATION OF FATS By Professor 7’. P. HILDITCH, I).Sc. F.R.I.C. F.K.S. [Liverpool and North-Western Section together with Local Branches of the Society of Chemical Industry and the Institute of Petroleum at Chester 9 February 19491 It was realised more than thirty years ago (Moore Richter and van Arsde1,l Hilditch and Moore2) that in glycerides or other esters unsaturated acid groups with more than one double bond (e.g.linoleic derivatives) are first 214 j converted during hydrogenation in presence of nickel or other metal catalysts to the monoethenoid state and that no saturated derivatives are formed until almost all the polyethenoid compounds present have been thus converted into monoethenoid derivatives. Nevertheless it was also noticed that hydrogena- tion of the corresponding acids (instead of esters) was much less selective increase in saturated acids being observed from the outset (Hilditch and Moorez); whilst Richardson Knuth and Nilligan3 showed that in the un- saturated glycerides of marine animal oils with 4 5 or 6 double bonds hydro- genation was by no means so selective as with linoleic derivatives.Harper Hilditch and Terleski4 later gave figures showing that glycerides containing more than one ethenoid group persisted up to a very late stage in the hydro- genation of whale oil and cod-liver oil. IYhilst lesser selectivity in the hydrogenation of free acids than in the hydrogenation of their esters can be explained by association of the carboxylic group with the catalyst (thus competing with and upsetting the chemi- sorption relations between the unsaturated systems and the catalyst) the persistence of polyethenoid unsaturation in the case of hydrogenated glycerides which originally contained acyl groups with 4,5 or 6 double bonds remained unexplained from 1925 until 1946 when the work of Bailey and Fisher5 on the hydrogenation of methyl linolenate (with 3 double bonds) led to the rcalisa- tion (Hilditch6) that “selective hydrogenation ” of long-chain poly-unsaturated groups was really that of the specific system -CH:CH.CH,.CH:CH- whether present singly (linoleates) or in multiple form (linolenates otc.).Following an observation by Lemon‘ that considerable quantities of octadeca-9,15-dienoates are found in the first phase of hydrogenatioii of linolenate (octadeca-9,12,15-trienoate), Bailey and Fisher showed that of the (lime glycerides first produced the 9,l;S-compound forms about half the rest being made np of octadeca-9,lB- and-12,1q5-dienoates; whilst a minor but tlefinite amount of linolenate passes in one stage to the rnonoethenoid condition.l:urthermore they were able to show that the relative reactivities of thc various esters concerned (oleate as 1) were linolenate (-9,12,15-) 40 linoleatt. (-9,12-)20 and octadeca-9,lS-enoate 3. Meanwhile Farmer el nZ.* had drawn attention to the specific properties of the -CH:CH.(’H,.CH:CH-systerii (in which the methylene group is reactive,” i.e. contains a readily detachable hydrogen atom) in regard to attack by molecular oxygen anti Hilditchs extended this concept to the parallel case of addition of hydrogen in presence of catalysts showing that Bailey and Fisher’s findings were not only fully c.xplicable by this means but that this also accounted for lessened selectivity in the later stages of hydrogenation of polg-unsaturated compounds originally possessing the pentadiene grouping in multiple form since in the earlier stages 01 hydrogenation these would yield tri- or di-ethenoitl groups in which several rnethylene groups would intervene between clouble bonds the latter conse- quently behaving to hydrogen more or less as individual monoethenoid groups.It must be borne in mind that “selectivity ” in hydrogenation of fatty compounds is also controlled largely by mechanical conditions and is only fully displayed when the liquid surfaces in actual contact with the catalyst are renewed and kept in equilibrium with the rest of the liquid phase as completely as possible.This condition holds in all the studies referred to above in which it was achieved by intense agitation by high-speed stirrers. On the other hand when the unsaturated fats are allowed to drip down over :L stationary mass of active catalyst the liquid which first comes in contact with the catalyst is liable largely to remain at the metal surface for some tinie since it can only escape by lateral diffusion through the liquid film. This accounts for the observations of Lushg and of Hilditch and Rheadl” that in these circumstances the hydrogenation appears to be less selective [ 216 ] saturated compounds appearing throughout and while linoleic compounds are still present in quantity. The operation in technical practice of conditions whereby the course of hydrogenation is made "non-selective," or at all events less selective probably depends on the same mechanical factors.If agitation is employed it is by no means so intense as in laboratory forms of hydrogena- tion apparatus; or mixing may be achieved by circulation of the oil and catalyst through an atmosphere of hydrogen. In either case the rate of re- moval or renewal of the films of oil at the metal surface will be much slower than with intense agitation and in consequence in presence of an active catalyst a linoleate molecule (for example) will undergo its primary reduction to the monoethenoid state but still remains in contact sufficiently long for the hydrogenation of the latter to follow before it is swept away and replaced by a fresh linoleate molecule.Recently the hydrogenation of elaeostearate esters has been studied in our laboratory in some detail since comparison of the behaviour of the respective unsaturated systems- -CH CH.CH :CH.CH :CH- -CH :CH.CH,.CH CH.CH,.CH CH- and -CH:CH.CH,.CH:CH-during catalytic hydrogenation is a matter of some interest. The course of hydrogenation of methyl elaeostearate has been found to be quite different from that of linolenate. In the main two molecules of hydrogen are added simultaneously in the first phase and the chief primary product is methyl octadec-ll-enoate the two outer double bonds of the con- jugated system having disappeared. Little or no evidence of the intermediatr production of a diene ester conjugated or non-conjugated is observed; and substantially all elaeostearate is transformed to mono-ethenoid ester before any of the latter passes into stearate.Similarly in an equimolecular mixture of methylelaeostearate and oleate practically all the former passes into the mono-cthenoid state before any oleate is hydrogenated. In a mixture of methyl elacostearate and linoleate about 80 per cent. of the elaeostearate is attacked before the linoleate com- mences also to be converted into mono-ethenoid ester selectively. With a similar mixture of elaeostearate and linolenate both esters undergo hydro- genation at once but the elaeostearate disappears about twice as fast as the linolenate. The bis-pentadiene system of the linolenate is thus much more nearly comparable in rate of hydrogenation with the conjugated form in the isomeric elaeostearate than with that containing an isolated double bond.In these experiments (amore detailed account of which will be given else- where) the catalyst employed was Raney nickel both at 110" and 170"C. At either temperature the hydrogenation of methyl linoleate with this form of catalyst was fully selective. REFERENCES 1. Moore Kic-hter aiitl van -4rsde1 J. Int?. E/q. he^. 19 ti. 9. 451. > -. Hilditch arid Moore J. SOC.Chem. Intl.. 1023 42 15-1.. 3. Richardson Knuth and Milligan Ind. Eny. Cherri. 1063 17 80. 4. Harper and Hilditch J. SOC.Chem. ld. 1937 56 322; Hilditch and Terleski ibid. 315. 5. Bailey and Fisher Oil and Soap 1946 23,14. 8. Hilditch Nature 1946 157 386.7. Lemon Can. J. Research 1944 22,F,191. s. Farmer and Sutton .I. Chem. SOC.,1943 119 122; Farmer Koch and Sutton ibitl.. 1943 641 ; Bolland and Koch ibit?. 1915 445. I). Lush J. SOC.Chem. Id.,1923,42 2191.; 1924,43 57~: 1925,44 1291. 10. Hilditch and Rhead J. SOC.Chem. Id. 1932 51 198~. I216 I RECENT WORK ON SOME SULPHUR COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS By MARGARETISABELSIMPSON, B.Sc. Ph.D. A.R.I.C. [Liverpool and North-Western Section at Wigan 19 February 19491 The detection of methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulphide in the volatile products of moulds growing on media containing certain inorganic and organic sulphur compounds led to the investigation of the marine alga Polysiphoniu fustiginta which was shown by Haas in 1935 to evolve dimethyl sulphide on exposure to air.The isolation and identification of the precursor were attempted bj extraction of the alga with cold absolute alcohol and subsequent treatment of the extract with ammonium reineckate solution. Details of the isolation of a thetine chloride from the reineckate precipitate are given in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1947 IV 170 and by the author and Challenger in the Journal of the Chemical Society 1948 1591. The thetine chloride was identified as dimethyl- 15-propiothetine chloride (CH,),;. (Cl)CH,CH,COOH. It may be noted here that the isomeric compound CH,SCH,CH,COOCH has been isolated from pineapple juice. The only other evidence of the occurrence of a sulphonium compound in nature is the statement by Neuberg and Grosser that the urine of dogs contains methyl diethylsulphonium hydroxide which was isolated by precipitation with phosphotungstic acid and KBiI,.During 194Ck2 du Vigneaud and co-workers (Cornell University Medical School New York) showed that choline and betaine when fed to rats on a diet containing homocysteine but free from methionine transfer a methyl group to the homocysteine giving methionine thus maintaining normal growth. + -+-(CH,),KCH,COO (CH,),N(OH)CH2CH,0H Betaine Choline HSCH,CH,CHNH ,COC)H CH,. SCH,CH,CHN H,COO ki Homoc ysteine Methionine This transmethylation was then confirmed by the use of deuteriomethionine and deu teriocholine. In later experiments of the same type these authors have found that dimethylthetine and dimethyl- 8-propiothetine (the seaueed thetine) will also support the growth of rats on a methionine-free diet containing homocysteine and are more efficient than betaine or choline in this respect.At the same time Dubnoff and Rorsook (California Institute of Technology Pasadena) demonstrated the methylating capacity of the two thetines in vitro using animal tissue. They have also isolated two separate enzyme systems one for the betaine and one for the dimethyl- p-propiothetine. The origin of the thetine isolated from the seaweed is not known but it may arise from mcthionine by deamination oxidation and subsequent methyla- tion :-CH,SCH2CH2CH(NH,)COOH -+ CH,SCH,CH,COCOOH -+ CH,SCH,CH,COOH ,!3-methylthiolpropionic acid Methylation +--+ (CH3)zS (-OSO2OR)CH2CH,COOH The methylation might be effected by some methyl compound present in the seaweed e.g.the methyl ester of a polysaccharide sulphuric acid furnishing -methyl and an anion -0-SO,-OR. E 217 1 H. Burton has suggested that /3-niekiiylthiolpropionic acid may alsoa rise from a betaine :--i- (CH,),KCH,CH,COO -+ (CH,),N + CH$H + CH,=CHCOOH ____-+ CH,SCH,CH,COOH. However there is no evidence as yet that this methylthiolpropionic acid is the precursor of the thetine in seaweed and it seems that methylthiolacetic acid CH,S.CH,.COOH is not converted to the corresponding thetine (CH,)2kCH,C06 in the animal body as du Vigneaud has shown that there is no transmethyla- tion when this acid is fed to rats on a methionine free diet containing homo- cysteine.The behaviour of moulds grown on media containing thetines was in-vestigated by Y.C. Liu. s. brevicaulis and P. notatum were found to decom- pose dimethyl- 13-propiothetine salts giving dimethyl sulphide in yields of 1.8 and 36 per cent. respectively hut no volatile sulphur compounds were detected when salts of dimethyl-or-propiothetine (CH3),&CH(CH,).CO0 or + dimethylthetine (CH,),S.CH,COO were added to the mould cultures. This is analogous with the behaviour of these thetines to alkali the dimethyl- /3-propiothetine being decomposed very much more easily than the a-propiothetine or dimethylthetine. Diethylthetine however when added to the mould cultures gave good yields of diethyl sulphide although this thetine is fairly stable to alkali treatment.It is therefore not possible at present to correlate the chemical reactions behaviour in moiild cultures and methylating capacity of these thetines. Methionine in cultures of .S. brevicaulis is decomposed to give methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulphide. This reaction may proceed via the keto- acid as this compound is formed from methionine in the presence of kidney slices and the keto-acid is easily decomposed with caustic soda to give methyl mercaptan CH3SCH,CH,CHSHZCOOH -('H,SCH,CH,COCOOH. i In accordance with this view when the keto-acids CH,SCH,CH,COCOOH and CH,SCH,COCOOH were added to iiiould cultures methyl mercaptan and with the second compound dimethyl sulphitlc were formed.On the other hand transamination may of course have occurred whereby the keto-acids would be converted to the corresponding amino-acids. Several sulphur compounds of natural occurrence are related to niethionine or homomethionine e.g. erysolin CH,SO,CH,CH,CH,CH,S(:S in the wall- flower sulphoraphene in radishes ally1 isothiocyanate CH =CHCH,NCS arising by hydrolysis of sinigrin in black mustard Pp'dihydroxyethyl-sulphoxide from the suprarenals of oxen methionine sulphoxide in urine allicin CH,=CH-CH,S-S-C'H,--('H-CH i 0 and alliin (Stoll and Seebeck) CH,= CH--CH,--S--CH,CH ( NH,)COOH I Y 0 in garlic. Allicin is probably derived from rilliin and the following scheme has been suggested hv Challenger as a possiblc explanation of the origin of alliin and involves the formation of cystathionine -[ 31%] as in rat liver extract HSCH,CH,CH(NH,)COOH + HOCH,CH(NH,)COOH Homocysteine Serine -H20 -> COOH.CH (NH,) CH,SCH,CH,CHNH,COOH Cystathionine - -NH -+ COOHCH(NH,)CH,SCH,CH = CH-COOH ‘02+ COOHCH(NH,)CH,SCH,CH=CH 0 COOHCH(NH2)CH2SCH2CH=CH, --+ J. 0 Alliin As an alternative cystathionine might yield a keto-acid COOH.CH(NH,)CH,.S.CH,.CH,COCOOH which by decarboxylation reduction loss of water and oxidation could yield alliin. NEW DETERGENTS By R. C. TARRING, BSc. [East Midlands Section 24 February 19491 New detergents may be defined as chemical compounds containing both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic section in their molecular structure and possessing surface active properties which enable them in dilute aqueous solution to reduce surface tension and interfacial tension.Particular proper- ties such as water solubility wetting power and detergency can be empha- sised by variation in the structural configuration. Fatty acid soaps are similar in that they too possess a hydrophobic (long hydrocarbon chain) and a hydrophilic (alkali carboxylate) portion in their molecules. This carboxylate group however is their weak point and leads to chemical instability typified by formation of insoluble calcium and magnesium soaps in hard water and precipitation by acids. Search for materials possessing the good properties of soap without its inherent disadvantages started about 1860 with the introduction of Turkey Red Oil (sulphated castor oil)-although its main usefulness lay in wetting rather than detergent power.Other wetting agents known as Nekals followed in Germany during 1914-18 and then the first essentially detergent materials- the lgepons and Gardinols. However all these were too dear for general industrial or domestic use and they found only specialised application. The discovery that petroleum was a readily available and comparatively inexpensive source of raw materials for detergent manufacture led to rapid developments prior to 1939 and these were further accelerated during hostili- ties by the increasing shortage of fats and oils required for production of soaps. Dependent upon the availability of suitable raw materials in the respective countries the following detergents were produced alkyl sulphonates (Merso- lates) in Germany alkyl sulphates in Britain and alkyl aryl sulphonates in America.The new detergents can be divided into three classes-anionic (most numerous) cationic and non-ionic. In the anionic group are alkyl sulphates (e.g. ”Teepol ”) sulphated fatty alcohols (e.g. sulphonated Lorol ; Gardinols) alkyl aryl sulphonates (e.g. Sacconol; Santomerse) aliphatic sulphonates (e.g. Mersolates) substituted alkyl naphthalene sulphonates (e.g. Nekals ; Perminal W) sulphated fatty acid soaps (e.g. Turkey Red Oil) sulphonated L 219 J alkyl amides (e.g. Igepon T) sulphonated fatty acid esters (e.g. Igepon A) sulphosuccinic esters (e.g. Aerosol O.T.) sulphated monoglycerides (e.g.Vel) and petroleum sulphonates (e.g. Petrosol). The nonionic detergents consist mainly of ethylene oxide condensates with substituted phenol or fatty alcohol (egLissapol N; Igepals). The cationic detergents-more expensive and less numerous than other types-are typified by cetyl pyridinium bromide (Fixanol C) and cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (Lissdamine A). They possess bactericidal or bacteriostatic properties and have been developed considerably in America for specialised applications. At present only three groups of new detergents are available in quantity at an economic price-the anionic alkyl sulphates and alkyl aryl sulphonates and the nonionic products. Their applications lie in industrial processing industrial cleaning and in the domestic market.The widest use for processing is in the textile industry where they enable scouring and other wet treatment of fibres to be performed without formation of insoluble lime-soaps. Furthermore they can be used to disperse such desposits where these have been previously formed by use of fatty acid soaps. Many of the new detergents are strongly adsorbed on animal fibres-the amount depending on pH-and this leads to softer more loftv handle particu- larly with wool. Here ease of rinsing and chemical stability are important considerations. Their wetting powers are utilised in dyeing bleaching carbonising and anti-shrink processes in all of which they tend to produce greater uniformity of effect. In laundering new detergents provide a marked improvement in texture and handle in the low-temperature washing of wollens and silks.They are also useful for washing garments with fugitive colours since they can be used in the presence of acid or salt which minimises colour bleeding. They are now being developed for the laundering of all classifications by admixture with appropriate alkalies or other “builders” to ensure full efficiency. In engineering the new detergents find application in aqueous de-greasing and in wet grinding; also in acid pickling and electroplating where their acid and alkali stability is of value. Their powerful wetting properties have recently been applied to increase the efficiency of water used for dust-laying in coal mines and thus to reduce considerably the amount of water normally required.In the cosmetic and pharmaceutical trade the detergent wetting or emulsifying powers of the new materials are widely exploited e.g. in the so-called “soapless shampoos,” while their penetrating action is utilised in a number of cleansing or curative lotions. They are particularly valuable in the food industry for maintaining cleanliness of equipment and improving the effectiveness of sterilisation by removing completely and rapidly adherent fatty deposits in which bacteria breed. As horticultural wetting agents they increase the efficiency with which insecticides and fungicides can attack plant pests by increasing the penetration or ensuring even spreading of the toxic ingredients. Other applications of new detergents are in cement and concrete manu- facture and in the paper rubber fur and leather industries and an interesting use at present confined to the U.S.A.is for fire fighting where wetting agents enable the overall quantity of water to be reduced and increase its effective- ness against smouldering fires. The remarkable growth in doniestic use of new detergents is well illustrated by figures from the U.S.:Z. where production has jumped from 6,000 tons in 1941 to 125,000 tons in 1945 and 200,000 tons in 1947. Of the anticipated production in 1950 of 500,000 tons over 60 per cent. is destined for the domestic market. 220 j Introduction of these materials-to overcome the inherent disadvantages of soap encountered in hard water washing-has focussed attention on the fundamentals of detergency and has already established the value of adding inorganic and organic “builders” to enhance the dirt-removing properties of the final products.Little or no addition is required for washing goods normally handled at low temperatures (e.g. wollens silks nylons) but for the high-temperature washing of cotton linen and similar fabrics the addition of builders particularly the polyphosphates has proved to be of considerable advantage. In America these phosphates are in comparatively free supply and some of the best domestic detergents may contain up to 50 per cent. :and it is antici- pated that when the present shortage of phosphate “builders ” in Britain is overcome much greater availability of all-round domestic washing powders will result.Increased production and distribution of the new detergents has made it possible to offer products of high active content to the housewife at prices comparable with soap powders and it is significant that the major soap com- panies-in both U.K. and U.S.A.-now rank as the largest distributors of products based on new detergents for domestic use. World economy may well be influenced by these new materials because soap consumption and standard of living are closely related. In America where the standard of living is high soap consumption per head per annum is over twenty pounds while in highly-populated Asiatic areas it averages less than one pound. Increased standards of living in these latter areas will mean a greater demand for oils and fats for both food and soap; and with the large populations involved even a small increase in soap usage will represent a considerable proportion of world consumption.Reduced production coupled with increased world population has caused an annual deficit of about 4,000,000 tons of fats and fatty oils and the most optimistic economists estimate that it will be ten years before sufficient fats and oils are available to meet even the old pre-war standards. To meet the growing demand for cleaning materials therefore basic ingredients other than fats and oils are needed-particularly for increased standards of cleanliness-and petroleum as a source of basic raw materials for new detergents is a timely development.It must be realised however that although this development coincided with shortage of fats for soap manufacture large-scale plans for the production of petroleum-derived detergents had been made and practically completed long before such fat shortages appeared. Without these new detergents the standard of cleanliness-and by inference the health of the world-would have suffered considerably. With them a brighter and cleaner world lies ahead. FREE RADICALS AND HYDROCARBON CHEMISTRY By Professor C. E. H. BAWN BSc. Ph.D. [Edinburgh and East of Scotland Section jointly with The Chemical Society and The University of St. Andrews Chemical Society at St. Andrews 25 February 19491 Recent trends in chemical kinetics have shown that complex reactions consist of a large number of simple steps and require the existence of simple intermediates which may be atoms ions or free radicals.Formalised reaction schemes have been produced to explain the processes of combustion thermal decomposition polymerisation etc. The logical development from this lies in the study of the free radicals themselves and it is this stage that is reaching its climax now. The four principal methods ot production ot tree radicals are 1. Thermal decomposition e.g. CH,N=NCH -+ 2CH + N hv 2. Decomposition by light e.g. C2H51-+ C2H5+ I 2,000 v. 3. Chemical change in the electric discharge e.g. H,O---- +OH+H 4. Reaction of an alkali metal atom with an organic halide (Polanyi) e.g. Na + RX -+ NaX + R.The first three of these methods suffer from the disadvantage that the radical is produced in the presence of an excess concentration of undissociated molecules. In method 4 on the other hand the product is inert and condi- tions can be arranged so that every molecule coming into the system is im- mediately decomposed. The production of free radicals may be detected by the method of Paneth which uses their reaction with metallic mirrors of lead antimony etc. Such hydrocarbon radicals may react in a number of ways. Three possible modes of reaction are :-1. Dimerisation e.g. CH + CH -+ C2H 2. Disproportionation e.g. 2CH -+ CH + CH 3. Thermal decomposition e.g. CH,CH,CH -+ CH + CH,=CH 4. Reaction of the radical with a molecule of RX the original halide (method 4).PHOTOTURBIDIMETRIC METHODS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF SULPHUR AS BARIUM SULPHATE THE SOLIDS CONCENTRATION AND THE RATE OF SETTLING OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS By J. 0. SAMUEL, M.Sc. F.R.I.C. [South Wales Section 28 February 19491 A novel feature of an apparatus (developed at the research laboratories of Unifloc Reagents Ltd. Swansea) for the turbidimetric examination of solids concentration and rate of settling of colloidal solutions is the inclusion of a detachable glass cell capable of lateral variations between wide limits and suitable for the examination of thin or thick fluid layers. Charging and dis- charging of the glass cell is carried out by suction and the light beam from a low-powered lamp is focussed on the cell and photo-cell by means of an optical arrangement.This arrangement minimises errors from variations in reflective and refractive properties of thc usual glass cells and from the position of the light source. Electronic devices using gas-filled Thyratron and triode valves can be used with the apparatus as means of self-recording the rate of settling of colloidal solutions to a preset standard of clarity. The cathode ray tube can also be employed in conjunction with suitable horizontal and vertical scanning time bases to follow visually the character of settling phenomena. In the technique of sulphur estimation by photoelectric methods using barium sulphate the strict control of precipitation in isopropyl alcohol/water mixture is very important.THE CHEMIST IN THE CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY By H. F. BAMFORD, M.A. F.R.I.C. [East Anglian Section 4 March 19491 The principal raw materials of chocolate manufacture are cocoa beans sugar and cocoa butter. For milk chocolate milk solids are kdded in the form of milk powder or crumb-a solid product obtained by the evaporation of a mixture of milk sugar and a little cocoa to a low moisture content. The chemist is consulted in regard to the purchase of these raw materials. The examination of cocoa beans is largely a physical one since the main criteria are flavour and aroma. Beans undergo a fermentation in the country of origin during which the colour and texture of the beans change and the flavour develops. Desirable features in addition to characteristic flavour are plumpness with minimum husk high fat content and freedom from mould and infestation damage.Cocoa butter should be free from foreign odours and have the correct physical properties. A hard brittle texture is desired which calls for a high proportion of solid glycerides. Cooling curves and other physical measure- ments give the desired information regarding the glyceride composition of the fat. After cleaning and grading the beans are roasted in rotary gas-heated roasters a process designed to develop aroma and colour remove moisture and volatile acids (chiefly acetic) and embrittle the shell and nib. Conditions of roasting are largely empirical and the chemist’s task is to attempt to define and standardise them.Tests are mostly organoleptic. The next process is the separation of shell a process which involves grading and aspiration of the roughly ground beans. The chemist can check the efficiency of these operations either by crude fibre estimations or by means of careful visual separation and estimation of husk present. After this the clean nibs are progressively reduced in stone or disc mills to a creamy liquid and a blend of suitable beans is made according to the type of chocolate required. For plain chocolate strong South American or Trinidad beans are blended with Gold Coast cocoa whereas milk chocolate calls for milder flavoured Ceylon or Samoa beans. Sugar is then added and the mixture ground in melangeurs and refiners until the particles are sufficiently small (less than 25 microns) to escape detection on the palate.Control of these stages is effected by microscopic examination a lycopodium technique having been found most accurate. “Conching” is the final operation-a prolonged low-temperature cooking operation which has a profound effect on the flavour of the chocolate. Three of the true taste senses are affected by chocolate viz. sweet bitter and sour. The aroma of course which affects the sense of smell contributes to the general flavour property. There is no evidence that the sweet and bitter properties are affected other than by the blending effect. The chief effects of the conching process are on the sour and astringent properties. Volatilisation and oxidation diminish both effects. Evaporation of water during conching reduces the apparent viscosity a factor which is finally controlled for covering and moulding purposes by the addition of cocoa butter or lecithin.The final moulding and covering operations call for a knowledge of the characteristics of the fat component. The rate of cooling must be controlled to produce the desired hard brittle texture or “snap,” a state obtained when the cocoa fat has fully crystallised forming large numbers of small crystals without unstable states. SEVENTY-FI RST ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING FRIDAY 29 APRIL 1949 The Seventy-First Annual General Meeting of the Royal Institute of Chemistry was held at the Senate House University of London London W.C.1 on Friday 29 April 1949 at 2.45 p.m.Mr. G. ROCHE LYNCH O.B.E. M.B. B.S. D.P.H. President occupied the Chair and 86 Fellows and 26 Associates were present. The Secretary (Dr. H. J. T. Ellingham) read the Notice convening the meeting. MI NUTES.-The Minutes of the Seventieth Annual General Meeting having been printed and circulated (JOURNAL 1948 111 142-152), AND PROCEEDINGS were taken as read. ANNUAL ACCOU NTS.-THE TREASURER: It is my duty on this occasion to present to you the Accounts for the year 1948 which you have now had an opportunity of seeing and I have no doubt of studying. My duty is lightened since the section of the Report of the Council (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1949 Supplement 13-17 31-43) which deals with these matters is quite full and informative and there is in consequence very little for me to say.I would however focus your attention on one or two matters. If you turn to the Balance Sheet you will see that we have attempted to present this in the most informative way possible. Balance Sheets can be properly drawn up in many ways but we have taken the viewpoint that our members are not necessarily accountants and that we should attempt to make the Balance Sheet as simple as possible. It is for this reason that we are deducting each year the surrender value of the Redemption Fund from that of the Leasehold Building so that as the one item the Leasehold Building falls by reason of this deduction it is replaced by the Leasehold Property Redemption Policy. A few years before the date at which our lease runs out the Leasehold Property Redemption Policy will stand at the full amount of the valuation of the Leasehold Building of 31 December 1947.The only other matter on which perhaps I should comment is the high amount shown under Sundry Creditors which as explained is due to the fact that we had not on 31 December 1948 paid for the printing of the Register. The Balance Sheet shows the strong position of the Institute and we certainly do not think that the value of the premises has been over-stated. It may well be as years go on that we shall find that it has been under-valued. Turning to the General Income and Expenditure Account there is a deficit of L2,937 which you will remember was expected. In view of this deficit you will observe that it is not proposed to appropriate sums to reserve accounts such as the Intermittent Publication Reserve.This is of course what we normally do and we hope to make ample reserves for such purposes during the coming year. Now that our income will be increased in view of the increased subscriptions there will naturally be no loss in 1949 and indeed there will be a balance which will be used to strengthen our financial position generally and to permit further activities. The Special Accounts give an indication of the cost of certain activities outside those of the main ones of running the general affairs of the Institute the work of the committees etc. The deficit on the Examinations and Assessments Account may disappear in the present year in view of the increased examination fees.I should also like to draw your attention to the General Contingencies Reserve Account where there is an item of A91 8s. 3d. on adjustment of the New Zealand rate of exchange. In 1948 the New Zealand pound previously [ 224 1 worth about 16s. in sterling was re-valued at par. Income arising in New Zealand had previously been reduced to sterling before inclusion in the accounts. With the revaluation the increment of i91 8s. 3d. was created and this as you will see has been credited to the General Contingencies Reserve. Finally may I apologise for a minor mistake in the Report of the Council commenting on the Accounts. On page 14 paragraph 3 it is stated that there is an increase in income from annual subscriptions of L876 whereas this should be 4867 while of course the year should be 1947 and not 1948.During the year there have been a number of changes in investments following professional advice. If I may now turn to the Benevolent Fund Accounts the position is not very encouraging. We have this year for the first time presented the accounts in the form of income and expenditure accounts instead of receipts and pay- ments accounts. There is unfortunately a deficit on the year’s working in the current account of i707 although there is a positive balance in the capital account. What is alarming is the fact that if we are to continue to be benevolent our expenditure is likely to increase while the income may fail to keep pace. The receipts to date this year have been appreciably below last year’s and there is a real need for subscribers to the fund to make an effort this year if we are not to be faced with a serious deficit next year.We do not wish to and I think we shall not restrict our activities but obviously the position cannot continue as it is unless there is some change for the good. It is particularly difficult at present to appeal for increased subscriptions to the Benevolent Fund in view of the appeal which will shortly be made on behalf of the Residential Clubs for elderly people. For the time being we shall obviously have to be satisfied if the Benevolent Fund can hold its own so that its income will roughly balance its expenditure but even this will mean the making of a real effort and I appeal to everybody present to do what they can to help.It is not for me in presenting these Accounts to make more than passing reference to the financial arrangements which arise in connection with the Clubs for elderly people as the President will be dealing with this later in moving a special resolution but we intend to launch in the near future an appeal for a capital fund for this purpose. It is hoped that once the main capital fund is established there will be in this connection less call upon members except perhaps by way of bequests and we can then look forward to the time when we can again build up the strength of the Benevolent Fund. The other Accounts call for little comment. I shall be pleased to answer any questions but I now formally move the adoption of the Accounts for the year ended 31 December 1948.MR. BERNARD It gives me very great pleasure to second this F. HOWARD resolution. As a former Treasurer although for only a very short time I can fully appreciate the enormous burden that Dr. Kent-Jones has borne in per- forming this work on behalf of the members of the Institute and if I may say so in a particularly difficult year. I do ask you to pass these accounts coupled with a tribute to our Treasurer as an appreciation of his efforts. THEPRESIDENT: The Report is now open for discussion. MR. GEORGEKING:I would like to say how glad we all are to have the accounts presented in such easily readable form. At the meeting a year ago I either proposed or seconded a resolution that the subscription of Fellows and Associates should be increased.That brought down on my head a volume of comment. Outstanding comment in the provinces was on an item which in this year’s accounts again stands out-salaries of staff. It is some years since I was a member of the Council but I know well the value of the staff and the hard work they do. I would like you to believe that in anything I have to [ 225 ] say I have no personal feeling in that matter; I know what the staff are worth. But it is pointed out on page 34 that the staff salaries are now L11,423. We are told that the membership of the Institute is 11,100 Fellows and Associates. We have a staff salary of L11,400 which the Treasurer threatens to increase. That has been observed by many of those Fellows and Associates of the Institute who do not attend this meeting (after all out of the 11,000there are very few here and those not here are the backbone of the Institute).Now that we have the accounts in this very readable form we are going to get comments of this nature. I would therefore like the President or the Council to make a considered statement on this particular item. THE TREASURER If there is a request from this meeting for the Council to make a reply to this I feel quite certain that the Council will be very pleased to do so but the answer is a relatively simple one. We all know that the cost of living has gone up. M’e all know that we have to pay adequate salaries in order to get the right type of people to look after our professional interests; that is what the Institute of Chemistry exists for.I have had-quite rightly with the approval of everybody-to increase the salaries so that we should attract to us the right type of person to lookafter our own professional interests. (“Hear hear.”) I do not think that the sum of L11,400 is at all excessive in view of the facts that I have given. Included in that sum is provision for superannuation which amounts to some Ll,200 and there is of course the pension to the past Secretary. The actual salaries only come to about L9,400. Quite frankly I see no way of reducing that sum at present; it may even have to increase but it will only increase as the activities of the Institute increase so that your interests can be better safeguarded.If it is the wish of this meeting that Council considers the matter and issues a formal statement I have no doubt at all the Council will be very pleased to do so but possibly the explanation of the facts that I have given to you may suffice. MR. A. L. RACHARACH: I would like to congratulate the Hon. Treasurer on having done something that I could not do which was to discover exactly what was the comment to which Mr. George King asked for an answer. The gist of Mr. King’s remarks was that we spent x11,400 on salaries and had 11,100 members. What of it? If the Council proposes to examine this matter further and to report on it they might care to make a simple calcula- tion. If they divide for each of the past years the total number of members into the total sum spent on salaries and then adjust this to the cost of living index I suspect they will find that there has been a decrease rather than an increase in expenditure on salaries per unit of membership.In any event the Institute is not a publishing body or a learned society but a professional organisation giving much service to the public and to its members and is therefore bound to spend more per member on salaries. If I understand the message that Mr. King brought from our colleagues in Birmingham I regard its reasoning as fallacious and its implication as wrong. I welcome what we spend on the salaries of our highly expert and essential staff and shall not be in the least uneasy if the amount increases. MR. HAROLD STEVENSON: There is an item on the income side of the Benevolent Fund Accounts “Annual subscriptions and deeds of covenant.” Could the Treasurer tell us how much of the L6Sl is received by deeds of covenant? THE TREASURER I am afraid I cannot give you the answer straight away but I shall be very pleased to announce it in due course.The main income is subscriptions which you see are L1,036. In addition to that there are certain annual subscriptions which are paid by bankers’ orders and some of those bankers’ orders take the form of deeds of covenant to get advantage of income [ 226 j tax. Offhand I cannot tell you the exact proportion but 1 should like to see more people guarantee for seven years a subscription to the Benevolent Fund so that we get the benefit from it.THEPRESIDENT: The Assistant Secretary has just informed me that he thinks it is something of the order of k300; he has made a rough estimate at the moment and he would not like those figures to be taken as exact. MR. HAROLD If there are 300 members who subscribed L1 per STEVENSON covenant it would come to about fT450. DR. M. A. PHILLIPS: I cannot help thinking that the Benevolent Fund should not really depend on the goodwill however good that may be of Fellows and Associates. I would like to have it minuted that the Council should consider putting this Fund on a much more permanent basis in the form of an insurance even if it does mean the raising of membership sub- scriptions. However much I am opposed to a raising of the subscription because times are hard I would be quite willing myself and I know a lot of other people would be to pay an increased subscription if that increased proportion would go not to a voluntary payment of a Benevolent Fund but to an insurance by which those who have need of it would be able to have this grant as a right and not as a sort of charitable concession.THEPRESIDENT: I believe I am right in saying that such a course even if it were commendable to the members as a whole is not possible on account of our Charter and By-Laws. I think that puts it out of court straight away. DR. M. A. PHILLIPS:Is it not allowed for in the terms of the new Charter? THEPRESIDENT: It is a moot point under the new Charter but I am rather doubtful. DR. M.A. PHILLIPS: Is it a question of principle that the Council is not trying to get powers? Does the Council agree in principle with my proposi- tion? If it agrees in principle would it try to incorporate it? I assume the Council is not against it in principle. May I make the position clear? As I understand it we THE TREASURER could not deal with this suggestion in the way it is put forward certainly under the old Charter. What we can do under the new Charter can be sympathetically examined. Under the new Charter we can do something for the Homes for Elderly People by advancing money as you will hear later on. So far we have run the Benevolent Fund on voluntary contributions and the people just give the money they feel they should purely as a gift. I should be very nervous myself of altering the whole character of the thing by earmarking so much of your subscriptions for a charitable purpose whether you like it or not; some people might like it some people might not.It is rather a dangerous precedent. Your observations will be considered in due course. MR. C. L. CLAREMONT: If I remember aright the BenevoIent Fund started after the previous war as a kind of memorial to members who fell. If you look at the subscriptions you will find that they amount to roughly k1,700 from 11,000 members; that works out to about half-a-crown per head per annum. Surely chemists ought to be able to do better than that; even if it was raised only to 5s. per head you would more than wipe out the deficit. THE TREASURER I am very grateful to Mr.Claremont because what he says is perfectly true but as I said before it is entirely a matter for the mem- bers what they will give. I cannot on this occasion do more than appeal to members to the best of their ability to increase their subscriptions to forward the very excellent work which the Benevolent Fund is doing. I must say that I agree entirely that I can see no reason why we should not have an increased income but that rests entirely with the members. [ 227 1 MR. R. F.INNES: As the voluntary principle is being taken away from us in a number of directions I would like to feel that in the Royal Institute of Chemistry it is maintained and encouraged. I am rather delighted to hear that the Benevolent Fund is on the wrong side because I am certain that surely will be a great stimulus to all of us to contribute to the Fund; this may in fact be a blessing in disguise; it may lead to a flow of subscriptions which will put it on the right side.THE TREASURER That is entirely my own view if I may say so. The motion for the adoption of the Annual Accounts was put and carried unanimously. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE PRESIDENT: It is now my duty to move the adoption of the Report of the Council. The Report has been set out at very great length and has been circulated to all members (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1949 Supplement). I therefore assume that you have all read it. That being so I propose to make no comment upon it. I formally move the adoption of the Report of the Council.PROFESSOR I feel much complimented in being asked to H. B. DUNNICLIFF second this Report and I know that you will wish me to congratulate the Council on the past year’s excellent record. It has been a year of progress; the number of Fellows increased by about 550 and the number of Registered Students rose to nearly 2,000. I am sure you will feel in complete harmony with the statement made in the Report that the latter class of membership should be encouraged as much as possible. It is the desire of this Institute that all young men and women who are proposing to enter the profession of chemistry should be associated with the Royal Institute of Chemistry. It is perhaps pertinent therefore to ask those coming into personal contact with young men and women who are engaged in chemical work to encourage them to become Registered Students if they are not so already.I wish to congratulate the Institute on the very considerable activities of its London and provincial Sections. I have been abroad for a great many years and I think it is just possible that I have not received all the papers sent to me partly on account of moving about and partly because of faulty war-time mails but I have been much impressed during the last two years since I have been home at the extraordinary range of activities which take place in the provincial and London Sections. I greatly admire the work they do because as one who has been frequently associated with the organisation of clubs and societies I know what a tremendous amount of labour it involves.The lists of tours lectures and entertainments which have been organised by all Sections of the Institute show much selfless and well-directed effort. The overseas centres also report progress with the possible exception of India which however is in a state of reorganisation. India and Pakistan were visited by our former President Professor Findlay last year and he has returned with proposals for increasing their interest and making their Sections more active than they have been in the past. A Committee has been formed to foster that objective. Another field of the Institute’s work on which I feel felicitation is due is the organisation of the Appointments Register. It is most useful for chemists who are seeking suitable employment to be able to come to their parent institution and to be given assistance in finding a suitable post.Through such a channel as the Appointments Register which must be linked with all depart- ments of education and industries in which chemistry is a prime factor the Institute is in a position to be of great value in directing or advising Fellows or Associates seeking new employment. The Directory of Consulting Chemists is also a very useful publication. [ 228 1 ,411 these activities on which we should congratulate the President and the Council have been developed with the assistance of a willing and competent staff. I am sure I shall be only echoing the wishes of those present if I say how much we as a body appreciate the devotion which the secretarial and other staff have shown to the lnstitute and its interests.(Applause.) I second the adoption of the Report. THEPRESIDENT: The Report is now open for discussion. MR. A. L. BACHARACH: On a purely formal point I take it that we are being asked to adopt the Report as amended in the manner indicated by the Hon. Treasurer a few moments ago? There being no discussion the motion for the adoption of the Report of the Council was put and carried unanimously. ELECTION OF OFFICERS GENERAL MEMBERS OF COUNCIL AND SECRETARY CENSORS FOR I ~~~-SO.-THE read the following report of the Scrutineers:-“We have examined the voting papers and report as follows:- The number of valid voting papers received for the election of Officers was 1,973.The number of valid voting papers received for the election of General Members of Council was 1,968 and the votes were cast as under:-Leslie Herbert Lampitt 1,581; William hlurdoch Cumming 1,528; George Macdonald Bennett 1,472; Harry Baines 1,427; Frederick George Mann 1,424; Douglas William Hill 1,402; Ralph Clark Chirnside 1,397; Herbert William Cremer 1,382; George James Denbigh 1,373; Louis Hunter 1,371; Norman Booth 1,332; Harold Cecil Smith 1,330; Herbert Newton Wilson 1,326; Cyril Clifford Addison 1,325; Samuel Harry Jenkins 1,313; Freder-ick Measham Lea 1,310; Harold Burton 1,295; Frank George Young 1,280; Raymond Renard Butler 1,279; Wilfred Herbert Linnell 1,279; John Gaius Ashwell Griffiths 1,268; Frederick Percy Dunn 1,264; Mamie Olliver 1,256; Sir William Thomas Griffiths 1,243; Walter Idris Jones 1,239; Frances Mary Hamer 1,230; Harry Weatherall 1,201; Ernest Harry Rodd 1,187; David James Gibbs lves 1,103; Paul Frederic Holt 892.The number of valid voting papers received for the election of Censors was 1,873 and the votes were cast as follows:- Alexander Findlay 1,662; Gerald Roche Lynch 1,638; Sir Ian Morris Heilbron 1,457; William Wardlaw 1,357; Lewis Eynon 915. The following voting papers were disallowed according to the By-Laws:- 2 from Fellows and Associates whose subscriptions were in arrear; 6 in un-signed envelopes. The total number of papers received was 1,983.” THE PRESIDENT: I now formally declare the following to be duly elected to the specified offices:- President J.W. Cook. Vice-Presidents (6) F. Challenger H. Krall R. P. Linstead G. Roche Lynch J. A. Oriel E. T. Osborne. Hon. Treasurer D. W. Kent-Jones. General and District Members of Council (42) C. C. Addison H. Baines G. 31. Bennett H. E. Blayden N. Booth F. C. Bullock H. Burton R. R. Butler R. C. Chirnside H. W. Cremer W.M. Cumming G. J. Denbigh F. P. Dunn C. Forrester A. C. Francis J. G. A. Griffiths Sir William T. Griffiths Frances M. Hamer C. W. Herd D. W. Hill L. Hunter S. H. Jenkins E. M. Joiner W. Idris Jones L. H. Lampitt F. M. Lea A. G. G. Leonard W. H. 229 3 Linnell B. D. W. Luff T. Malkin F. G. Mann J. T. Marsh Mamie Olliver I. A. Preece H. C. Smith R. B. Strathdee D. Traill H.Weatherall W. D. Williams C. L. Wilson H. M. Wilson F. G. Young. Censors (4) Alexander Findlay Sir Ian M. Heilbron G. Roche Lynch W. Wardlaw. A vote of thanks to the Scrutineers proposed by the President was carried with acclamation. VOTE OF THANKS TO THE RETIRING OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.-PROFESSOR R. A. MORTON:It gives me very great pleasure to propose a vote of thanks to the retiring Officers and Members of the Council for two reasons one is because I represent the inarticulate majority of the Institute who are unable to get to Annual General Meetings (I think this is my first since 1930) and another is that I think all of us Fellows and Associates are completely satisfied with the way the Council conduct the affairs of the Institute.I am one of the very few who has to be satisfied because as an Examiner. I am ineligible to do anything about it. I think we can say very safely that if rather more than 80 per cent. of the Fellows and Associates of the Institute fail to return their ballot papers there cannot be any active dis- satisfaction with the way in which the Institute is run. To put it in a more positive manner my feeling about the vote is that the members of the Institute have very great confidence in the Council. Most of us know that some of the things the Council does not do are almost as important and as wise as the things the Council does do. Many of us hope that the Censors will have nothing to do but we know that they have a great responsibility. I think I may say on behalf of all Fellows and Associates that we very greatly appre- ciate the services which have been given to the profession by the retiring members of Council and I would like to propose a very hearty vote of thanks to them.MR. GEORGE KING I would like to second that vote of thanks to the retiring members. Some of us who have served on the Council have been very proud to have served on a body which is perhaps one of the most businesslike of the councils serving chemists not only in this country but also elsewhere. \Ve do get things done without a lot of talk. It is some time since I was on the Council so I think I can say to those retiring members that we are very very grateful for the work which they have done; they have I know their own reward in the joy which it has always been to serve on the Council.I heartily second the vote of thanks to the retiring members. The vote of thanks was carried with acclamation. ELECTION OF AUDITORS.-THE PRESIDENT: The next business is to elect the Auditors and to fix the remuneration (if any) thereof. I will take first of all the present Auditors Mr. E. Q. Laws and Dr. I<. A. Williams. They are as you know Honorary Auditors. I am very pleased indeed to move from the Chair that they be re-elected. The proposal was carried with acclamatioiz. THEPRESIDENT: I now move that hlessrs. J. Y.Finlay Robertson and Co. Chartered Accountants be re-elected and that they be appointed at a fee of one hundred and fifty guineas. I have much pleasure in seconding that.The Auditors THE TREASURER do a very good job of work; they spend quite an appreciable amount of time at the Institute watching my activities and those of others. I am certainly very pleased to second the proposal. The proposal was put to the meeting and carried. MR. E. J. VAUGHAN: I have very great pleasure in proposing a vote of thanks to the Auditors. I am not going to say anything about their work; 230 1 I think all members know what good work they do. We have a large yro- gramme in front of us this afternoon and so I will very sincerely thank the Auditors for the work which they have done. The vote of thanks to the Audators was carried. SPECIAL BUSINESS ITEM I-RESIDENTIAL CLUBS FUND. THEPRESIDENT: That concludes the ordinary annual business and I now pass to the special business.Let us first of all deal with motions (1) and (2) which I think we can quite easily take together. The Treasurer has already mentioned this question of Homes for Old People and the question of the method of finance which is now made possible through our new Charter. These two motions are accompanied by an explanatory memorandum setting out how we are going to deal with the matter. I now formally move:- (1) That the Council of the Institute be and are hereby authorised under the powers exercisable by the Institute under or by virtue of the new Royal Charter approved by His Majesty the King in Council on 4 March 1949 as and when such new Charter niay be granted to establish a Charitable Trust to be known as the Resi- dential Clubs Fund for the purpose (inter alia) of assisting &s may be thought expedient or desirable a Charitable Scheme known as Crossways Trust Limited or any other similar organisation constituted with the object of providing resi- dential houses and other accommodation and facilities for the benefit of persons who by reason of age or infirmity and the inadequacy of their means are in need thereof and in particular for the purpose of providing and maintaining or assisting in providing and maintaining such accommodation and facilities for members and former niembers of the Institute their wives widows and dependent relatives under a new Trust Deed to be framed in such terms and to contain such provisions as may be apfiroved by the Council of the Institute.(2) That pending the subscription of suficient monies to be provided by members of the Inslitute and others for the proposed new Trust to be known as the Residential Clubs Fund for the purposes of the said Fund the Council of the Institute be and are hereby authorised in exercise of the powers vested in the Institute under or by virtue of the new Royal Charter when granted to make available for the time being from the general funds of the Institute to the said Residential Clubs Fund when established (subject to repayment without interest out of such subscription monies) such sum not exceeding a total of L6,OOO as will enable that Fund to carry out any arrangements whereby the whole or part of such money may be subscribed or advanced to Crossways Trust Limited or other similar organisation to be applied for the benefit of members or former members of the Institute their wives widows or dependent relatives who are in need as aforesaid upon such terms as the Com-mittee administering the said Fund may approve.THE TREASURER I think the only thing you will want to hear from me is about the residential clubs scheme; we are really getting on with this project. We have joined in a Trust and the first club will be established in the very near future. A number of professional societies have got together and we have of course to provide funds. Very broadly speaking-you must not take this figure as exact-something like L1,OOO will be wanted to get a home for one elderly person.In order to get the thing going the Council decided to advance-and I emphasize the word “advance”-fl6,000 from Institute funds but we shall very shortly be launching a general appeal on behalf of this very excellent idea and that appeal being successful,-and we have every reason to believe it will be successful-then the Institute will be reimbursed. We are not appealing for annual subscriptions on behalf of these residen- tial clubs; we are appealing for a capital sum; and I do hope that when the appeal is made everybody will search their hearts to see what capital sum the! [ 231 3 can give in the same way as when we started up the Benevolent Fund. Then also. as we cannot hope to get quite all the money necessary you will have the alternative of giving money on loan at a fixed rate of interest so that instead of leaving your money in the Post Office Savings Bank or something else you can get similar interest possibly more (I have got to be very careful about “possibly more”) by advancing the money to something in which your own professional Institute is really interested.That gives you the broad picture. It differentiates clearly between the annual income which we want for the Benevolent Fund and this capital sum which we want for the homes for elderly people. That we shall get a fair amount of money for capital I have no doubt at all; we have already been promised sums. I myself feel when we make the appeal many people will give donations and more people will add to those donations much larger sums on which they will receive interest.That is the broad picture and the matter will be gone into in more detail later. THEPRESIDENT: The motions are now open for discussion. There being no discussion the motions were put and carried unanimously. SPECIAL BUSINESS ITEM 2.-AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS 43 AND 49. THEPRESIDENT: I now pass to the third motion. At a recent meeting of the Council it was decided to put this important resolution on the Agenda; there is again an explanatory memorandum. I now formally move That under the powers exercisable by the Institute under OY by virtue of the new Royal Charter when granted By-Law 43 of the By-Laws of the Institute be amended by adding to the existing By-Law after the words “any British subject” the words “or any citizen of Eire” and By-Law 49 of such By-Laws be amended by adding to the existing By-Law after the words “any British subject” the words (‘orany citizen of Eire,” such amendments to come into operation and take effect as soon as the same shall be allowed by the Lords of His Majesty’s Most Honour- able Privy Council.The motion is now open for discussion. DR.M. A. PHILLIPS: In view of the rather confused legal interpretation of the position of the citizens of Eire and in view of the fact that there has been no legal ruling given whatever and no precedent established in the Courts as to the standing of citizens of Eire under the Act which was passed by the Southern Ireland Government and its interpretation in Westminster I presume this resolution has been gone over extremely carefully by our own legal advisers and that there will be possibilities of having it amended if there is any alteration or definition made in British law between now and the next Annual General Meeting.THEPRESIDENT: I can assure you that it has been gone into with the utmost care. We are informed that this resolution is quite in order and so far as any future modification is concerned I should very much doubt whether this will be necessary. At the present time all people of British nationality are eligible. All we are doing is to make it possible for citizens of Eire to be eligible. If any juggling with Acts of Parliament makes the Irish British citizens again they then are doubly entitled to be members of the Institute.Ever since the Institute was in existence we have had Irish members and now simply because of the drafting of our By-laws we have not to exclude those who are already members but would have to exclude future ones. All we are asking you to do is to open the door whereby those future ones may come amongst us. MR. C. L. CLAREMONT: You have very skilfully skated over it all if I might venture to say so but the By-Laws say “any British subject.” In view of certain things that have happened in the last forty-eight hours we do not know 232 1 exactly what a British subject is and we certainly do not know what a citizen of Eire is. I am not being funny; it is perfectly correct. The British National- ity Act does not say “a citizen of Eire though not a British subject shall nevertheless not be an alien.” That is not what the British Nationality Act says at all.It says for certain purposes they will not be regarded as aliens. In view of all the circumstances that have arisen since the Council no doubt considered this matter I think this motion ought to be withdrawn or at any rate postponed until a future occasion. After all you cannot say as is stated here “the present proposal is not therefore to be regarded either as establishing a precedent for or as prejudicing the subsequent consideration of the admis- sion of citizens of any other State.” It does establish a precedent If you do this you cannot contract in on one thing and out on another. Sir Stafford Cripps himself in another connection said “YOUcannot have your cake and eat it.” Why should the Irish? I have nothing against the Irish as such as citizens of Eire but this seems to me to be a very very difficult legal and to some extent political matter which has been brought up.I personally feel very strongly that it should not have been proposed to-day and that it should be either withdrawn or postponed. MR. A. L. BACHARACH: I take the diametrically opposite view if only because it is entirely news to me that anything done in connection with Ireland can possibly constitute a precedent for anything. (Laughter.) We need to show a little common sense in this matter especially as we are a body of pro- fessional men. I might even dare to say scientific professional men but for some of the remarks I have heard.What we are asked to decide is whether or not we wish certain English-speaking chemists living within a clearly defined area to be members of our own professional institution. We are advised by our lawyers that we can agree to do this if we wish and I am sure that most of us do wish it. Questions about nationality and membership of the British Commonwealth and other constitutional and legal questions have nothing to do with us and we ought not to decide them even if we had any power to do so. We are not asked to create a precedent but to decide a specific issue. Let the future look after itself and let us pass this motion. DR. J. G. FIFE:It is with great regret that I oppose anything put forward by you Sir but on this matter I feel very strongly.Ever since this Institute has been founded it has bcen a fundamental rule that to be a member of the Institute you must be a British subject. In my opinion the status of a British subject is a very honourable one it carries with it certain responsibilities and it carries with it certain privileges. I see no reason why those privileges should be shared by citizens of Eire whose Government has chosen to leave the Commonwealth. (“Hear hear.”) We cannot object to them leaving the Commonwealth but as Mr. Claremont has said they cannot have their cake and eat it. The British Nationality Act of 1948 was passed before Eire became a Republic and I think there is very grave doubt as to the opinion expressed by the Government of the United Kingdom that these people are not aliens.May I say in that connection I am not alone. There was a letter in The Times and in the Daily Telegraph from Serjeant Sullivan K.C. a very distinguished Irish lawyer who stated specifically that in his opinion he was now an alien and he could no longer practise in the Courts in the United Kingdom. There are at least two possible interpretations. I do not think if we failed to pass this resolution we would be doing any injustice to members who are citizens of Eire because a citizen of Eire can declare himself a British subject; he may have to give up being a citizen of Eire but he has that alternative. There is one last point; if we pass this resolution it may well be a definite affront to our loyal members who are resident in Ulster; those men and women of that Province have sided with this country in good times and bad and I would not [ 233 1 like to have anything done by this Institute which may be interpreted as an affront to those of our members who are resident in Ulster.(Applause.) PROFESSOR J. W. COOK May I say a word in support of this resolution. It seems to me that the issue is perfectly clear and simple. ilie are not con- cerned with interpretations of the British Nationality Act. The only issue is “Do we or do we not want to allow our friends on the other side of the Irish Sea to remain in the Institute and to allow our colleagues as chemists an oppor- tunity to come in?” We understand they would like to remain associated with our Institute.Do we on this side of the Irish Sea wish to keep them in the Institute? I think that most of us do and therefore we should pass this resolution. MR. K. F. INNES: I am in sympathy with Dr. Fife and Mr. Claremont and not with our friends on the other side of the water whom we would normally like to see in the Institute but who are part of a body of people who denied us the rights of using the Irish ports in the Great War which was really sub- mitting us to a rather severe risk. Again there is the point about the people who belong to Northern Ireland; they evidently would be exactly in the same position as people in the South. We know that there is great feeling on this. A MEMBER:They are equally good Fellows. Mr. R. F.INNES: As Field Marshall Smuts said “You cannot be in the British Empire and not at the same time.” If our friends across the water have decided to leave the British Empire then I am afraid they have forfeited their right to expect membership of our professional bodies. Mr. HAROLD I do not think it is germane to the matter that we STEVENSON should raise political issues. Speaking for Manchester Manchester men have enough common sense to know what this motion is supposed to do. I accord-ingly support the motion. PROFESSOR Anyway the colleagues of ours whom we F. CHALLENGER wish to retain as members are probably in any circumstances not responsible -having far too much to do to bother with politics-for the rather Gilbertian situation which has arisen.MR. C. L. CLAREMONT I cannot call it Gilbertian as the last speaker did. But this resolution says that you will amend two By-Laws by adding “or citizen of Eire” if you read the By-Laws it says “that the Council may elect as Fellows.” I do not think your resolution affects those that are already Fellows. That is quite clear may I say that at once. The people THEPRESIDENT who are already members remain members. It is a question of new members only. MR. C. L. CLAREMONT: In that case there is all the more reason for not having this resolution. I can only suggest one alternative which you might prefer. In these days when so much is being thrown down the drain why not delete the words “British subject” and insert say “any person” in your By-Laws? The motion was put to the meeting and was carried.MR. H. 11. THORNTON: Might I say a word of thanks? I did not intervene in the discussion because I felt that in anything bearing on political factors I was starting at a very great disadvantage. It is the right of every citizen to criticise his Government to his heart’s content so long as he is at home but when he is abroad I think it is his duty to refrain from such criticism. It would be equally quite improper for me as a visitor to this country to criticise any decision of the British Government. I would therefore have found myself entering this discussion virtually gagged which is no way for any self- respecting Irishman to enter a political discussion! I do want to say a word of [ 234 1 thanks to the Council for dealing with this difficulty in the way they did when it arose and to this meeting for having passed this resolution.In the Dublin Section we are members because we want to be members of the Institute we want to continue to be members and we want those who follow us to have the same opportunities as we have had. On a point of order it is rather important. Might I DR. M. A. PHILLIPS suggest that the Council might consider between now and the next meeting or perhaps before then the position of those who are and will be subjects of the Government of India? THEPRESIDENT: May I say straight away that that is quite outside the purview of this meeting but if you like to write to the Secretary and ask him to bring it to the notice of the Council I have no doubt that can be considered in due course.THEPRESIDENT: It is now my duty to read to you my Presidential Address. MY. G. Roche Lynch then delivered his Presideiitial Address (see p. 164). THEPRESIDENT: In conclusion I would like to say a few words about the officers who have contributed so much to my term of office. I would especially express my grateful thanks to our Honorary Treasurer; knowing something of the labour which he has put into the Institute’s financial affairs and the success he has achieved I would give you one word of advice and that is to hold on to him and not to let him go. I would mention with gratitude the work he has done for the Sections and the complete examination that he has made of our finances which has not only resulted in an increase of the capital value of our assets but an increase in the interest therefrom To the Secretary and the Registrar I desire to pay the warmest tribute and to say with feeling that no President has had more loyal support and both have given of their best to the welfare of the Institute.bliss Cawston is very well known to you and words fail me to express my admiration for her whole-hearted work for the Institute. I well remember in 1928 when I first became an examiner seeing Miss Cawston busy on the top floor where the examinations were held cleaning beakers and doing all those things which are necessary for the conduct of a practical examination. I do not think that there is anything she would shirk doing if she felt that it was for the good of the Institute.I would desire to mention her contribution to the preparation of the Register which as I have said has been a hard task because without her knowledge and experience coupled with hard work this would have been an almost impossible task. Mr. Raymond relatively a newcomer has contributed much to the Institute’s affairs and the work on the improvement of the Journal may be attributed largely to him. I think that this sphere of his activities will be of the greatest importance. To Mr. Winder and Mr. Arnold and indeed to all the office staff I would express my appreciation and would say that I should doubt if any organisa- tion is better served and has a more loyal band of workers. There remains to mention my successor Professor Cook.I would offer my personal congratulations to him and I am sure that I can add those of the meeting here to-day but I would especially congratulate the Royal Institute of Chemistry on his acceptance of this office. Cook needs no tribute from me as you all know full well his remarkable career and I feel that the Institute in future years will be proud to record that one of its Presidents was Cook. would remind him that one of his predecessors in the Regius Chair of Chemistry at Glasgow was George Gerald Henderson also a Past President of the Institute so he has a standard to live up to. Professor Cook may I in my final words this afternoon say that I wish you every success and that I will do anything in my power to help you? i 23.5 .PROFESSOR J. W. COOK:May I thank you Mr. President-or should I say Mr. Past President because I am not quite sure at this moment just who is President?-very sincerely for the very kind terms in which you have referred to my election. I have already thanked the Council for doing me the very great honour of nominating me to this high office in the Institute and I should like now to give my sincere thanks to the members for confirming the nomination by electing me. I realise that it is in some measure a tribute to the office which I hold in the University of Glasgow. As you have just reminded me a predecessor in that office was in his day a very highly esteemed President of the Institute and on looking around one finds that the Scottish Universities have made a not insignificant contribution to the activities of the Institute; your own predecessor whom we are very glad to have amongst us this afternoon was Professor Findlay of Aberdeen.I was interested a few hours ago in looking at the original Charter which is displayed on the table of the Council Room to see that one of the original Vice-presidents of the Institute was John Ferguson who was the predecessor of George Gerald Henderson at Glasgow. This is a time of particular significance in the affairs of an institution such as this Institute. You in your address have drawn our attention to some of the important changes which have taken place and which must be considered. It is too early yet to see what is the appropriate answer to some of the problems which are confronting the Institute and which are going to confront the Institute.One thing is however quite certain and that is that the Institute is going to grow in stature and in influence. I should now like to express thanks to you on two counts; on the one hand for your service as President during the last three years and on the other hand for the delightful address to which we have just listened. I need say very little about your activities; those who are members of the Council and Com- mittees know them well. Ladies and gentlemen the Institute has been very fortunate in having had the guidance of Dr. Roche Lynch during these past three years. He has presided over the deliberations of the Council always in a very kindly manner and yet with firmness when occasion demanded giving us advice and pointing out to us occasions as Professor Morton said when some- times it is wiser to take no action at all than to do something.One of our Vice-presidents who is here this afternoon when he heard of my nomination to the office of President gave me some advice and warned me that I must not attempt to bully the Council. Dr. Roche Lynch never did that-and I am sure no President ever attempted to bully the Council-but by his guidance and wisdom he was always able to lead the Council. It is a matter of congratulation that we shall continue to have the benefit of his advice because he will remain as Vice-president. In regard to his Presidential address we have listened to it with great pleasure; the information which he has given us was very interesting and the way in which he has drawn attention to some of the many very important probleJns which will confront us and which we shall consider was very helpful.I shall not dwell on this any longer but ask you to express in the usual way your appreciation of the services of Dr. Roche Lynch during the last three years and of his Presidential address. (Applause.) The vote of thanks was carried with acclamation. THEPRESIDENT: Thank you very much for that very kind ovation. There is just one other thing. It is clearly my duty and I am sure you will agree with me that we should ask the Secretary to convey to the Univer- sity of London our grateful thanks for the use of this Hall this afternoon.The proceedings then termiyzated. OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF COUNCIL 1949-50 PRESlDENT JAMES WILFRED COOK PH.D. D.Sc. Sc.D. F.R.S. VICE-P RESlDENTS FREDERICK CHALLENGER PH.D. D.Sc. HANS KRALL B.A. MSc. REGINALD P.4TRICK LINSTEAD C.B.E. M.A. D.Sc. F.R.S. GERALD ROCHE LYNCH O.R.E. M.B. B.S. D.P.H. JOHN AUGUSTUS ORIEL c.B.E. ni.c. M.A. BSC. ERNEST THOMAS OSBORNE O.B.E. M.A. HON. TREASURER DOUGLAS WILLIAM KENT- JONES B.Sc. PH.D. MEMBERS OF COUNCIL CYRIL CLIFFORD ADDISON PH.D. DSc. F.INsT.P. Nottingham. HARRY BAINES D.Sc. HON. F.R.P.S. London. GEORGE MACDONALD BENNETT C.B. Sc.D. F.R.S. London. HERBERT EDWARD BLAYDEN B.Sc. Newcastle upon Tyne and North-East Coast (including Tees-side) .NORMAN BOOTH B.Sc. PH.D. London. FREDERICK CECIL BULLOCK B.Sc. East Midlands and South Yorkshire. HAROLD BURTON PH.D. D.Sc. London. RAYMOND RENARD BUTLER M.Sc. F.I.I.A. Liverpool. RALPH CLARK CHIRNSIDE London. HERBERT WILLIAM CREMER C.B.E. M.Sc. M.I.CHEM.E. London. WILLIAM MURDOCH CUMMING O.B.E. D.Sc. M.I.CHEM.E. Glasgow. GEORGE JAMES DENBIGH M.Sc. Leeds. FREDERICK PERCY DUNN B.Sc. A.R.C.S. London. CHARLES FORRESTER K-i-H. PH.D. A.H.-W.C. F.INsT.F. A.M.I.CHEM.E. F.R.S.E. The Overseas Dominions and Elsewhere Abroad. ARTHUR CLARENCE FRANCIS A.H.-W.C. Yorkshire (including Leeds Area and Huddersfield) . JOHN GAIUS ASHWELL GRIFFITHS B.A. PH.D. London. SIRWILLIAM THOMAS GRIFFITHS D.Sc. F.INsT.P. London. FRANCES MARY HAMER M.A. D.Sc. Sc.D.London. CLIFFORD WALTER HERD BSc. PH.D. London and South-Eastern Counties and East Anglia. DOUGLAS WILLIAM HILL PH.D.. D.Sc. Manchester. LOUIS HUNTER PH.D. D.Sc. Leicester. SAMUEL HARRY JENKINS PH.D. D.Sc. Birmingham. ERIC MILLWARD JOINER BSc. A.C.I.S. Birmingham and Midlands. WALTER TDRIS JONES B.Sc. PH.D. M.I.CHEM.E. London. LESLIE HERBERT LAMPITT D.Sc. M.I.CHEM.E. London. FREDERICK MEASHAM LEA O.B.E. D.Sc. Walford. ALFRED GODFREY GORDON LEONARD B.Sc. PH.D. F.R.C.Sc.1. Eire. WILFRED HERBERT LINNELL PH.D. DSc. :London. BERNARD DUNSTAN M’ILKINSON LUFF Liverpool and North-West Coast. THOMAS MALKIN PH.D. D.Sc. Bristol and South-Western Counties. FREDERICK GEORGE MANN Sc.D. D.Sc. F.R.S. Cambridge. JOHN THOMPSON MARSH M.Sc. F.T.I. Manchester and District.MAMIE OLLIVER M.Sc. Cambridge. ISAAC ARTHUR PREECE M.Sc. PH.D. Edinburgh and East of Scotland. HAROLD CECIL SMITH MSc. PH.D. Coventry. ROY BROWN STRATHDEE O.B.E. T.D. M.A. B.Sc. PH.D. Aberdeen and North of Scotland. DAVID TRATLL B.Sc. PH.D. Glasgow and West of Scotland. HARRY WEATHERALL Liverpool. WILLIAM DIJDLEY WILLIAMS B.Sc. A.M.I.CHEM.E. M.INsT.PET. Wales and the County of Monmouth. CECIL LEERUKN WILSON M.Sc. PH.D. Northern Ireland. HERBERT NEWTON WILSON Middlesbrough. FRANK GEORGE YOUNG PH.D. D.Sc. F.R.S. London. [Place names in italics refer to registered addresses of General Members oj Council; Roman lettering is used to indicate tevritories represented by DiscVict Members of Council.] 237 > CENSORS 1949-50 THE PRESIDENT ex-officio ALEXANDEKFINDIAY CBE MA D.Sc LLD SIR IAN'MORRIS HE~LB'KON~ F.R.S.6.s.o"Dsc *LL.~.; GERALD ROCHE LYNCH. O.B.E.. MTB.. B.S.. D.P.H. ' ~. WILIAhI WARDLAW C.B:E. D.Sd. ~ COMMITEES FOR 1949-50 COMMITTEES OF COUNCIL Finance and House Committee THE PRESIDENT AND THE HONORARY TREASURER* WITH H BAINES J. G. A. GRIFFITHS c. w. HERD D. w. HILL H. KRALL w. H. LINNELL i;. ROCHE LYNCH hl. OLLIVER AND J. A. ORIEL. Nominations Examinations and Institutions Committee THE PRESIDEST G. ROCHE LYNCH*, E. T. OSBORNEt AND THE COUNCIL IN COMMITTEE. Publications and Library Committee THEPRESIDENT WITH F. CHALLENGER* F. P. DUNK C. W. HERD D. W. HILL L. HUNTER S. H. JENKINS E. hl. JOINER €3. D. W. LUFF T. hIALKIN M. OLLIVER AND c.L. WILSON. Special Purposes Committee THEPRESIDENT* THE HON. TREASURER AND E. T. OSBORNE WITH AS MAY BE INVITED BY THE CHAIRMAN SUCH OTHER MEMBERS OF COUNCIL TO PARTICIJLAR MEETINGS. STANDING COMMITTEES OF THE INSTITUTE Advisory Committee on Indian and Pakistani Affairs H. B. DUNNICLIFF A. FINDLAY C. FORRESTER H. KRALL* E. T. OSBORNE AND SIR JOHN SIMONSEN. Appointments and Economic Status Committee THE PRESIDENT N. BOOTH R. P. LISSTEAD* J. A. ORIEL E. T. OSBORXE and F. G. YOUNG WITH SUCH OTHER MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE AS MAY BE INVITED BY THE CHAIRMAN TO PARTICULAR MEETINGS. Benevolent Fund committee THEPRESIDENT AND THE HON. TREASURER* WITH THE FINANCE AND HOUSE COMMITTEE D. M. FREELAND AND E. hl. HAWKINS. Residential Clubs Fund Committee THE PRESIDENT AND THE HON.TREASURER* WITH THE FINANCE AND HOUSE COMMITTEE (MISS) E. A. M. BRADFORD AND E. M. HAWKIKS. Scientific Courses Committee F. CHALLENGER* WITH THE PUBLICATIONS AKD LIBRARY COM- MITTEE C. C. ADDISON N. BOOTH C. FORRESTER F. M. HAMER W. H. LINSELL I. A. PREECE AND D. TRAILL. AD HOC COMMITTEES OF THE INSTITUTE Committee on Revision of By-Laws. THE PRESIDENT* WITH A L BACHARACH L V COCKS G E DODDS A. FINDLAY E. M. JOINER D. w. KEB+-JONES H. KRALL G. 'ROCHE LYNC'H E. T. OSBORSE. Membership Committee THEPRESIDENT AND THE CHAIRAIAS OF THE PUBLICATIOXS AND LIBRARY COMMITTEF (F CHALLENGER*) WITH L V COCKS A FINDLAY C W HERD E M JOIVEK w. IDRIS JOSES G. ROCHE LY'KCH T.' M'ALKIN 'R.' B. STKATHDEE' D. TR~ILL,'AND 'F. R WILLIAMS. Patents Committee D.H. HEY* W. H. BALLANTYNE F. B. DEHN G. DRIKG AND J. G. FIFE. * Indicates Chairman. t Indicates Vice-chairman. REPRESENTATIVES OF THE INSTITUTE ON JOINT COMMllTEES The Chemical Council (for 1949) R. C. CHIRNSIDE A. FINDLAY G. ROCHE LYNCH AND THE HON. TREASURER. Joint Council of Professional Scientists H. W. CREMER A. FINDLAY SIB WILLIAM GRIFFITHS R. P. LIh'STEAD AND THE SECRETARY. Joint Library Committee (for 1949) A. L. BACHARACH H. BURTON H. W. CREMER AND A. FIKDLAY. Joint Committee of the Institute and the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists J. F. J. DIPPY A. FINDLAY G.ROCHE LYNCH E.T. OSBORNE R. W. SUTTOK E. J. VAUGHAN WITH THE REGISTRAR. Joint Consultative Committee of the Institute and the British Association of Chemists A.L. BACHARACH J. W. COOK J. A. ORIEL AND E. T. OSBORNE WITH THE SECRETARY. Joint Committee with the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers on Contracts of Service N. BOOTH R. C. CHIRNSIDE J. F. J. DIPPY A. FINDLAY J. T. MARSH J. A. ORIEL E. T. OSBORNE F. ROFFEY W. WARDLAW AND F. R. WILLIAMS. Joint Committees on National Certificates (a) with the Ministry of Education (England and Wales) H. V. A. BRISCOE R. C. CHIRKSIDE, H. W. CREMER A. FIKDLAY AND J. A. ORIEL. (b) with the Scottish Education Department J. W. COOK G. 1;. DODDS AND K.B. STRATHDEE (c) with the Ministry of Education (Northern Ireland) A. K.ADA!%@S AKD C. L. WILSOS. ; 238 ; REPRESENTATIVES OF THE INSTITUTE ON OTHER BODIES The Parliamentary and Scientific Committee (for 1949) A.FINDLAY AND H. J. T. ELLINGHAM The Poisons Board (Pharmacy and Poisons Act. 1933) Statutory Appointment G. KOCHE LYNCH The Advisory Committee appointed under the Therapeutic Substances Act 1925 D. H. HEY U.K. Food and Agriculture Organisation Consultative Committee A. L. BACHARACH The Headmasters' Employment Committee of the Ministry of Labour K. L. COLLETT The National Committee for Chemistry of the Royal Society E. T. OSBORNE. The British National Committee of the World Power Conference J. G. KIXG The Chemical Divisional Council of the British Standards Institution G. M. BENNETT The British Chemical Ware Manufacturers' Committee dealing with Key Industries (Scientific Equipment and Materials) A. H. COOK The Oils Fats and Waxes Advisory Committee of the City and Guilds of London Institute W.H. SIMMONS The Chemical Trades Advisory Committee and the Chemical Trades Examination Board of the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes D. W. HILL. BOARD OF EXAMINERS FOR THE ASSOCIATESHIP AND FELL0WSHIP 1949-50 Chairman THE PRESIDENT Representatives of the Nominations Examinations and Insfitutions Committee G. M. BENNETT H. BURTON F. CHALLEKGER AND W. H. LINNELL. Examiners for the Associnteship D. H. HEY B.Sc. Ph.D. (LOND.) M.Sc. (WALES) D.Sc. (MANC.) THOMAS GIBSON PEARSON Ph.D. (DUNELM) DSc. (LoND.) Examiners for the Fellowship *Branch A.-INORGANIC CHEMISTRY: WILLIAM WARDLAW C.B.E. D.Sc. (DUNELM). *Branch B.-PFYSICAL CHEMISTRY:R. G. W. KORKISH hl.A.Sc.D. (CANTAB.) F.R.S. CHEhfIsTRY D. H. HEY B.Sc. Ph.D. (LoND.) h1.k. (WALES) *Branch C.-~RGANIC D.%. (MANc.). Branch D.-BIOCHEhiISTRY R. A. MORTON Ph.D. D.Sc. (LIv.). Branch E.-THE CHEMISTRY INCLUDING h1ICROSCOPY OF FOOD AND DRUGSAND OF WATER GEORGE PH~RMACOLOCYMICRO)SCOPY C. H. HAMPSHIRE TAYLOR 0 bE. THERAPEUTICS AND C.M.G. M.B.' B.S. B.Sc. (LoND.)) hl.R.C.S. L.R.C.P. Branch F.-AGRICULTC.RAL R. 0. DAVIES M.Sc. (WALES). CHEMISTRY Branch G.-~NDVSTRIAL (GENERAL W. PRESTON hf.Sc. Ph.D. CHEMISTRY CmhircAL TECHNOLOGY) (LoND.) h1.I.Chem.E. Examiners in the special sections of Branch G will be appointed as required. CHEMISTRY: Branch H.-GENERAL ANALYTICAL R. C. CHIRNSIDE AND J. HASLAM M.Sc. (VICT.). AND THE TREATMENT AND TRADE W. GORDON CAREY.Branch WATER SUPPLY OF SEWAGE EFFLUENTS Oral Examinations H. V. A. BRISCOE D.Sc. (LoND.),Chairman; J. R. NICHOLLS C.B.E. D.Sc. (LoND.). * For candidates accepted under the old Regulations. HON. AUDITORS 1949-50 EDWARD QUEXTIN LAWS B.Sc. KENNETH ALAN WILLIAMS B.Sc. Ph.D. M.Inst.Pet. AUDITORS 1949-50 MESSRS.J. Y. FINLAY ROBERTSOX & CO. Charfered Accountants. SOLICITORS MESSRS.MARKBY STEWART & WADESONS 6 Bishopsgate London E.C.2 BAN KERS THE WESTMINSTER BANK LTD. Bloomsbury Branch 214,High Holborn London W.C.1 SECRETARY HAROLD JOHANN THOMAS ELLINGHAM B.Sc. 1'h.D. (LoND) A.R.C.S. M.I.Chem.E. F.I.M. F.R.I.C. REGISTRAR RONALD LESLIE COLLETT M.B.E. M.A. (CANTAB.) F.R.I.C. DEPUTY EXECUTIVE OFFICER LEONARD WILLIAM RAYMOND I.S.O.B.A. BSc. (LoND.) A.R.C.S. F.R.I.C. PRINCIPAL ASSISTANT SECRETARY ISABEL CAWSTON ASSISTANT SECRETARY ASSISTANT REGISTRAR D. A. ARNOLD A.C.I.S. L. W. WINDER DATES OF COUNCIL MEETINGS FRIDAYS 20 MAY 17JUNE 16JULY 21 OCTOBER 18 NOVEMBER 16DECEMBER 1949;20 JANUARY 17 FEBRUARY 17 MARCH 1950. [ 239 THE SOCIAL SIDE OF THE ANNIVERSARY CELE BRATIONS (Contributed by a member of the London and Soutlt-Eastern Counties Section of the Institute.) When we look back in a few years’ time and think about the emergence of our lives from the drabness of war to a gayer and more graceful era the Annual General Meeting of 1949 and its associated functions will have a prominent place in our memories. The business side of the two-day pro- gramme is described elsewhere but it is inevitable that the excitements of official transactions and debates should be the province of that minority who at the time are taking their turn at guiding the Institute’s affairs.It was a happy and significant feature of the social events of the 1949 Anniversary that they served as a stage for the Institute as a whole. The success achieved has put the Institute in the debt of its friends first amongst whom must be reckoned its own servants. The staff of the Institute it was quite evident had surpassed themselves in energy and skill to make possible the entertainment of the members. Anyone who has had anything to do with the management of large-scale social events must have been struck by the apparently effortless smoothness of the arrangements.This means staff work of the first order. To the authorities of the University of London also must go abundant thanks. A very large part of its premises was placed at the disposal of the Institute its servants co-operated closely with the Institute staff and every- thing was done to surround the visitors with cordiality and dignity. While members were attending the Annual General Meeting in the Senate House of the University in the afternoon of 29 April a large party of their ladies-including many from outside London-went to a Dress Display kindly arranged by the British Rayon Federation at their house in Upper Grosvenor Street. Here they saw a wide range of modern fabrics displayed as apparel for diverse occasions or as furnishings.This interlude was greatly enjoyed and thanks are due to the Federation for organising such a fine display and for entertaining the party to tea. In the evening of Friday 29 April more than 500 members of the Institute and their ladies were received at a Conversazione in the Senate House by the retiring President Rlr. G. Roche Lynch and Miss S. B. Roche Lynch and by the President-Elect Professor J. W. Cook and Mrs. Cook. The guests proceeded up the magnificent ceremonial stairs to be received and then-guided by members of the Committee of the London and South- Eastern Counties Section who kindly acted as stewards-inspected the many rooms of Senate House which had been opened. Many features of the building attracted attention particularly the large decorative map of London in the Chancellor’s Hall on which are shown the locations of the various schools of the University The University Library was open and special collections of rare and interesting bindings were displayed.The range of books drawn to the attention of the guests must be taken as a compliment to their taste paid by the University Librarian a compliment all would be happy to acknowlcdge. Later the company moved to the MacMillan Hall for refreshments. A most attractive and generous buffet supper was served prepared entirely in the University’s own canteen. Every guest received constant and courteous attention from the University’s servants throughout supper. The Institute’s ow-n buildings were open at the same time.The coldness of the night may have prevented some of the members from crossing the courtyard but those who did were able to see much of the background to the Institute’s organisation. There was an excellent display of charts showing how the Institute has grown and how its members are distributed. The staff stayed on the whole evening to answer questions and there could be no doubt in the mind of anyone who went round that the Institute is fortunate in its permanent staff of all ranks. Throughout both University and Institute buildings the floral decorations were in excellent taste. If one is to sum up the Conversazione in one impression it is of the academic aspect of the Institute’s life. For once the vigorous pursuit of everyday affairs was left behind and the members refreshed their minds by assuming the cloak of dignity for a short hour.It is altogether proper that they should do so. Oq Saturday 30 April there was a number of visits to prominent labora- tories. The warmest thanks are due to the Director of the Chemical Research Laboratory Teddington and to the Directors of Glaxo Laboratories Ltd. United Dairies Ltd. and The General Electric Company Ltd. for the hospitality provided. A wide range of chemical work was seen at each labora- tory. For example at the Glaxo Laboratories Mr. A. L. Bacharach and Dr. Macrae explained the functions of the laboratories and then showed the visitors work on synthesis of thyroxine radioactive tracers in penicillin and many physical methods of analysis.Here as elsewhere the tour was most enjoyable and informative and the hospitality generous. One feature marred all these functions-there were quite a few empty places. Seeing that many more requests had been sent in than could be met it seems a pity that those who changed their minds did not return their tickets so that others who had been disappointed in the ballot for places could have gone. On Saturday the Honorary Secretaries’ Conference was held. A notable service that these conferences have rendered the Institute of recent years is that they have eliminated that feeling of difference of outlook between London and the Provinces which was once so much in evidence. The meeting takes the form generally of friendly round table discussion with one’s mind solely on the interests of the Institute and of the profession of chemistry.An opportunity for more intimate discussion between individual Hon. Secre- taries and the Officers was provided during luncheon and at one or two small tea parties held after the conference. Again the arrangements made by the organisers were excellent. The Annual Dinner and Dance at Grosvenor Home was altogether delightful. Mr. Roche Lynch who was the Chairman and Miss Roche Lynch again received the guests. A telegram was sent to His Majesty the King Patron of the Institute in the following terms “May it please Your Majesty the President Council and Members of the Royal Institute of Chemistry assembled at their Annual Dinner tender their loyal and respectful greetings to Your Majesty and express their grateful thanks for the new Charter which Your Majesty was graciously pleased to grant to the Institute on the fourteenth day of this month.” During the course of the evening the following reply was received from His Majesty’s Private Secretary and was read to the gathering “The King sends his sincere thanks to the President Council and Members of the Royal Institute of Chemistry dining together this evening for the kind message of loyal greetings.His Majesty as Patron of the Institute wishes it all prosperity under its new Charter.” As at last year’s luncheon the speeches were few pointed and not too serious. In proposing the toast of The Royal Institute of Chemistry Lord Goddard Lord Chief Justice of England said that what mattered at a dinner was not r 241 1 what the food was like but what the man sitting next to you was like.He had never previously met the Institute but in the Courts they had a great admiration for its President. Mr. Koche Lynch had been a familiar figure there for many years he had been one of the most helpful witnesses one of the fairest witnesses and one of the most dangerous witnesses to cross-examine. He (Lord Goddard) always advised young men going in for the Law never to cross-examine Koche Lynch if they could help it-he was so dangerously fair1 Lord Goddard said he was delighted to have met so many members of the Institute and he wished it every success. Mr. G. Roche Lynch replying said that he was profoundly grateful to Lord Goddard for advising young men not to cross-examine him! He was very pleased and proud to have been President of the Royal Institute of Chemistry for the past three years.He had started as a medical man and later when the Institute received him into its fold he had vowed to do everything possible for its welfare. He had held some office in the 1nst:tute for the past 21 years and he looked forward to two more years’ service as a Vice-president. He was very glad that the Institute held these Anniversary Meetings. Last year’s meeting in Birmingham had been a great success and he hoped they would continue to hold them in London and in the large provincial cities in years to come. They did a great deal of good; they told the public what chemists were and what they stood for and brought home to everyone the importance of chemistry in every phase of daily life.Referring to the Presidential Badge which he had worn for the first time on the previous day Mr. Roche Lynch thanked all those who had so generously given the materials and their services to create such a unique and valuable jewel.* He then handed over the Badge to Professor J. W. Cook the new President amid loud applause. Professor Cook rising to propose the toast of “The Guests,” thanked Mr. Roche Lynch for the manner in which he had handed over the Badge to him. He recognised that the retiring President had set a standard difficult to attain. During the period of his Presidency the Institute had gone from strength to strength.They were delighted that so many distinguished guests had honoured them with their company. The Lord Chief Justice had given them much encourage- ment. Very many sister institutions were represented. They welcomed particularly the Vice-Chancellor of the University of London which had extended to them such generous facilities on the previous day. Professor E. C. Dodds Master of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries replied. It was a great privilege to respond for the guests a privilege he assumed was his because of the antiquity of the Company he represented He had enjoyed many years of friendship with the retiring President and with the incoming President. He thought the Institute was wise to have hospitable functions such as this it was important that occasions of this kind should be continued.Dancing followed to bring to a close a very successful programme. Those members who were fortunate enough to be in London for the Anni- versary will agree that it has again advanced the standing of the Institute and contributed to the closer union of its members. No community can be static nor can its advance be promoted solely by concentration on pro-fessional matters. The social aspect is subsidiary but essential. This year all those who were responsible for the programme and its execution deserve the praise and commendation of the whole Institute. * A description of the President’s Badge of Osee will be included in the next issue of JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS. [ 242 ] PROCEEDINGS OF THE COUNCIL Council Meeting 18 March 1949 Constitutional and Administrative Matters.-The Council learned with great satisfaction that at a meeting of the Privy Council held on 4 March H.M.The King had been pleased to approve the grant of a new Charter to the Institute in substitution of the original Charter of 1885 and the Supplemental Charter of 1944 and that the grant of the new Charter might be expected to be made before the Annual General Meeting of the Institute. The thanks of the Council were accorded to Professor Findlay for having taken the initial steps towards obtaining the new Charter and for having taken a leading part during his Presidency and since in furthering this important project. Professor Findlay described the new Charter as a landmark in the history of the Institute and referred particularly to the great opportunities it would provide for advancing the profession of chemistry.He expressed the hope that removal of any territorial designation from the title of the Institute would open up a wider scope for service to qualified chemists throughout the British Commonwealth and perhaps even beyond. At the request of the Dublin and District Section consideration was given to the position of citizens of Eire who were no longer ips0 facto British subjects as regards their eligibility for admission to membership or studentship of the Institute. Following discus- sion it was resolved by a majority to submit to the Annual General Meeting on 29 April a resolution to amend By-Laws 43 and 49 by adding the words “or citizen of Eire” after the words “British subject.” (See minutes of the Annual General Meeting p.232.) The thanks of the Council were accorded to Mr. H. G. A. Anderson for the valuable services he had rendered to. the Institute as Hon. Secretary of the Glasgow and West of Scotland Section over a period of many years. It was noted that he would be succeeded in that office by Mr. W. G. D. Wright. The Council learned with satisfaction that steps were being taken to constitute the new South-Western Counties Section and that there was a move to form another Local Section of the Institute centred on Dundee. A report was received that all the Fellows nominated by the Council as Officers and General Members of Council and Censors (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1949 11 122) had accepted nomina- tion.The following were appointed to act as scrutineers in connec- tion with the ballot for the election of Officers and General Members of Council:-Dr. K. G. A. Pankhurst Mr. H. S. Rooke and Dr. H. G. Smith. [ 643 ] On a report by an officer of the Building Research Station on means for improving the acoustics of the Council Chamber it was agreed that the furniture be re-arranged as soon as possible in accordance with the recommendations and that the thanks of the Council be accorded to Dr. F. M. Lea for obtaining the report. Finance House and Staff Matters.-The Report of the Finance and House Committee (14 March) was largely concerned with the presentation of the financial statements for the year ended 31 December 1948 and a draft of the relevant section of the Annual Report of the Council.Recommendations on certain proposed modifications in the form of the Balance Sheet and resolutions relating to transfers to reserve accounts and “special activities accounts” and to the depreciation of certain assets were adopted. The section of the draft Annual Report of the Council dealing with Finance House and Staff matters was approved. Other parts of the Report of the Committee dealt with a pro-visional budget for 1949; membership matters including the removal of seven Associates who were in arrear with their annual subscrip- tions and had not replied to repeated requests for payment; a recommendation to purchase a new addressing machine; an estimate of the cost of display charts to be exhibited at the Anniversary Meetings.The Council adopted a recommendation of the Committee that in future any balance remaining in the accounts of a Local Section at 31 December in a given year be not deducted from the annual grant paid to the Section in respect of the ensuing year. It was recognised that this decision would enable Local Sections to use funds unexpended in any year towards financing their activities in the following year and thus give greater latitude to Section Committees in organising their programmes over successive years. It was agreed that in view of the improved scale of annual grants recently adopted and of this new concession Local Section Com- mittees should be able to keep expenditure within the amount of the funds available to them and should not endeavour to organise more events than could be effectively run with their resources.Only where there were exceptional reasons why a Local Section should incur expenditure beyond those resources should they expect to receive any supplementary grant. Applications for supplementary grants for such exceptional purposes should be made in advance and would be considered on their merits. Benevolent Fund.-The Report of the Benevolent Fund Com- mittee (14 March) referred inter alia to:-financial statements for the year ended 31 December 1948; draft of the Section of the Annual Report of Council on the Benevolent Fund; current cases; Residential Clubs for Old People.2-44 A loan of l15 was made to a Fellow in temporary financial difficulties due to impending change of occupation. The case of the widow of an Associate with four children two of school age and two who had only recently taken employment was reviewed in the light of further information on help being given by other members of the family and on the health of the two younger children. It was agreed that the regular grant previously made to the widow be maintained but that the case be kept under con-tinuous review owing to the probable failure of one of the other sources of support. It was agreed to continue for a further month a small grant to the wife of an Associate who had been in hospital following a nervous breakdown and had now resumed work but was not in a position fully to maintain his wife and children.The Council adopted a recommendation of the Committee that resolutions be submitted to the Annual General Meeting authorising the establishment of a Residential Clubs Fund under a new Trust Deed and giving power to the Council under the new Charter to transfer from the general funds of the Institute to the Residential Clubs Fund such sum as would enable that Fund to meet its im- mediate obligations until adequate resources had been secured from members and other well-wishers (see p. 231). It was agreed that on the adoption of these resolutions by the Annual General Meeting an appeal be made for financial support for the Residential Clubs Fund and that the Officers be charged with drafting such an appeal for issue at an appropriate time by the Residential Clubs Fund Committee to be set up to administer the Fund.Nominations Examinations and Institutions.-The Council received and adopted the Report of the Nominations Examinations and Institutions Committee (18 February) and an Interim Report of the Committee (18 March) and candidates recommended for election were duly elected to the appropriate grades. The name of the Borough Polytechnic London was added to the list of Institutions recognised for training candidates for the Asso- ciateship. The Council recorded its grateful appreciation of the work of Professor H. V. A. Briscoe retiring Vice-president as Chairman of the Sub-committee for Oral Examinations and expressed the hope that he would be willing to continue to act in that capacity.It was agreed that in this connection Professor Briscoe be appointed an Examiner. Mem bership.-The resignations of four Fellows and two Asso-ciates were accepted with regret. The deaths of three Fellows and two Associates were reported. [ 245 3 Status Privileges and Employment of Members.-The Council received a further report on steps being taken in conjunction with other bodies to further the interests of biochemists in hospitals. The concern of the Institute was not only with salaries but also with securing that hospital biochemists received such training as would enable them to give the best service in these appointments.It was agreed that Professor J. W. Cook and Professor F. G. Young be invited to act on behalf of the Council in further informal discussions with other bodies on these matters. A Special Committee was appointed to consider and report to the Council on the possibilities of closer co-operation with the British Association of Chemists in the interest of the profession with special reference to a report of the Joint Consultative Com- mittee of the B.A.C. and the Institute which had recently been presented to the Councils of the two bodies. Publications Library and other Educational and Scientific Matters.-The Report of the Publications and Library Committee (17 March) was largely concerned with the draft Report of the Council for 1948.Subject to certain minor amendments the draft Report was adopted for submission to the Annual General Meeting. It was resolved that subject to the concurrence of the Society of Maccabzans the Meldola Medal for 1948 be awarded to Ralph Alexander Raphael. On a report by the Assessor for the Sir Edward Frankland Medal and Prize 1948 that none of the six essays submitted by Registered Students was worthy of an award it was agreed that no award of of the Medal and Prize be made for 1948. Conclusion.-The President expressed thanks to the Officers and Members of Council for their co-operation and help during his term of office. Professor Findlay as one of the retiring Vice-presidents expressed on behalf of the Council cordial appreciation of the great work done by Mr.Roche Lynch during his Presidency which had been a period of outstanding advances in Institute affairs. The Treasurer voiced the thanks of the Council for the antique clock which the President had presented to the Institute and which had been mounted on the mantelpiece of the Council Chamber. Council Meeting 20 May 1949 Constitution al an d Ad mini strat ive Matte rs.-Great satisfaction was expressed at the fact that the new Charter had been granted on 14 April and had been available for exhibition to members at the Anniversary Meetings. It was resolved that copies of the new Charter be distributed to all corporate members of the Institute as soon as possible and that steps be taken to give publicity to the [ 246 ] amended title of the Institute and to make appropriate changes in the Seal.It was learned that the Committee on Revision of By-Laws was proceeding with its detailed work and a recommendation of the Committee that sections of the By-Laws dealing with “acts dis- creditable to the profession” be referred to the Censors for con- sideration and report to Council was adopted. The attention of the Committee was drawn to the resolution passed at the Annual General Meeting (see p. 232) to make citizens of Eire as well as British subjects eligible for admission as members or students of the Institute. On the understanding that the Committee was con-sidering the desirability of making any further relaxation of the nationality restriction on admission to the Institute it was agreed to refer to the Committee the following resolution submitted by the Dublin Section:- “That the Dublin Section recommends to Council that the new By-Laws be such that admission to membership of the Royal Institute of Chemistry be without nationality restriction.’’ The Council received the section of the Report of the Twentieth Conference of Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections dealing with suggested changes in the constitution of the Council (see p.264) and noted with satisfaction that there was general agreement with the proposals put forward by the Council and with a suggested scheme for giving effect to these proposals except as regards the nomination and election of District Members of Council and their period of service.It was agreed that this section of the Report be referred to the Committee on the Revision of By-Laws with the request that in preparing their report to Council they take due note of the recommendations made by the Conference. Following the unanimous decision of the Annual General Meeting (see p. 231) to establish a new charitable Trust for the Institute to be known as the Residential Clubs Fund consideration was given to the terms and provisions of the draft of a Trust Deed prepared by the Solicitors to give effect to the resolutions passed by the Annual General Meeting. The terms of the Trust Deed were approved and the document was signed and sealed. The President reported on the success of the Anniversary Meetings of the Institute held on 29-30 April 1949.A tribute was paid to the work of the Secretary in making the arrangements and of the Principal Assistant Secretary and members of the Institute staff in putting them into effect. The cordial thanks of the Council were accorded to the authorities of the University of London for making available the facilities of the Senate House for the Annual General Meeting and the Conversazione and to the Directors of the Chemical Research Laboratory Teddington Glaxo Laboratories [ 247 ] Ltd. The General Electric Co. Ltd. United Dairies Ltd. and the British Rayon Federation for giving permission for visits to their establishments and to their staffs for exhibiting features of interest to members. Grateful thanks were also expressed to the following members of the London and South-Eastern Counties Section of the Institute who had kindly given their services as Stewards at the Conversazione Mr.Stanley Stevens (Principal Steward) Dr. Joane H. Bowes Dr. J. G. F. Druce Dr. Frances M. Hamer Dr. C. W. Herd Mr. T. McLachlan and Dr. Ridland Owens. The thanks of the Council were accorded to Mr. D. W. Menzies for the valuable services he had rendered over a period of years as Honorary Secretary of the Aberdeen and North of Scotland Section. It was noted that he would be succeeded in this office by Dr. H. G. M. Hardie. Approval was given in principle to a proposed amendment of the Rule of the Liverpool and North-Western Section relating to the management of the Section and it was agreed that effect be given to this amendment pending the completion of a general revision of the Section Rules.The President reported that he had been present at the in- augural meeting of the South-Western Counties Section held at Exeter on 14 May and that the new Section was now formally const it uted. A petition was received from members in the Dundee area for permission to form a new Local Section to serve the Counties of Angus and Perthshire and that part of Fife lying north of Loch Leven and the river Leven. On the understanding that the proposal to establish this new Local Section had the support of the Com- mittees of the Edinburgh and East of Scotland Section and the Aberdeen and North of Scotland Section the petition was accepted and the provisional committee was authorised to proceed with the constitution of the new Section.From a report .of the Advisory Committee on Indian and Pakistani Affairs (23 March) it was learnt with some disappointment that proposals to form five Local Sections of the Institute in the Dominion of India had not been put into effect except as regards the Bangalore Section which had been fully constituted. Con-sideration had been given by the Committee to means whereby further action in this matter might be stimulated and it was agreed to recommend publication in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS of the substance of the report on the profession of chemistry in India submitted by Professor Findlay to the Council on his return from that country. On the advice of Dr.Fowler it had been agreed not to proceed with arrangements for holding an examination for the Associateship in India in 1949 but to consider at a later date the practicability of doing so in future years. [ 248 1 Dates of Council Meetings in the session 1949-50 were settled (see p. 239) but a decision on the date and place of the Annual General Meeting 1950 was deferred. The Council then proceeded to appoint Committees and their Chairman and representatives of the Institute on Joint Committees and other bodies for 1949-50 (see pp. 238-9). In making these appointments it was decided to make no substantial changes in the personnel of the three Ad Hoc Committees of the Institute as these Committees were about to complete important parts of their work and were in course of preparing reports on these matters for sub- mission to the Council.It was also agreed that in view of the great diversity of subjects that came up for consideration by the Special Purposes Committee and by the Appointments and Economic Status Committee it would be desirable to appoint only a small nucleus of members of these Committees and to authorise their Chairmen to invite others to particular meetings at which subjects in which they were specially interested were coming forward for discussion. Dates were fixed for meetings of those Committees that were accustomed to meet at regular intervals. Finance House Staff and Membership Matters.-The section of the Report of the Twentieth Conference of Honorary Secretaries dealing with Local Section grants was received and the views of the Conference stated therein were noted.The last annual subscriptions paid by two Fellows over the age of seventy were accepted as Life Composition fees. The congratulations of the Council were expressed to Mr. H. B. Weeks Fellow on his having completed over sixty years of member- ship. The deaths of five Fellows three Associates and two registered Students were reported. Charitable Funds.-A statement was received on the constitution of Crossways Trust Ltd. and on the allocation to the Institute’s Residential Clubs Fund of nominations for three residents in the first Club to be established under the Crossways scheme. Authority was given to lend L3,OOO from Institute funds to the Residential Clubs Fund pending the acquirement by that Fund of adequate resources to meet its obligations to Crossways Trust and to any other organisa- tions with which the Institute might become associated for the provision of residential accommodation for elderly people.It was agreed that the Residential Clubs Fund Committee be asked at its first meeting to prepare and issue an appeal for financial support for the Fund. Nomi nations Examinations and Instit utions.-The Council received reports of the N.E. & I. Committee (18March and 20 May) [ 219 ] including reports of the Sub-committee for Oral Examinations and of the Board of Examiners (11 May). Elections to the Associate- ship and to the Fellowship were made in accordance with recom-mendations contained in these reports.The Council learnt with satisfaction that Professor H. V. A. Briscoe had consented to continue to act as Chairman of the Sub- Committee for Oral Examinations. Status Privileges and Employment of Members.-A statement was received on the implications of new regulations made by the Ministry of Labour and National Service for the call-up of science and engineering students completing full-time studies in 1949. The effect of these regulations was likely to be to limit the number of qualified chemists becoming available in the near future for employ- ment in industry and in view of the urgent need for increasing the supply of such chemists in the interests of the production drive it was agreed to consult with other organisations concerned in considering action that might be taken in the matter.A letter was received from Dr. J. G. Fife referring to features of the Patents and Designs Bills which were likely to affect the interests of chemists and to the prospect of the amendment of certain objec- tionable features being made in Committee in the House of Lords. It was agreed to take up through the Parliamentary and Scientific Committee any outstanding questions when the Bill reached the House of Commons. Discussion took place on a report of the Special Committee of the Institute on relations with the British Association of Chemists (13 April). It was decided that discussions with the B.A.C. on the general question of closer co-operation between the two bodies be not pursued further at present but that the Joint Consultative Com- mittee be kept in being to deal with specific points raised by either of the bodies.A letter was received from the Honorary Secretary of the Cape Section drawing attention to the disadvantage at which members of the Institute in South Africa were placed through not being able to insert a “business card advertisement” in the publications of the South African Chemical Institute as members of that Institute were permitted to do. It was agreed to refer this matter to the Censors for consideration in their examination of the By-laws relating to ethical practice. Publications Library and other Educational and Scientific Matters.-The sections of the Report of the Twentieth Conference of Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections not previously discussed were received and the section dealing with the development of JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS was referred to the Publications and Library Committee.The Council endorsed a recommendation by the Committee of the Manchester and District Section that the Sixth Dalton Lecture be given in Manchester by Sir Charles Goodeve O.B.E. F.R.S. on 24 November 1949. A proposal was received from Mr. L. A. Wiles Associate for the of inclusion in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDIXGSinformation on the availability of unusual chemical substances required for research purposes. Proposals of this kind had been considered previously and the Council confirmed its earlier conclusion that the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS of the Institute would not be a suitable medium for the dissemination of such information even if arrangements for its collection could be made.Approval was given to recommendations of the Joint Committee of the Institute and the Ministry of Education on the endorsement of National Certificates in Chemistry and Applied Chemistry in connection with the extension of the National Certificate scheme to chemical engineering. External Relations and Publicity.-The Council accepted a pro-posal by the Chemical Council that for 1948 the net maintenance cost of the Chemical Society’s Library be divided among the constituent bodies on the basis accepted for 1946. The contribution of the Institute was 42.3 per cent.and the amount due from the Institute in respect of 1948 was Ll,l88 19s. 4d. A letter was received from the Chemical Council referring to an Interim Report of the Committee of Enquiry on Publicity for British Chemistry set up by the Chemical Council in April 1948. It was agreed that as the proposals relating to publicity by means of the press were such as to need detailed consideration decisions on the matter be deferred until the next meeting of the Council. Statements were received on conversations with Dr. A. H. Spong a former Chairman of the Cape Section and on correspon- dence with Mr. F. J. T. Grigg Chairman of the New Zealand Section on relations between the Institute and the corresponding Chemical Institutes in their respective countries.It was agreed that means for closer co-operation among Chemical Institutes in the Common- wealth be further explored. Minutes of a meeting (4 April) of the British National Committee for Chemistry (Royal Society) were received. The President agreed to accept an invitation from the Queen’s University of Belfast for a representative of the Institute to attend the commemoration of the centenary of the foundation of the University as Queen’s College Belfast to be held on 25-30 September 1949. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL COUNCIL Abstract of the Minutes of the Meeting held on 26 April 1949. 1. The Second Interim Report of the Committee of Enquiry on Publicity for British Chemistry was approved. 2. It was reported that the composition of the Chemical Advisory Panel for the Festival of Britain 1951 was as follows:-Dr.R. P. Linstead (Chair- man) Dr. G. M. Bennett Dr. F. H. Carr Dr. H. J. T. Ellingham Professor A. Findlay Sir Cyril Hinshelwood Professor E. I<. Rideal Dr. E. H. Rodd Dr. W. D. Scott. 3. Further consideration was given to a suggested Chemical Council appeal for funds for publication of scientific papers and for Abstracts and the maintenance of the Library of the Chemical Society. 4. The Council agreed to contribute the sum of L570 'is. 8d. towards the maintenance costs of the Library of the Chemical Society for 1948 and to ask the three Constituent Bodies the Faraday Society the Society of Public Analysts and other Analytical Chemists and the Biochemical Society to contribute towards thc maintenance costs for 1949 on the basis of membership with due allowance for overlap.5. Joint Student Facilities under the Joint Subscription Scheme were granted to four applicants. ACTIVITIES OF LOCAL SECTIONS Aberdeen and North of Scotland.-The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held in the University Union Aberdeen on 4 May with Dr. R. B. Strathdee in the chair. Mr. D. W. hlenzies resigned from the position of Hon. Secretary and Treasurer and a very hearty vote of thanks was accorded him for his services during the past four and a half years. The office-bearers for the forthcoming year were elected as follows:-Chair- man Dr. R. 13. Strathdee; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer Dr. H. G. M. Hardie; Hon.Auditor Mr. D. W. Menzies; Committee Dr. W. T. H. William- son Dr. M. B. Watson Dr. R. H. Thomson Messrs. J. E. Bowen E. A. Bradford and H. J. Gregson. No committee members from Dundee were elected in view of a proposal that Dundee and District should form a LocaI Section of the Institute separate from the Aberdeen and North of Scotland Section of which Dundee are at present members. On 5 May the Frankland Memorial Lecture which was originally delivered at Birmingham on 96 January was repeated by Dr. L. H. Lampitt at Univer- sity College Dundee. The chair was occupied by Principal D. N. Wimberley and at the close of the lecture Rlr. A Dargie proposed the vote of thanks. Belfast and District.-The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held on 30 March 1949 in the Royal Avenue Hotel and the following officers and committee for 1949-50 were elected:-Chairman Mr.A. N. Adamson; Hon. Treasurer Dr. W. Honneyman; Hon. Secretary Mr. C. S. i\lcDowell; Com- mittee Messrs. S. McConaghy B. S. Dunn R. Groves and J. McG. Jackson. On 5 May members visited the Ballyclare Paper Mills and were conducted on a tour of the Laboratories and Mill by RZr. P. Faichney who afterwards entertained them to tea. The thanks of the Local Section are due to Mr. Faichney who made the visit an outstanding SUCCCSS. [ 252 j The Local Sections of the Institute the Society of Chemical Industry and the Chemical Society held a meeting with the Micro-chemistry Group of the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists on 10 May.This joint meeting was very successful thanks to the efforts of Dr. C. L. Wilson who made all the arrangements. The following papers were read:-“Quantitative Inorganic Paper Chroma- tography,” by Dr. Alice Lacourt and co-workers read by Dr. Cecil L. Wilson; “Some Microchemical Problems associated with Plant and Animal Nutrition,” by Mr. Stewart McConaghy (Department of Agricultural Chemistry Q.U.B.); “The Microchemical Determination of Oxygen in Organic Compounds,” by Dr. W. T. Chambers (British Rubber Producers’ Research Association \Velwyn Garden City). Birmingham and Midlands.-Some 70 members attended the Annual General Meeting of the Section held on 30 March 1949 with Dr. H. C. Smith occupying the chair. The Committee’s Report which had been circulated and the Financial Statement were considered and duly approved.The new Committee was elected as follows:-Chairman Dr. H. C. Smith; Vice-Chair- man Dr. S. H. Jenkins; Treasurer Dr. D. 1%’. Parkes; Secretary Mr. E. M. Joiner; Committee Mr. G. Barnett Mr. F. G. Broughall Dr. H. Coates Miss R. M. Fentiman Mr. E. G. I<. Pritchett Dr. P. D. Ritchie Mr. Garfield Thomas Mr. L. A. Walker and Mr. R. J. Winterton; Assistant Secretary Mr. Frank Brown. Cordial thanks for their services were expressed to Mr. A. Churchman and Professor M. Stacey the retiring members of the Committee. Mr. J. H. Bennitt and Mr. S. A. M. Thompson were re-elected Auditors. At the conclusion of the business the film “htomic Physics” was projected. Judging by its enthusiastic reception the film was much enjoyed by an audience which by this time numbered more than 200.At a Section meeting held on 26 November 1948 Mr. E. M. Joiner Member of Council opened a discussion on “How can .Jourml and Proceedings be Improved ? ” Mr. Joiner said it was the desire of the Publications and Library Committee to recommend the improvement and enlargement of Journal and Proceedings as soon as circumstances were favourable and expressions of opinion by members would be helpful to the Committee in deciding future policy. The present Journal compared very well with its contemporaries but that did not mean that it could not be improved. A constructive critical approach was needed. The Journal was an important part of the Institute’s activities and had a wide publicity.It was a direct link between Council and the member- ship; indeed it could be used much more effectively than at present for this purpose. Often it provided potential members and students with first impressions of the Institute. If the present Journal was increased in size a part-time or full-time Editor would almost certainly be necessary. Some suggestions for improvement had already been made. These included (a)the introduction of professional matters of a controversial nature-and its corollary-a correspondence column (b) a feature on chemical education (c) the publication of notes on new chemical apparatus and other matters of this nature not included in other journals (d) the separate and more frequent publication of the more ephemeral matter.In the subsequent discussion the following suggestions were forthcoming (1) The proceedings of Council and local Committees should be more fully reported. (2) A larger type and a shorter length of line would be beneficial. (3) Book reviews should be included. (4) The Journal should be scrapped and essential material incorporated in Chemistry and Industry. (5)The impersonal tone of the Journal amounted to dignity run riot. (6) Page numbers should be [ 253 ] at the top. (7) Notes about prominent personalities in the chemical profession would be of much interest. (8) Overseas news would be welcome. (9) Safety precautions should be published. (10) Professional matters ripe for discus-sion should be ventilated in the Journal.Bristol and District.-All winter meetings of the Section were held jointly with The Chemical Society and the Local Section of the Society of Chemical Industry and with the exception of the special Gloucester events took place in the Chemistry Lecture Theatre of the University of Bristol. Attendances on the whole were very good with an average of 90 which justified the Com- mittee’s decision to hold meetings during the 1948-49 session at the later time of 6.30 or 7 p.m. On 13 January Dr. T. Malkin presided over a meeting at which Professor W. H. Linnell read a paper on “The Relationship between Constitution and Physiological Activity in Organic Compounds.” Following the lecture there was an excellent discussion and Mr.G. H. Moore proposed a vote of thanks. On 10 February Dr. F. H. Pollard local representative of The Chemical Society was in the chair and introduced the lecturer Dr. A. S. C. Lawrence of the University of Sheffield who spoke on “The Stability of Emulsions.” Following the discussion a vote of thanks was proposed by Dr. D. Eley. On 17 February the meeting was devoted to the Society of Chemical Industry Jubilee Memorial Lecture “Synthetic Fibres An Historical Survey of the Development of Some Synthetic Fibrous Materials,” which was delivered by Mr. H. V. Potter Chairman and Managing Director Messrs. Bakelite Ltd. Mr. E. H. Jones Chairman of the Local Section of the Society of Chemical Industry presided. As is usual with Jubilee Memorial Lectures there was no discussion.The vote of thanks was proposed by the Chairman. On 3 March Rlr. E. H. Jones again presided and two papers were read one on “Cider Fermentation,” by Professor B. T. P. Barker and the other on “Wine Fermentation,” by Dr. P. F. Fraser. Considerable discussion arose after the lectures largely as a result of the local interest in fermentation processes. The vote of thanks was proposed by Mr. L. H. G. Barton Secretary of the Food Group of the Society of Chemical Industry. On 17 March the Annual General Meeting of the Section was held. Dr. T. Malkin and Mr. F. P. Hornby retired from the Committee in rotation and Mr. R. Harrison (Gloucester) and Mr. E. G. Whittle (Bristol) were elected to fill the vacancies. Dr. T. Malkin as District Member of Council will remain an ex-officio member of the Committee.Mr. B. W. Minifie was re-elected Hon. Secretary and Treasurer and hlr. H. S. Howes and Dr. H. J. Willavoys were re-elected Hon. Auditors. At a later date the new Committee elected Mr. E. Lewis as the new Chairman of the Section. Following the Annual General Meeting Dr. Malkin in the chair introduced Mr. A. L. U’addams of Shell Chemicals who spoke on “Synthetic Detergents.” Following an interesting discussion a vote of thanks was proposed by hlr. E. Lewis. On 25 March a “Careers” talk and Brains Trust was held at Gloucester Technical College Gloucester. The following members of the Institute took part:-Dr. T. Malkin Messrs. E. H. Jones G. H. Moore E. Lewis B. W. Minifie. Mr. R. Harrison Gloucester made arrangements at the College and 125 schoolchildren and others \+-erepresent in the audience.A full report of the proceedings will be found on p. 188. Also on 25 March a meeting was held in Urch’s Cafe Southgate Street Gloucester. About 25 members of the Institute The Society of Chemical Industry and The Chemical Society assembled to discuss the possibility of arranging meetings in north Gloucestershire during the coming winter session. Members of the Plastics Institute were also present. Dr. T. Malkin took the [ 254 ] chair and made a short opening speech in which he gave the reasons for the meeting and said that the Committee would be pleased to have suggestions from the members present. Mr. E. H. Jones Chairman of the Local Section of the Society of Chemical Industry spoke on behalf of that body and hoped that the North Gloucester group would be able to hold joint meetings in the same way as the main part of the Section at Bristol.The meeting was then thrown open to discussion. Mr. Ellis asked how many members there were in N. Gloucestershire and Mr. Collins suggested that the present gather- ing might be the number to be expected at any meeting. Mr. Tribley suggested that a sub-committee should be formed in the area and on the proposal of Mr. W. Harrison seconded by Mr. Aldred the suggestion was carried. An exploratory sub-committee with powers to arrange meetings for the next session was then elected-representatives of the three Chartered bodies and the Plastics Institute being suggested as constituent members.Those elected were :-Royal Institute of Chemistry Mr. R. Harrison ; Society of Chemical Industry Mr. H. T. Tribley; Chemical Society Mr. Bradley; Plastics Institute Mr. T. Halse. At the close of the meeting the members partook of buffet refreshments and this allowed time for informal discussion. Cardiff and District.-At the Fourteenth Annual General Meeting held on 13 May 1949 the following Officers and Committee were elected:-Chairman Dr. Julius Grant; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer Mr. G. Kerman; Hon. Auditor Mr. S. Dixon; Committee Mr. H. F. Adams Mr. S. J. H. 0. Chard Mr. G. H. Macadam Dr. N. M. Cullinane Mr. T. Evans and Mr. E. C. H. Lawrence. East Anglia.-On 4 March at Nonvich under the Chairmanship of Dr.Corran Mr. H. F. Bamford gave a lecture on “The Chemist in the Chocolate Industry.” (For summary see p. 223.) During the subsequent discussion criteria of quality the effects of lecithin in the mix and other aspects of the manufacture of chocolate were enlarged upon. At Ipswich on 11March Mr. E. 0.Philipps gave an interesting lecture on “Fatty Oils as Rau- Materials in Chemical Industry.” Mr. G. H. Whyatt occupied the Chair. The Annual General Meeting was held at Ipswich on 9 April when 25 members were present. The Hon. Secretary reported on the nine lecture meetings held during the session and thanked the members for their general support. The following Officers and Committee were elected for the forthcoming session:-Chairman Mr.R. S. Colborne; Hon. Treasurer Mr. T. P. Dee; Hon. Secretary Dr. J. Williams; Committee Dr. S. H. Edgar Messrs. B. J. Balfe H. F. Bamford F. Ellington H. A. Perry and P. J. Platt; Hon. Auditor Mr. G. H. Whyatt. A hearty vote of thanks to the retiring Chairman and members of Committe was proposed by the Hon. Secretary. Dr. Corran has been actively connected with the Section since its inception both as Secretary and finally as Chairman and Dr. Williams was able to testify from his own personal experience to the value of Dr. Corran’s efforts in both offices. The retiring members of the Committee (Dr. Swann and Mr. Cyril Hall) had also played their part and the good wishes of the Section were accorded Dr. Swann on his impending departure. Professor F.Challenger who attended the meeting gave an account of proposed improvements in the Journal and other publications of the Institute after which a discussion took place on these and other topics of general interest towhich Dr. C. W. Herd (District Member of Council) also contributed. The thanks of the Section to Professor Challenger voiced through Dr. Swann expressed the members’ appreciation of his visit. [ 255 ] East Midlands.-On 17 March a students’ symposium entitled “Careers in Chemistry” was held at Nottinghani Technical College. Dr. G. M. Dyson spoke on “Industrial Careers,” Professor L. Hunter on “Academic Careers” and Major A. Sumner on ‘‘Civil Service Careers.” Professor H. V. A. Briscoe Vice-president took the chair for this meeting which was attended by about 500 students and scholars.A full account of the symposium is on p. 185. On 31 hlarch at the Technical College Kottingham Dr. T. G. Pearson read a paper on “Physical Chemistry and Metallurgical Research.” A survey was given of the applications of physical chemistry to metallurgical problems arising from the manufacture of aluminium. The wide range of physico-chemical measurements described by the speaker offered ample scope for discussion which was both lively and searching. The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held in the Midland Hotel Derby on 28 April with Dr. H. H. Barber in the Chair. The following new Officers and Committee were declared:-Chairman Mr. F. C. Bullock; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer Mr. E. &I.Bavin; Committee Messrs. R. Davidson W. Hunter C. W. Korth G. F. Hall J. K. Rowlands C. F. IVard L. P. Priestley S. W. Atherley and Dr. G. M. Dyson. X lecture was then given by Dr. C. Whitworth on “Some Properties of Explosive Combustion in Gases.” During the discussion several speakers expressed the regret felt in the Section at the impending departure of Dr. Whitworth from the area and expressed the hope that he would return at some future date to talk to the Section on a similar topic. Edinburgh and East of Scotland.-Three meetings have been held in the hTorth British Station Hotel Edinburgh and one meeting in the University of St. Andrews in recent months. On 13 January Dr. T. K. Bolam Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh lectured on “Amphipathic Behaviour in Colloid Systems.” Mr.R. C. Chirnside spoke on 24 Feburary on the subject “Analytical Chem- istry Chemical Analysis and the Analyst.” The lecturer on 17 March was Dr. F. N. Woodward whose title was “Recent Trends in the Industrial Utilisation of Agricultural Products in North America.” These meetings were held in Edinburgh. On 25 February a very well attended meeting was held jointly with the University of St. Andrews Chemical Society in United College St. Andrews. Professor C. E. H. Bawn of the University of Liverpool gave a lecture entitled “Free Radicals and Hydrocarbon Chemistry” (for summary see p. 221). Members of the Section are asked to note that a Dinner-Dance has been arranged for the evening of Tuesday 29 November and will take place in Messrs.R. & T. Gibson’s Restaurant Princes Street Edinburgh. Tickets will cost 16s. each. Glasgow and West of Scotland.-The Annual General Meeting of the Sec- tion was held in the Royal Technical College Glasgow on 18 March 1949 under the Chairmanship of Professor J. W. Cook F.R.S. (Vice-chairman of the Section). The Minutes of the Annual General Meeting held on 27 February 1948 were read by the Secretary and adopted. Copies of the Committee’s report for 1948 had been circulated to all members and the Secretary added his thanks to the Secretaries of the other chemical bodies for their ready co-operation during the past year. The Secretary Mr. H. G. A. Anderson tendered his resignation and this being accepted the meeting elected Mr.G. W. Desmond \:right as the Hon. Secretary. [ 256 ] ’The new Committee was then declared as follows:-Chairman Mr. -4. I<. Jamieson; Vice-chairman Professor J. W. Cook F.H.S.; Hon. ’Treasurer Dr. A. C. Syme; Hon. Secretary Mr. W. C;. Desmond Wright; Committee Professor F. S. Spring Professor Hugh Nicol Professor J. Norman Davidson Dr. J. D. Loudon Mr. J. M. Malcolm Mr. D. M. Ross and Mr. ’CV. Watson. Dr. W. Good was re-appointed as Hon. Auditor. The Chairman paid warm tribute to the two retiring members of the Committee Mr. H. G. A. Anderson and Dr. J. C. Eaton. The meeting was then addressed by Professor J. Mi.Cook F.R.S.. who spoke on “The Fourth South American Congress of Chemistry,” giving a comprehensive survey of his experiences at the Congress.These proved most interesting as they were backed by historical and geographical sketches of the people and country of Chile. At the conclusion of the lecture acordial vote of thanks was expressed by 3lr. W.S. Ritchie. At a Committee meeting of this Section held on 5 April 1949 Mr. \Yilliam (;ibb Tvas appointed as Assistant Secretary. Huddersfield.-On 19 January in the Huddersfieltl Technical College Dr. G. M. Bennett C.R. F.R.S. gave a lecture entitled “Liquid Crystals.” The lecture was beautifully demonstrated and was an account of the unusual physical states of one-and two-dimensional order existing near the melting points of some organic compounds as manifested by the anisotropy of the melts.Members of the Sixth Form of Huddersfield College were welcomed to this lecture by the Chairman Dr. E. H. Goodyear. The vote of thanks to the lecturer was proposed by Mr. T. Ritchie and seconded by Mr. L. G. Cratchley. On 8 February at Fields Cafk. Huddersfield Dr. J. B. Firth Director of the North-Western Forensic Science Laboratory delivered a lecture entitled “Some Applications of Science in the Detection of Crime.” Members of the Borough Police Force were welcomed to this meeting. The lecture describing some of the methods by which criminal acts had been proved was copiously illustrated by lantern slides and lasted for about two hours. A vote of thanks was proposed by Mr. N. Hall seconded by Mr. Stopford and carried with acclamation. The 29th Annual General Meeting of the Section was held at Icields Cafe Huddersfield on 16 March.Dr. B. H. Goodyear presided. The reports of the Hon. Treasurer (Mr. T. Ritchie) and the Hon. Secretary clearly indicated the healthy interest of members in the Scctional activities. The attendance at the five meetings held during the Session was not less than one-third the Section membership and two Works Visits and the Annual Dance had been strongly supported. Mr. R. Raw and Mr. T. Waterton were elected to the Committee in the places of Mr. T. Hanson and Mr. H. S.Pink who retired by rule. The vote of thanks to the retiring committee members was proposed by Mr. T. Simmons. It was noted that an entry for the Sir Edward Frankland Medal and Prize had been received from a Student of the Section and on the occasion of this the first entry from the Huddersfield Section the Committee were anxious to draw the attention of all Students in the Section to this competition.There being no other business the meeting adjourned. Immediately following the Annual General Meeting there was held an ordinary meeting to which the Chairman (Dr. E. H. Goodyear) welcomed lady lisitors. A programme of scientific films was shown which gave to the visitors some indication of the industrial work of scientists and in particular chemists. Leeds Area.-.A Symposium on “Physical Methods in Chemical Analysis” was held at the Bradford Technical College on 19 March 1949. The meeting 957 which aroused very great interest antl was exceptionally well attended was organised by the Bradford Chemical Society with the support of the Leeds and Huddersfield Sections of the Institute the Local Sections of the Society of Chemical Industry the Society of Dyers and Colourists the Textile Institute and the Bradford Textile Society.The following papers submitted by local chemists were discussed :-“Polarographic methods in the analysis of com-mercial hydrosulphites and related compounds,” by W.Furness; “Polaro- graphic analysis of sodium ethylenediaminetetra-aceticacid (Trilon B) ” by W. Furness P. Crawshaw and \V. Cule Davies; “The use of the Spekker photo- electric adsorptiometer in the determination of dermatitic dyestuff -inter- mediates,” by R. L. Elliott R. €3. Bentley and Miss J. J. Burns; “-4pplication of optical crystallographic methods in qualitative analysis.” by N.H. Harts-horne; “Partition chromatography applied to the analysis of the structure of wool,” by S. Blackburn; “Determination of the composition of binary mixtures by a dielectric method,” by IV. R. Moore; “=\ ncn. apparatus for measuring the density of fibres,” by S. H. Mhatre and J. 31. Preston. An exhibition and demonstration of apparatus by contributors and well- known manufacturers was held at the same time and proved very popular. Liverpool and North-Western.-The Annual General Meeting was held in the Chemistry Lecture Theatre University of Liverpool on 7 April. The Chairman announced the Committee’s election of Chairman and Vice-Chair- man for the next session. Since there had been an excess of nominations over Committee vacancies a postal vote was necessary; the voting papers were scrutinised during the meeting and the results are given below.Officers of the Section were elected on individual proposals from the meeting. The Hon. Treasurer Mr. G. W.Beaumont who was retiring dealt with the financial side of the Section’s activities and reported the position as satisfactory particularly the recent arrangement under which the Section grant would be received at the beginning of the year. The Committee’s election of the new Treasurer was announced. An amendment was proposed to Section rule (3) which is concerned with the management of the Section. In the amended rule there is provision for the co-option of representatives from areas other than Merseyside.Officers and Committee for the forthcoming session are as follows changes being in italics :-Chairman J. F. Clark; Vice-chairman M. Crawford; Hon. Treasurer B. D. W. Lujf; Hon. Secretary J. Ashley-Jones; Hon. Assistant Secretary N. Heron; Hon. Recorder G. P. Gibson; Hon. Auditors L. V. Cocks and P. N. Williams;Ex-officio H. IVeatherall and R.R.Butler (Members of Council) B. D. W.Luff (District Member of Council); Committee T. P. Hilditch C. ?V. Matthews S. Paul L. J. Burrage E. Reid Frank J. Smith G. H. Turner G. W. Beaumont Frederick J. Smith and J. Sowler. Subsequent to this meeting Members of Council have been elected two of whom are in the Section. There are therefore two vacancies in Committee to be filled to serve the terms of Messrs J.I;. Clark antl H. Weatherall. At the conclusion of the business of the Annual General Meeting a short address was given by the Secretary of the Institute Dr. H. J. T. Ellingham under the title “Service to Chemistry and Chemists.” There was a brief discussion afterwards in which hfessrs. B. D. W. Luff G. H. Turner B. H. Chorley N. Heron G. Ikin and H. Pritchard took part. A vote of thanks was proposed by Mr. L. V. Cocks and seconded by Mr. P. N. Williams. A special lecture was held at Radiant House Bold Street Liverpool on 5 May. It consisted of a repetition of one Section of last November’s con- ference on “Origins and Prevention of Laboratory Accidents.” The lecturer was Dr. L. J. Burrage of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd.General Chemi- cals Division Research Department Widnes. The well illustrated talk was [ 258 ] followed by an intcrtal for tea. There was a small exhibition of safety equipment that had been developed in the Research Department’s labora- tories. In view of the special nature of the subject a number of visitors were present and were welcomed by the Chairman Mr. H. Weatherall. A most profitable discussion took place afterwards. Three of Dr. Burrage’s col- leagues-Mrs. Dickenson and Messrs. McConnell and Barton-testified to the efficacy of the safety measures in the I.C.I. Laboratories at Widnes and a number of relevant questions were asked and answered. Those who took part in the discussion were Messrs. H. Weatherall E. T. Williams A.D. Scott E. Myer Killcross Mills Hewitt G. H. Bottomley and R. S. Robinson. Subjects discussed included :-smoking in laboratories the handling of oleum rubber gloves as an additional hazard in dealing with oily liquids face masks for persons with glasses the state of cleanliness in the laboratory. 9Ir. C. If-. Matthews proposed and Mr. A. H. Johnson (Safety Officer Messrs. J. Bibby and Sons Ltd.) seconded a vote of thanks to Dr. Burrage for a most excellent lecture. Thanks was also expressed from the Chair to Mr. J. Ashley-Jones and Mr. N. Heron who had made the arrangements for the meeting. On 19 February a meeting was held at the Mining and Technical College Library Street Wigan. Owing to illness Professor Challenger was unable to be present and Miss M.I. Simpson lectured in his place under the title “Recent Work on some Sulphur Compounds in Plants and Animals” (for summary see p. 217). Mr. H. Weatherall Chairman of the Section introduced the lecturer. A brief discussion followed in which Messrs. Crosbie Winstanley Stuart and Harrison took part. Dr. M. Crawford proposed and Mr. Haigh a student of the College seconded a vote of thanks to Miss Simpson. Another meeting outside Liverpool took place on 2 March in the Muni- cipal Technical College Victoria Square JVidnes. hfr. Weatherall Chairman introduced Mr. J. F. Clark the Vice-chairman who discussed “Analytical Chemistry as a Profession.” vigorous discussion followed the lecture to A\ which Messrs. H. Weatherall X. Heron I;.R. Sherliker G.Stepto J. Ramskill and F. P. Johnson contributed. Mr. G. IT’hite proposed and Mr. I<. Housley seconded a vote of thanks to the lecturer. Several lectures have been arranged by the Liverpool Joint Chemistry Committee. Mr. V. Biske gave a lecture entitled “The Law and the Chemist,” on 26 January under the auspices of the British Association of Chemists. The Institute sponsored the lecture “Some Recent Studies in Diazo-Chemistry,” by Dr. H. H. Hodgson on 3 February (for summary see p. 208). On 12 February members of the Institute had an opportunity of hearing a lecture by Messrs. C. G. Hands and W. S. Norman on “Development in the use of Climbing Film Stills for Distillation of Heat Sensitive Materials,” arranged jointly by the Society of Chemical Industry and the Institution of Chemical Engineers Xorth-Western Branch.The Chemical Society arranged a special lecture on 24 February on “The Chemistry of Macrocyclic Molecules” by Professor Prelog. Finally a most comprehensive Demonstration of Scientific Apparatus was held on 30 March under the auspices of the British hssociation of Chemists. The series of lectures at Chester arranged jointly by the Institute of Petroleum Stanlow Branch the Royal Institute of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical Industry has been continued. Professor T. P. Hilditch gave a lecture on “Some Aspects of the Selective Hydrogenation of Fats” on 9 February (for summary see p. 214) and Slr. G. C. Eltenton lectured on 16 March under the title “Mass Spectrometric Determination of Free Radicles in Cracking and Combustion.” Members of the Institute were also invited to a number of lectures held outside Liverpool and arranged by the Society of Chemical Industry as [ 259 1 foll~Ju?,:-\\’isan 18 Januarj.“iLIicroclit.inica1 Method5 of .\naly4s,” b! 1;. 1’. Johnson; Lancastcr 21 January “Nitration,” by Professor C. I<. Ingold; Preston 2 February “The Use of the Infra-Red Spectroscope in Chemical Analysis,” by L. W. Morrison; Widnes 16 February “Vacuum Distillation,” by J. F. G. Winn; and Bangor 3 March “Some Aspects of the Mineral Nutri- tion of Crops,” by Professor T. \\‘allace. London and South-Eastern Counties.-Although we have in the past referred to the efforts which the Section Committee are making to extend their activities in outlying parts of the Section we did not appreciate the full extent of this expansion until wc saw the map illustrating these activities recently displayed at 30 Russell Square.Looking back over the Section’s programme we consider it significant that in a large number of instances the meetings have been held in conjunction with local scientific organisations. \Ye would for example include in this category the meeting on 8 March when the Section collaborated with the Welwyn Garden City Scientists’ Club to hear Professor A. .llbert deliver a paper entitled “I)rug-~Iction Ions and Neutral Molecules.” The Luton Scientific Association is another local association with which the Section enjoys cordial relationships as we were remined on 7 .lpril when the Section and the Association joined forces to hear Dr.E. Idester Smith on “Recent Developments in Biochemical Research.” The activities of the Kent Group have been discussed at some length in previous editions of these notes and once again we are pleased to report two meetings sponsored by this Group. On 31 March at Dartford Dr. E. C. \Vood spoke on the subject of statistics under the title of “Quantitative Common Sense and the Chemist.” On 25 April thc meeting at Gillingham was of particular local appeal to Kent chemists with Mr. R. Carter speaking on “Some Experiences of a Chemist in the Paper Industry.” 1,ondon and the suburbs can point to a varied series of meetings during March and April. It is surprising but nevertheless a fact that any talk on crime always attracts a large audience of peace-loving law-abiding citizens.-Maybe it’s the perpetual “schoolboy” in us whilst others lay the blame on that much maligned radio character “Dick Barton.” \Thatever the reason chemists seem to be no different from the rest of the community for a large audience attended at IYoolwich Polytechnic on 7 March to h~ar Dr. G. E. Tiirfitt speak on “Science in Criminal Investigations.” The Section’s annual joint meeting with the London Branch of the Institute of Physics was held on 16 March. The meeting was privileged to hear Professor F. J. XI. Stratton speak on “The Chemistry of Hot Stars,” followed by Mr. F. Hoyle on “The Physics of Hot Stars.” The meeting at nagenham on 22 March when 1)r.J. I.. lStlgar tleliverccl a paper on “3Iodern Methods of Organic Solvent Manufacture,” and that at Mitcham on 24 March when Dr. J. S. -\nderson spoke on “The Chemistry of Semi-conducting Solids” continued the high standard of meetings in London. It is our pleasant duty to report another joint meeting with the 1,ondon Section of the Society of Chemical Industry this was heltl on 4 April and was addressed by Dr. A. Forster on “Recent Developments in Explosives.” It has been the custom of this Section to hold a Symposium during April. This year two Symposia were arranged. The first on 30 March was a joint effort by the Section and the London Section of the British Association of Chemists and the 1,ondon Area Branch of the -\ssociation of Scientific Workers The subject discussed was “Part-Time Education in Chemistry.” Space does not permit us to do justice to this meeting but the importance attached to it both inside and outside the chemical profession may be judged by the space devoted to the report of the metting in the 7’inze.Y 1:‘tl~rafionalSupplemevi [ 880 ] The second Symposium very differen t in character but equally successful was held on 20 April and was devoted to “Standardisation in the Chemical Field.” The high standard of the papers delivered and the keen discussion produced a stimulating meeting.Manchester and District.-The -Annual General Meeting was held on 27 January 1949 at the Engineers’ Club Manchester. The Hon. Secretary Mr. .4.Carroll and the Hon. Treasurer Dr.E. Isaacs presented their reports reviewing the work and activities of the past session. The retiring Chairman Mr. S. R. Best after expressing his appreciation and enjoyment of his term of office introduced the new Chairman Dr. N. Burkhardt. Dr. Burkhardt in a graceful speech indicated the deep sense of honour which he felt in filling the position of Chairman. The Committee for 1949-50 is as follows:-Chairman Dr. h’. Burkhardt; Members of Council in the Section Dr. D. \V. Hill and Mr. J. T. Marsh; Members of Committee Dr. 31. Barak Mr. S. R. Best (late Chairman) Mr. Bolton Mr. H. M. Bunbury Dr. M. G. T. Burrows Dr. P. W.Cunliffe Mr. Dawson Dr. S. J. Fletcher Dr. A. E. M. G. Gillam Mr. Hill Mr. G. Osgood Mr. W.E. Portwood Mr. H. Stevenson Mr.Thomas Dr. P. F. R. Venables Mr. I;. Ward Mr. IYhiteley and JX. II-ilson; Hon. Secretary Ah-. A. Carroll Hon. Treasurer and :histant Secretary Dr. E. Isaacs. The eirening was rounded off in an interesting antl pleasant manner by a display of filmsthrough the courtesy of Imperial Chemical Industries Film Unit. At a subsequent meeting of the Committee the following Sub-Committees n-ere formed :-Lectures Dr. Burkhardt (Chairman) Dr. Barak lh. Hill Mr. \\-hiteley; Student ActilTities Dr. Venables (Chairman) Dr. Gillam IrIr. Osgood Dr. Ward Dr. Wilson Summer and Social Mr. Osgood (Chairman) Dr. Fletcher Jlr. llawson; l’ublicity Mr. Portwood (Chairman) Ilr. Cunliffe 31r. Thomas. .I very interesting lecture was given to a combined meeting of the three Charteretl bodies at the Engineers’ Club on 2.1 February.’The lecturer was Ik. l<.1’. Linstead C.B.E. F.R.S. Director of tlie Chemical liesearch Labora- tory (D.S.I.K.) Teddington and his subject “Some liecent Developments in Inorganic Chromatography.” The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides exhibits ancl demonstrations ancl the audience greatly appreciated the opportunity of seeing chromatographic separation processes carried out. Questions \\’ere numerous antl varied. Dr. Burkhardt xvas in the Chair and at tlic conclusion i-oiced the thanks of those present for a L-ery interesting lecture. Another joint meeting was held on 10 March Lvith llr. Rurkhardt in the (‘hair. l’rofessor M.Stacey of thc University of Birmingham xave an inter-csting and stimulating talk on “‘l’he Chemistry of the 1)eoxy Sugars,” his lucid exposition of his subject being greatly appreciated..Ispecial meeting for liegistered Students was held in the Reynolds Hall of tlie Manchester College of Technology on 28 March for the purpose of dis- cussing and encouraging student acti\:itics. Dr. Hurkhardt v-ho presided introduced Mr. J . ‘J. Marsh (Member of Council) 111-. Venables (Chairman of the Sub-Committee for Student Activities) the Hon. Secretary and other members of the Section Committee. The Chairman said that this was so far as he knew the first occasion on which liegistered Students had been invited to take an actii-e part in the Section’s programme and briefly outlined some ideas for consideration and discussion.Dr. Venables eniphasised the importance of the professional and ethical aspects of chemistry both before ancl after qualification and \vent on to suggest such ideas as a Student Advisory Service meetings at which Students would give papers on chemica1 subjects visits of both a social and technical nature essay competitions etc. It was apparent by the quickness of the response and the number of ideas put forward and questions asked that the Students welcomed most heartily the prospect of taking an active interest in the Section. Works visits political and social aspects of science examination facilities educational anomalies and the need for co-ordination of ancillary subjects were all discussed and finally three Registered Students-Mr. Burgess Mr.Harris and Miss Wood-were elected as Student Representatives on the Standing Sub-committee. The evening came to a pleasant close with a display of films through the courtesy of I.C.I. Film Unit. Mid-Southern Counties.-The Annual General Meeting of the Mid-Southern Counties Section was held at Bournemouth Municipal Technical College on ‘7 May 1949. About 50 members of the Section were present and the Chairman opened the meeting by giving details of the elections of the Officers of the Section which were ratified unanimously. The Chairman then gave an outline of the activities of the Section during the past year and the proposals for the coming year. The Hon. Treasurer read the Financial Report which was passed unanimously. Mr. A. R. Burkin Southampton and Dr.K. 13. Webb Southampton were elected Auditors. The Chairman asked for comments ur suggestions regarding the running of the Section. None being forthcoming the Chairman remarked that it would appear that the members were satisfied with the way the Section was being run. As there was no other business the business side of the meeting was declared closed. The Chairman then introduced Mr. li. C. Chirnside -1l.lernber of Council who gave a very interesting talk on “Analytical Chemistry Chemical Analysis and the Analyst.” This talk was very well received and a vote of thanks was proposed by Mr. G. H. Osborn who thanked Mr. Chirnside for coming down especially to give this very informative lecture. Tea was followed by a display of scientific films.Sheffield South Yorkshire and North Midlands.-On the afternoon of April a very interesting visit bv about 20 merpbcrs was made to the potter!- works of Messrs. Pearson and Co. (Chesterfield) Ltd. at JVhittington Moor. A tour of the works which lasted over 2 hours enabled the party to follow the production of many types of stoneuare articles in common domestic and commercial use. Such operations as clay preparation moulding methods firing and glazing were watched with keen interest but it was the magic of the potters’ art at the wheel which particularly caught the imagination of the onlookers. Some of the more decorative ware rarely seen in our shops to-day was also exhibited. After the party had made its round of the works Mr. Pearson on behalf of the Company welconied the visitors who were then entertained to tea.The concluding event of the afternoon was a lecture by Mr. G. W. 31.Kees Works Manager on “ Raw Materials and Manufacture of Stoneware Pottery,” in which he traced the historical development of the art of pottery and showed some very beautiful modern specimens. After the discussion the Chairman Mr. G. E. Speight called upon Ur. K. -4. Mott to move a vote of thanks which he did in his most able manner expres- sing on behalf of the visitors his appreciation of the hospitality shown and the great amount of trouble taken to make the visit a success. This was supported by the meeting with general acclamation. i 262 3 Tees-side.-The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held on 26 April.The composition of the new Committee is Dr. M. P. Applebey M.B.E. Mr. J. S. Blackburn Mr. E. A. Blench Mr. H. M. Lowe Dr. G. Milner Dr. A. Robertson Dr. A. \T. C. Taylor and Dr. F. R. Williams. The new Hon. Treasurer is Mr. W. T. Elwell. The following were re-elected to the offices named Hon. Almoner Dr. G. I. Higson; Hon. Auditors Dr. E. R. H. Davies and Dr. H. Evans; Hon. Secretary Dr. A. R. Martin. Votes of thanks were passed to the retiring Chairman of the Section Dr. M. P. Applebey and to the Officers and Committee for 1948-49 including the retiring members of Committee-Dr. -4.E. Callow Dr. J. S. Dunn Mr. G. S. Gowing Mr. J. L. Hewson and Mr. A. J. Prince-and the retiring Hon. Treasurer Mr. R. Parmella. At a subsequent meeting of the Committee Mr.E. A. Blench Works General Manager Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. Rillingham Division was elected Chairman of the Section. Dr. F. R. Williams was elected Vice- Chairman of the Committee Mr. -4.E. Rout was re-elected Hon. Recorder and Mr. W. T. Elwell was elected Hon. Assistant Secretary-. Cape of Good Hope.-A symposium on “The Pollution of Kivers,” Lvas presented at a meeting of the Section held in the Department of Chemistry University of Cape Town on 11 February 1949. Mr. A. L. Abbott Chair- man of the Section presided and about 80 members and visitors were present. Two papers were presented. The first by Dr. H. TVilson of the Water Treat- ment Section S.A. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research dealt with “Pollution of Rivers.” Dr.Wilson stressed the importance of making the most of South Africa’s meagre water resources by using the same water as many times as possible and quoted examples of what had been done in this direction overseas. He concluded by describing the C.S.I.R.’s plans for co-ordinating research on water treatment and sewage disposal in the Union. The second paper dealing with “The Fisheries Aspect of River Pollution,” was prepared by Dr. n. Hey of the Inland Fisheries Department Cape Province. As Dr. Hey was unable to be present the paper was read by Mr. Harrison. The symposium concluded with the showing of two sound films “Taken for Granted,” and “Clean Waters.” Members of the Section were invited to attend three meetings arranged by the Western Province Section of the South African Chemical Institute.The first of these was held in the Chemistry Department University of Cape Town on 25 November 1948 when Mr. IT. Seale-May General Manager of Marine Oil Refiners of Africa spoke on “Processing of Marine Oils.” The next meeting was held in the Athenaeum Trust Building Newlands on 27 January 1949. The speaker on this occasion was Professor G. C. Linder of the Department of Clinical Pathology University of Cape Town whose subject was “Chemical Methods applied to Clinical Medicine.” The third meeting was held at the *Athenaeum on 22 February when hh. C. C. Knock of the Metal Box Company of South .\frica gave a lecture on “The Bacteriological Problems Associated with the Preservation of Food in Cans.” Members of the Section were also invited to join an excursion to the Refinery of Messrs.Marine Oil Refiners of Africa at Simonstown. This was arranged by the Cape Chemical and Technological Society and took place on 19 February 1949. [ 263 j REPORT OF THE TWENTIETH CONFERENCE OF HONORARY SECRETARIES OF LOCAL SECTIONS 30 April 1949 at 10 a.m. The Conference was held in the Institute on the day following the Annual General Meeting. Present.-Professor J. W. Cook President in the Chair; hfr. G. Roche Lynch retiring President; Professor F. Challenger Vice-president; Dr. D. W. Kent-Jones Honorary Treasurer; Dr. H. G. AT. Hardie (Aberdeen and North of Scotland); Dr. S. I<. I<. Jatkar (Rangalore); Mr.C. S. McDowell (Belfast and District); Mr. E. M. Joiner (Birmingham and Midlands); Mr. R. \f-. Minifie (Bristol and District); Mr. G. 31. Kerman (Cardiff and District); Mr. H. D. Thornton (Dublin and District); nr. J. [Yilliams (East Anglia); Mr. 1:. >I. Bavin (East Midlands); Professor H. R. Sisbet (Edinburgh and East of Scotland); Mr. IY.G. D. Wright (Glasgow and \Vest of Scotland); Mr. 1:. -1. Crouch (Huddersfield); Dr. W.H. Pedelty (Hull and District); Mr. W. A. TYightman (J,eeds Area); Mr. J. Ashley-Jones (Liverpool and North-Western); Mr. T. McLachlan (Idondon and South-Eastern Counties) ; Mr. A. Carroll (Manchester and District); Mr. G. H. Osborn (Mid-Southern Counties); Dr. J. 0. Harris (Yewcastle upon Tyne and Xorth-East Coast); Dr. J. W.Barrett (Xorth Wales); Mr.K. C. Barraclough (Sheffield South Yorkshire and North Midlands); Mr. E. E. Ayling (South Wales); Dr. A. K. Martin (Tees-side) ;with the Secretary the Registrar the Deputy Executivc Officer and (for part of the meeting) the Principal Assistant Secretary. The President welcomed the Hon. Secretaries and other representatives of Local Sections including Professor H. B. Xisbet Menzber of Council representing the Edinburgh and East of Scotland Section; Dr. J. 'CV. Barrett Chairman of the North Wales Section and Dr. S. K. K. Jatkar Hon. Secretary of the recently constituted Bangalore Section. The President also expressed appreciation of the presence of the retiring President the Chairman of the Publications and Library Committee (Professor Challenger) and the Hon.Treasurer. SUGGESTED CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE COUNCIL The Conference had before it a memorandum which had been circulated on 1 February setting forth the results of preliminary consideration of the subject by the Council. This memorandum was in elaboration of the principles stated in the article in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1948 IV 209 except that it was now proposed that instead of there being two Vice-Presidents who had filled the Office of President (in addition to the six Vice-presidents already provided for) only the immediate Past President should serve as an additional Vice-president. It was agreed that while the Council as at present constituted was not unduly large any notable increase in its numbers might make it unwieldy.The proposed substantial increase in the ratio of District to General Members of Council was welcomed and the Council's suggestion for achieving this was considered satisfactory; namely by reducing the number of General Members of Council from 27 to 21 and raising the number of District Members of Council (including one nominated by the Council to represent the Overseas Dominions and Elsewhere Abroad) from 15 to such number not exceeding 21 as the Council might from time to time determine. General agreement was expressed with the suggestion that in the first instance the number of District Members of Council be raised to 18 leaving scope for further increases (up to 21) to meet subsequent needs as the pattern of District organisation in Great Britain and Ireland developed.1 264 1 On the specification of electoral Districts it was recognised that provision could not be made for every Local Section in Great Britain and Ireland to become ips0 judo an electoral District for any such provision would restrict the formation of new Local Sections if the size of the Council were to be kept within reasonable bounds On the other hand it had already been agreed that every District should include the whole of the area of one or more Local Sections the District boundaries being conterminous with Local Section boundaries throughout but that provision should be made for the periodic adjustment of District boundaries as menibership of the Institute grew and as new Local Sections were constitutcd.It was agreed that such adjust- ments should be effected as necessary by thc Council by amending the Regula- tions for the election of District Members of Council it being understood that Committees of Local Sections affected would always be consulted about any such changes. General approval was given to the following principles on which variations of District boundaries should be made :-(a) Existing District boundaries should not bc altered without good reason. (b) Where changes were to be made there should be no attempt to obtain even approximate equality among Districts in respect of territorial area or of the number of Fellows and Associates having their registered addresses therein though some account would naturally be taken of thtw factors (at least to the extent of avoiding the exaggeration of existing disparities) as well as of relative inaccessibility from other Districts; thus a Local Section covering an area which was not easily accessible from the main centres of other Local Sections might bc regarded other things being equal as having a better claim to be constituted a separate District than a Local Section that was less isolated.(IS) The number of District Members of Council representing a District need not be limited as at present to one. Consideration was then given to an example of a scheme whereby the number of District Members of Council might be raised forthwith to 18 by amending the existing regulations in accordance with the above principles.The following conclusions were reached :-(i) That recognition of the combined areas of the Xewcastle upon Tyne and hTorth-East Coast Section and the Tees-side Section as a single District be confirmed. (ii) That the East Midlands Section be constituted as a separate District and that the Sheffield South Yorkshire and Korth Midlands Section (now associated with the East Midlands Section as a District) be linked with the Hull and District Section so as to constitute a District. (iii) That the MidSouthern Counties Section be attached to the Bristol and District Section with the new South-Western Counties Section (when formally constituted) to form a single District. It was agreed that the Officers of the three Sections should consult together on a scheme whereby the District Member of Council for the combined areas of the three Sections might be nominated.(iv) That the newly-formed North Wales Section be either constituted as a separate District (in view of its relative inaccessibility froni the principal centres of other Sections) or be included in the District at present consisting of the Liverpool and North-Western Section. It was agreed that the former proposal be adopted unless consultation between the Officers of the Sections concerned led to any alternative recommendation being submitted to the Council. L 265 1 (17) That two District Members of Council be allotted to the District consisting of the London and South-Eastern Counties Section and the East Anglia Section in view of the exceptional concentration of the members of the Institute in London and neighbouring towns.It was recognised that although a notable proportion of General Members of Council canie from the London District such members were elected on the basis of their concern with various branches of chemistry and its applications and without reference to where they happened to reside. Moreover the proposed decrease in the number of General Members of Council would make it more important that the London area should have more than one District Member; even with two it would be on a membership basis very greatly under-represented. According to this proposal the London and South-Eastern Counties and East -1nglia District would become a 5-member con- stituency every member of the Institute in the District being eligible to vote for two candidates in the event of a ballot.It was generally agreed to recownend that the Council proceed to implement the above proposals with such modifications if any as might seem appropriate as a result of further consideration by the Council in the light of the results of consultations among the Local Sections principally affected by the changes it being understood that the regulations to give effect to these proposals would be open to amendment from time to time. It was recognised that complete unanimity among Local Sections on a scheme of this kind could hardly be attained and that it would be desirable for the Council to adopt a scheme which had the general support of Local Sections and to put it into effect for a trial period.Following discussion of possible alternatives it was generally agreed to remmmend that the existing provisions for the nomination and election of District Members of Council should remain unchanged. Importance was attached to this conclusion because of the desire to avoid upsetting existing agreements between Local Sections forming part of a single District on methods of nominating the District Member of Council. X suggestion that such agreement might be fornialised was not accepted for it was appreciated that the Council would not wish to influence Local Sections in deciding the form of agreement most suited to their needs and that it would be sufficient to know that any disagreement could be referred to the Council for settlement.On a suggestion by the Council that the period for which Members of Council were elected should be three years instead of one it was agreed to recommend that this apply only to General Members of Council and that the existing provisions be retained for District Members of Council i.e. a District Member of Council should be elected for one year and be eligible for re-election except that after serving as a Member of Council for three successive years he should be ineligible for re-election (or for election except as an Officer) until the annual election in the District held next after his retirement. Retention of this provision would permit the continuance of existing agree- ments among Local Sections within a District whereby the District Member of Council was changed at intervals of less than three years.It was under- stood that the Council in amending the By-Law providing for the removal of any Member of Council who through inadequate attendance at meetings of the Council was held to have been unable to fulfil his proper functions as a Member of Council would make regulations to govern the exercise of this power. It was agreed to support the Council’s proposal to amend the By-Laws so as to provide for the immediate Past President to be ex ofiicio a Vice-President and for the President and the Vice-presidents to be elected for a period of two years and be ineligible for re-election (except that a Vice-Presi-dent could be elected President or Treasurer) until after the lapse of one year.[ 266 3 Discussion also took place on a question raised by the Tees-side Sectiorl as to the relation between District Members of Council and the Committees of Local Sections in the District. It was generally agreed that the difference between a District and a General Member of Council lay essentially in the method of his election rather than in any difference of function. A District Member of Council would be expected to exercise his own discretion in voting on matters before the Council but in doing so would naturally have in mind any special interests of members within his District. He should not be regarded however as the delegate of a particular group of members. It was desirable that a District Member of Council should keep himself informed about the views of Local Section Committees within his District and with this object should attend at least the Annual General Meetings of the Local Sections concerned.It was understood that the Council proposed to amend the By-Law which at present prevented a District Member of Council from being a member of more than one Local Section Committee though it was already possible and desirable to invite a District Member to attend all meetings of Committees of Local Sections within his District where there was more than one such Local Section. DEVELOPMENT OF “JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS” The Conference had before it a note on steps already taken or approved for the further development of this publication. General satisfaction was expressed with the proposals and with the way in which some of them had already been put into effect in Parts I and I1 of the JOURNAL for 1949.A memorandum was also received from the Hon. Recorders’ Sub-committee of the London and South-Eastern Counties Section submitting tentative sugges- tions on a number of points. Among the suggestions put forward at the Conference were the following:-There should be more general articles on subjects which have received attention from several Local Sections on the lines of the recent article on “Schoolchildren Chemists of the Future ”;more attention should be given to professional matters by means of articles and notes ; information of interest to teachers should be included for example through articles on methods of presenting particular aspects of chemistry; the interests of students should be more fully covered by means of examination papers with more extensive reports of examiners reviews of general text-books articles on the prospects of different types of employment and on how advice might be obtained on questions of concern to students.It was agreed to recommend that considera- tion be given to specifying more fully the materials for identification or report in the examinations for Branch E of the Fellowship. On the question of Reports of Local Section Meetings in the JOURNAL which had been specifically referred to the Conference it was generally agreed that the existing form of Local Section news columns was unsatis- factory.It was reported that the Publications and Library Committee was prepared to consider generally agreed proposals for modifying this feature of the JOURNAL. The present ruling was that the news columns should not contain reference to scientific matter dealt with in lectures as this was intended to be covered by lecture summaries in cases where material of general interest was concerned. It had not always been realised that the Committee was prepared to accept such summaries consisting of up to 1,300words and beyond that in special instances. On the other hand reports of meetings on pro- fessional matters could be included at some length in the news columns but in the absence of such reports those columns tended to become a mere catalogue of events with names of speakers and proposers of votes of thanks.It was suggested that either the content of news columns should be extended [ 267 I or that this feature should be abolished in its present forni and replaced for example by annual reports of Local Section activities and by general articles on subjects of current interest to a number of Sections. It was agreed that there was need for a revised scheme for the presentation of Local Section news summaries of lectures and other material in which Local Sections were interested and that the time was ripe for considering the whole question on a new basis. It was therefore recommended that a memorandum indicating possible lines of development be prepared by the Publications and Library Committee as a basis for discussion in the Sections and at the next Conference of Hon.Secretaries. When an agreed scheme had been produced for these and other features of the JOURNAL the Council would be in a position to consider the nature and extent of editorial assistance that might be required and the possibility of establishing more direct contact between the editorial staff and the work of the Sections. It was agreed that questions of the future typography and format of the JOURNAL would best be dealt with by the Publications and Library Committee in the light of observations received from Local Section Committees such as had already been communicated by the London and South-Eastern Counties Section these being matters on which professional advice would be required.It was generally agreed that monthly publication of JOURNAL AND PROCEED-INGS should be instituted as soon as conditions permitted and it was under- stood that this would probably take place as from the beginning of 1950. It was noted that copies of the article entitled “The Royal Institute of Chemistry its place among British Chemical Societies and Institutions ” were available for the use of Hon. Secretaries and that a pamphlet entitled “The Student and the Institute” would be issued shortly. At the instance of the Membership Committee the booklet “The Profession of Chemistry ” u as being revised. It was agreed that these publications would be useful to Hon. Secretaries in establishing contact with potential students and members. The Conference recornwended that a bound volume of J OLKNAL .IND PKO-CEEDINGS be supplied annually to the Hon.Secretary of each Local Section in Great Britain and Ireland. THE INTEREST OF SCHOOLCHILDREN IN THE PROFESSION Consideration was given to means whereby the interest of schoolchildren in the profession of chemistry might be aroused and guided and recent experience of various types of approach was interchanged. The discussion covered Christmas lectures conversaziones and works visits as well as careers talks and stress was laid on the value of consultation with teachers and Local Education Authorities in the organisation of such events. ’ It was agreed to inquire about the possibility of copies of “Notes for Guidance on Careers in Science,” prepared by the Headmasters’ Employment Committee of the Ministry of Labour and National Service being supplied to Section Secretaries and that the Institute inform the Ministry of Education that Local Sections would be happy to collaborate with them and Local Education Authorities in matters of vocational guidance relating to chemistry.Local Section Committees would also make direct contact with Local Education Authorities where appropriate. It was appreciated that advice on certain questions commonly sought by schoolchildren might best be given through headmasters and headmistresses and that special consideration would have to be given to problems arising from the establishment of the new Certificate of General Education. LOCAL SECTION GRANTS Satisfaction was expressed with the revised scale of annual grants amount- ing to LSO per Section plus 2s.6d. per corporate member in the Section subject 268 I to a minimum total of i35 with the provision that where for special reasons accepted by the Council the printing of notices of meetings for a Section could not be effectively carried out in the Institute a supplementary grant might be made to cover the reasonable cost of such printing. Appreciation was also expressed of a recent decision of the Council that in future any balance remaining in the account of a Local Section at 31 December in a given year be not deducted from the amount of the annual grant paid to the Section in the ensuing year. As a result of this decision Local Sections would be able to use the funds unexpended in any year towards financing activities in the following year and would thus have greater latitude in organising their programmes over successive years.It was appreciated that with these im- proved provisions Local Section Committees should be able to arrange their annual programmes so as to keep expenditure within the amount of the funds available to them and to avoid planning more events than could properly be run with those resources. Only where there were special reasons for a Local Section to incur in a particular year expenditure beyond the amount of the funds available to them would they expect to receive a supplementary grant. It was agreed that a revised statement on Local Section grants and condi- tions of their expenditure was desirable.Such a statement would indicate the wide discretionary powers of Section Committees in incurring expenditure within the amount of their annual grant. On a question raised by the Birmingham and Midlands Section about the date of payment of Local Section grants it was understood that under the new decision of the Council it should be possible to make such payments by a specified date in each year. It was noted that arrangements had already been made for each Section to be provided with a continuing reserve to meet expenses in the first few months of each year until the grant for that year had been paid to them. OFFICE PROCEDURE AND ADMINISTRATION (a) Resignation of Elderly Members.-The Committee of the East Midlands Section had expressed concern at a reference in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1949 I 36 to acceptance by the Council of the resignation of certain members who had retired from active work.It was reported that sympathetic con- sideration was given to cases of Fellows and Associates who after a long period of membership were unable to maintain their subscriptions after they had retired ; such resignations were not accepted without consideration of the individual circumstances. (b) Relations with other Societies.-Representatives of Local Sections exchanged information on procedure adopted in the organisation of joint meetings with other bodies. Diverse methods were adopted in different Sections in arranging such meetings. In several Sections all except business meetings were held jointly with other bodies and the expenses involved were shared.(c) Presentation of Membership Certi$cates at Local Section Meetings.-In 1947 it had been agreed that this practice be undertaken for a trial period by the Dublin and District Section. In the past year 11 Certificates had been received by the Hon. Secretary of that Section and of these 4 had been presented at Section meetings the other 7 having been forwarded by post. The arrangements had worked smoothly. Emphasis was again laid on the additional work that would fall on Local Secretaries and on the Institute office through the extension of this procedure especially to the larger Sections and on the risk of certificates being held up through non-attendance of newly-elected members at meetings and of such certificates going astray.It was agreed however that where a Local Section I269 particularly wanted to adopt the practice of presenting certificates at their meetings they should make special application to the Council. (d) Copies of Documents for Committee Members.-At the instance of the East Midlands Section it was agreed that duplicate copies of notices circular letters etc. be sent to Hon. Secretaries so that one might be available to their Chairmen. Requests for additional copies for the use of Committee members would be met. (e) Removal of Members from Section Areas.-On a point raised by the Glasgow and West of Scotland Section it was agreed that it would be unneces- sary to inform Hon.Secretaries of the destination of members moving out of their Sections. The names and addresses of members moving into a Section area were always reported to the Hon. Secretary. The Conference adjourned for luncheon at 12.30p.m. and resumed at 2 p.m. On the motion of Mr. E. E. Ayling a cordial vote of thanks to Professor Cook for presiding at this. his first official meeting since becoming President and to Dr. Roche Lynch for having taken the Chair at the Conferences held during his term of office was carried with acclamation NOTES PERSONAL The following are included in the Birthday Honours list:- Order of Merit (0.M.)- Sir Robert Robinson M.A. LL.D. D.Sc. P.R.S. Fellow. Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.)- Charles Herbert Hampshire M.B.B.S. M.R.C.S. L.R.C.P. Fellow. Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C,B,E.)-John Ralph Nicholls D.Sc. Fellow. Oficer of the Most ExceZlent Order of the British Empire (0.B.E.)-Frank Ashcroft Martin BSc. Associate. George Adam Reay MA. B.Sc. Ph.D. Fellosw. Francis Leslie Rose B.Sc. Ph.D. Fellow. Oscar Walter Snow B.A. B.Sc. Fellow. Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M,B.E.)-Ronald Leslie Collett M.A. Fellow and Registrar. Thomas Harold Gant A.R.C.S. M.I.Chem.E. Fellow. Francis John McConnell Fellow. Dr. G. M. Badger Fellow has been appointed senior lecturer in organic chemistry in the University of Adelaide Mr. T. S. T. Chari. Fellow has been appointed Chief Chemist Central Revenues (Government of India) Central Revenues Control Laboratory New Delhi.Professor W. M.Cumming O.B.E. Member of Council Director of the School of Chemistry and “Young” Professor of Technical Chemistry in the Royal Technical College Glasgow has become technical director to The British Dyewood Co. Glasgow and will take up his duties in September. 1 270 j Mr. W. Morley Davies Fellow provincial director for the East Midland Province of the National Agricultural Advisory Service has been appointed senior education and advisory officer Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in succession to Dr. W. K. Slater Fellow. Professor Sir Alfred Egerton F.R.S. Fellow has bcen appointed chair- man of the Standing Committee on Information Services set up by the Royal Society.Dr. H. J. T. Ellingham Fellow has been elected an Honorary Fellow of the Imperial College of Science and Technology. Professor M. G. Evans F.K.S. Fellow and Dr. Frank Roffey Fellow have been appointed to the Chemistry Research Board and Sir Cyril Hinshel- wood F.R.S. Fellow to the Fuel Research Board Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Earl of Halsbury Fellow has been appointed adviser to the Board of Trade on matters connected with the National Research Development Corporation of which he will become managing director when it is formally established. Mr. L. G. Jephcott Fellow has been appointed managing director of Jewel1 Plastics Ltd. Dr. R. Kerr Associate has resigned his position as head of the chemical and metallurgical division at the Research Department of Ascot Gas Water Heaters Ltd.,to accept an appointment in the Research Department of the British Oxygen Co.Ltd. at Morden. Mr. E. M. Learmonth Fellow chief chemist to British Soya Products Ltd. has been appointed to the board of directors of the company. Mr. N. H. Martin Fellow has been appointed to the University readership in chemical pathology tenable at St. George’s Hospital Medical School as from 1 April 1949. Professor J.W. McBain F.R.S. Fellow,whohas recentlyretired from thechair of physical chemistry at Stanford University California has been appointed to be the first director of the National Chemical Laboratory of India. Dr. Frank Morton Fellow has been appointed Reader in Chemical Engin- eering in the University of Birmingham.Dr. T. W. Parker Fellow has been appointed Deputy Director of Building Research in the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Dr. D. S. Payne Associate has been appointed lecturer in chemistry in the University of Glasgow. Dr. R. A. Raphael Associate Meldola Medallist I.C.I. Fellow Imperial College has been appointed lecturer in chemistry in the University of Glasgow. Dr. P. N. Sen Gupta Associate biochemist Vanaspati Research Scheme Ministry of Food India has been appointed biochemist to the Department of Anthropology Ministry of Education at the Indian Museum Calcutta. Sir John Simonsen F.R.S. Fellow Director Colonial Products Research Council has been chosen by the American Chemical Society as the first recipient of its Fritzsche award of a gold medal and 1,000 dollars.Dr. J. W. Smith Fellow has been appointed to the university readership in chemistry tenable at Bedford College University of London as from 1 October 1949. Dr. G. Swann Fellow. has been appointed research manager to Beck Koller & Co. (England) Ltd. Mr. George Tolley Associate has been awarded a Rotary Scholarship to study for one year at an American University. Dr. D. T. A. Townend Fellow has been appointed a member of a com- mittee set up by the Ministry of Supply under the chairmanship of Sir William Stanier in connection with the industrial applications of the gas turbine. Mr. John Wharton Fellow has been appointed technical manager at Courtaulds’ factory at Preston Professor F.G. Young F.R.S. Member of Council Professor of Bio-chemistry in University College London has been elected to the Sir William Dunn Professorship of Biochemistry in the University of Cambridge as from 1 October 1949. SIR GEORGE BEILBY MEMORIAL FUND The Administrators of the Sir George Beilby Memorial Fund representing the Institute of Metals the Royal Institute of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical Industry have decided to make an award from the Fund for 1948 of 150 guineas to Arthur Stuart Clark Lawrence Ph.D. Sc.D. I;.Inst.Pet. F.R.I.C. in recognition of his research work in colloid science with special reference to lubrication and fuel oils. Awards from the Fund are made to British investigators in science as a mark of appreciation of distinguished work particularly in such fields as fuel economy chemical engineering and metallurgy in which Sir George Beilby’s special interests lay.In general the awards are not applicable to the more senior investigators but are granted as an encouragement to relatively young men who have done independent work of exceptional merit over a period of years. Arthur Stuart Clark Lawrence was born in London and educated at Christ’s Hospital. In 1920 he became junior lecturer and research assistant at the Royal Institution first to Sir James Dewar and in 1924 to Sir William Bragg attending evening classes at Battersea Polytechnic. Leaving in 1927 as a result of illness he published “Soap Films” in 1929 and was awarded a D.S.I.R.Senior Research Award to work in Cambridge in the Department of Physical Chemistry and later in Professor Rideal’s newly formed Laboratory of Colloid Science where he remained until 1942 working on various aspects of anomalous viscosity including joint work with Dr. Needham on myosin and on solubilisation and related topics. A long investigation was made of soap-oil systems during this period for the Fuel Research Division of the D.S.I.R. In 1939 researches on coal-in-oil suspensions and on coal tar were made for the Fuel Research Station. In 1942 Dr. Lawrence came to Imperial College London as head of the research team of the Joint Admiralty and Ministry of Supply Advisory Service on Lubrication. In 1943 he worked on de-icing ships and at the end of that year as Sub.Lt. (Sp)R.N.V.R. he carried out sea trials in a destroyer on northern convoy and was present at the Scharnharst engagement. On his return this contract was ended and he became a member of the Admiralty Chemical Advisory Panel Group I1 and carried out researches on emulsions of seawater in fuel oil and related problems including investigations in port areas and in H.M. Ships. Later he carried out successful large scale trials in certain battleships and port areas. In 1946 he became advisor on fuel oil to the Engineer-in-Chief Admiralty and was promoted Cmdr. (Sp) R.N.V.R. to investigate German naval oil fuel work In 1947 Dr. Lawrence was appointed Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the University of Sheffield a post which he now holds.Lawrence holds the degrees of Ph.D. and Sc.D. (Cantab.) and is a Fellow of the Royal Institute of Chemistry and of the Institute of Petroleum. He was a member of the Petroleum Board Chemical Warfare Committee and of various other advisory bodies. In Cambridge he was active in all photo- graphic and Film Society matters; in 1941 he published “The Scientific Photographer” and in 1916 was awarded a silver medal by the Royal Society [ 272 ] of Arts for a lecture on “The Future of Scientific l4lnis.” He is the author of numerous papers mainly on colloid topics published in the Pvoceedings of the Royal Society Ti.uwsccctio,is of the Faraday Society and other journals. SCIENCE IN PARLIAMENT (2 March to 14 April 1949) Agriculture Soil Fertility.-On 7 March in reply to Mr.L)e la Bere OF AGRICULTURE THE MINISTER (Mr. T. Williams) Although certain fields suffered a decline in soil fertility due to over-cropping during the war the general level of fertility of our land is higher to-day than it was in 1930. One of the main objects of my Department is to raise the general level of soil fertility still further. Means to this end include the keeping of many more livestock which will increase the supply of natural manure ; improved drainage and tillage; the increased use of lime and phosphates; the substitution of good leys for poor grass and the more efficient control of weeds and pests. Festival of Britain.-On 8 March Ah. Philips Price asked the Lord President of the Council what organisation or organisations are to be charged with the responsibility of selecting suitable exhibits for the Festival of Britain 1951 with the object of demonstrating Great Britain’s contribution to civilisation in the field of Science.THE LORD PRESIDENT‘rHE COUNCIL 01 (Mr. Herbert Morrison) In order to ensure that the British contribution to science and technology should be worthily represented in the Festival of Britain 1951 I set up in May last year a special Council of Science and Technology to advise me on this aspect of the Festival. Sir Alan Barlow is chairman and the members are leading men of science and technology in Britain. The Council is advised by about 13 specialist panels. The selection of exhibits illustrating the results of British scientific achievement will be carried out by the Council in consultation with the Council of Industrial Design and the Festival organisation.Universities Extensions.-On 21 March in reply to a question by Mr. H. D. Hughes THE MINISTER OF \VORKS (Mr. Key) The total value of new building work licensed and authorised for Universities during 1948 was L1,388,500. I cannot give a precise figure for technical colleges but the total value of work authorised for further education during 1948 was about &1,750,000,most of which was for technical colleges and institutes. Universities Staffs (Salaries).-On 15 March Mr. Hardy asked thc Chancellor of the Exchequer if he is now in a position to make a statement about the remuneration of the non-medical staffs of universities.THE CHANCELLOR THE EXCHEQUER OF (Sir S. Cripps) Yes. I have accepted the view of the University Grants Committee that the increase of salaries which has become necessary in the Medical Faculties carries with it as a necessary consequence a revision of salaries in the other Faculties. The provision made for the universities in the Civil Estimates for 1949-50 will enable supplementary grants to be made for the purpose of readjusting non- medical salaries on the following basis as from the 1 October 1949:-(a) Professovs. The grants will be related to basic salaries of Ll,C;OO a year in universities and university colleges (in London Ll 650) with increased provision for supplementation allowing for a wider range of saIaries than hitherto.(b) Readers and Senior Lecturers. A range of salaries with varying maxima up to L1,600 a year. (c) Lectuvers. Scales rising generally from L500 to Ll,lOO a year. (d) Assistant Lecturers. Salaries ranging from L400 to L500. I273 ] MISCELLANEOUS Sir Edward Frankland Medal and Prize 1948.-Essays subniitted by six Registered Students-three in the London and South-Eastern Counties Section and one each in the South \\-ales Section thc Huddersfield Section and the Edinburgh and East of Scotland Section+anie forward for considera- tion by the Assessor. The -4ssessor reported that none of the essys submitted \\as in his opinion worthy of an auard and the Council has accordingly decided to make no award for 1948.The Chemical Society.-Professor Harold Burton has been elected an Honorary Secretary of the Society in succession to Sir John Simonsen F.K.S. The Officers of the Society are now:-President Sir Ian Heilbron D.S.0.. D.Sc. F.R.I.C. E’. 1i.S.; Treasurer Sir Wallace Akers C.B.E. B.A. F.R.I.C. ; Hon. Secretaries Professor D. H. Hey D.Sc. F.R.T.C. 1)r. A. King C.B.E. and Professor H. Burton D.Sc. F.R.I.C. REVIEWS Technical Publications. Year 1946. Pp. vii + 356. (New York Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey) and Affiliated Companies 1947.) The President of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in a foreword says “On frequent occasions in scanning the technical press I have been gratified to run across the name of a company colleague at the head of some outstanding article,” and so there has arisen for the first time a publication that will it is hoped year by year indicate not only the original work of members of the New Jersey group but also give an annual survey of the wide diversity of the problems that come within the purview of the petroleum technologist.A general introduction is provided by E. V. Murphree (President of the Standard Oil Development Company) in which is detailed the organisation of the central technical body responsible for research development and engineering. The Research Division is concerned with product quality new materials and new processes. In particular the evaluation of fuels and lubricants is of great importance. Catalytic cracking butadiene production alkylation hydrocarbon synthesis are all problems more or less solved but intensive work is in progress on the application of newer physical techniques to the petroleum industry.Raw materials for synthetic rubber the development of butyl rubber the production of synthetic chemicals catalysts and catalysis hydrogenation and a multiplicity of similar projects are under consideration. From the view point of a professional chemist’s organisation perhaps the most interesting point brought forward by Mr. Murphree is the fact that no less than 600 trained university men are employed in the development organis- ation and that every attempt is made to place professional men inside the group if their interest turns out to be in marketing manufacturing or pro- duction rather than in research development or engineering.‘ In this the first volume of what it is to be hoped will be a long series no less than eighty papers are mentioned and of these twenty-three in the field of pure and applied science are reproduced in fuI1. Each paper is prefaced by a short biography of the author. The list is impressive and includes publications on Process Research Chemical Research Engineering Research Production Research Physical Research Performance Research Analytical Methods and Physical Data. [ 274 3 Not only is a compilation such as this of definite value to the outside technical world but it is perhaps of greater importance to the personnel of the particular company concerned. Recognition of the original work of a man by a known or reputable scientific or technical society is no doubt of the greatest value but the corresponding acknowledgment of achievement by his own company is perhaps not so common.A. E. D. A Textbook of Physical Chemistry. By J. Kewton Friend. 2nd Edn. (in one volume). Pp. XI-? 366. (London Charles Griffin & CO. Ltd. 1949.) 42s. net. This work was first published in two volumes one in 1932 the other in 1935. It has been abridged and revised and now appears in a single volume making it less bulky and unwieldy. The more elementary parts of the subject have either been omitted or considerably condensed so that in spite of the reduction in size it has been found possible to include important new matter. The author in his preface to the first edition wrote that to produce a textbook of Physical Chemistry for advanced students was a formidable task and advised those who did not think so to try it for themselves.The task of selecting the material and choosing the method of approach is certainly difficult and the author has been guided by what he has found to be most helpful to his senior students at the Birmingham Technical College. The field covered is very wide and the treatment of many topics is necessarily brief. The properties of gases solids and liquids and change of state are dealt with in the first nine chapters (116 pages) then follow chapters on solutions (32 pages) adsorption (13 pages) thermochemistry (8 pages) the law of mass action including reaction kinetics and heterogeneous equilibria (40 pages) combustion in gases (14 pages) electrochemistry (108 pages) atoms (54 pages) molecules (36 pages) optical properties including spectra (34pages) the colloid state (41 pages) catalysis (6 pages) and finally one on thermodynamics (30 pages).The approach is mainly experimental and factual and the point of view is sometimes rather classical-for example in the treatment of ionic equilibria where there is no mention of the generalised theory of acids andbases. Theoretical discussions are illustrated by practical examples. It was the intention of the author to avoid abstract theory as far as possible and perhaps that is why the book is weak on the thermodynamic side. It is surprising to find the chapter on thermodynamics relegated to the end and this in spite of the use of thermodynamic arguments and relations in some of the earlier chapters.Such arguments cannot be appreciated without a thorough understanding of the fundamental laws which are only briefly treated in the final chapter to which cross reference is made when necessary. The earlier introduction of thermodynamic ideas would also have provided a connecting link between some of the topics of the earlier chapters. The thermodynamic methods used are those based on cycles no doubt because they appear to be more concrete but this apparent simplicity is illusory and the student frequently finds them more dffficult to understand than the more direct and exact methods of Gibbs. Chemical potential is mentioned once but is not defined.There are no problems for the student to solve for himself although a few numerical illustrations are given in the text. There are no references to the literature but the names of investigators and dates are given so that the original work may be found if desired ; some guidance to further sources of information to monographs and review articles would have been valuable. The student who reads this book will find it a useful introduction to the topics treated and will be ready to go on to the larger and more specialiscd works. The price is high even when compared with recent American tcxts of similar scope. J. \Y.BELTON. Trace Elements in Food. By G. W. Monier-Williams. Pp. viii + 511. (London Chapman & Hall Ltd.1949.) 30s. net. The many thousands of chemists who know of Dr. Monier-M’illiams’s work at the Ministry of Health where he held the post of Chemist-in-Charge of Food Research Laboratory will expect this book to be the last word on the determination of trace metals in foods. They will not be disappointed. Chapters 1 to 26 each deals with a different element including ail the obvious metallic contaminants of food the three heavier halogens some metalloids -arsenic antimony selenium-as well as two frank non-metals boron and silicon. Among the rarer elernelits that each have a chapter are molybdenum vanadium titanium and indium. The last two chapters are concerned with barium and strontium and with lithium and other nietals respectively and there is an adequate index of 12 pages containing ti0 to ti5 entries per page.Each chapter is furnished with its own Iibliography in which the authors’ names are arranged alphabetically. The many hundreds of chemists who have a inore direct knowledge even a personal one of the author’s interests will expect to find in this book many references to the parts played by the trace elements that occur in our foods. whether consigned there by nature or added by man and whether of known benefit or proven disadvantage. Thej-also \\ill not be disappointed thougli much of the information appears incidentally. At hazard one may call attention to the sections on “Copper as an Essential Element in Plant arid Animal Life,” in the very first chapter. Here we have 37 pages in which arc presented a considerable variety of topics.They include the part played b!-copper in the formation of haemoglobin and its invertebrate analogue haenio- cyanin the absorption excretion and retention of copper in the mammalian body and the minimum requirements for this essential clement ; copper fungicides; and by a neat inversion of subject which has hitherto been the effect of copper on foods a section dealing with the effect of foods on copper. ‘The relation of copper to the greening of vegetables and to the production of haze in wine is also discussed and there is an important sub-section on Copper and Public Health. This thoroughness is characteristic of every chapter; as might \{.ell be expected the one on lead is among the longest.This book is essentially a practical one. It deals with facts. The author as his many friends inside and outside the Institute know has never been much prone to speculation He has. for example in this book resisted the temptation to spin theories about the cause of selenium poisoning and has even refrained from putting forward the obvious suggestion-for which there is no direct evidence-that selcniuni acts by competitive inhibition of the sulphur in reactive thiol groups of proteins presumably enzymes. The operative words are for Dr. Monier-Williams those I have just used-“for which there is no direct evidence.” He does not put forward hypotheses for which there is no direct evidence. But he gives you the data on which you may if you are that sort of person build hypotheses with the certain knowledge that the data have been submitted by an expert who is much more than a practitioner of analytical chemistry.He is rather a chemist whose critical faculties and ability to distinguish valid data from invalid figures have been continuously sharpened by that practice and training in analytical chemistry of which he is an acknowledged master. ( 276 1 Xt this tinw in the history of 13ritish publishing it sho\ild I)e unnecessary to say that the production of the book is beyond reproach; a glance at the name of the publishers should lead one to expect this and this is what one finds. A. L. BACHARACH. Bacterial Metabolism. By Marjorie Stephenson. 3rd Edn. Pp. xiv + 398. (London Longmans Green & Co.Ltd. 1949.) 30s. net. It is a sad thought that the third edition of “Bacterial Metabolism” is the last we shall receive from the pen of Dr. Marjorie Stephenson. In her Preface she writes-“Bacterial Metabolism is now such a wide study that it is no longer convenient for one person to attempt to cope with all its branches.” In that phrase the author with characteristic honesty points to a weakness which is quite unavoidable in the single-handed presentation of such a vast subject. It is a peculiar virtue of this book that there is nothing plagiarised about it; there is never a suspicion that one is reading the collected summaries and discussions of various scientists on their respective work; the author has given her mind to the progress of the subject and her thoughtful exposition is thought provoking in the reader.The historical Introduction taken in conjunction with Harden’s introduc- tion to “Alcoholic Fermentation” in the same series of monographs gives biochemists a neat miniature of biochemical developments in the middle of the nineteenth century. The author with her keen historical sense is at her best in connecting the living scientific past with the advancing frontiers of knowledge. Something of the writer’s personality still lives for us in this Introduction. Xs we would expect the best chapters are those dealing with subjects in which the Cambridge School has been particularly active-Fermentation Nitrogen Metabolism and Enzyme Variation and Adaptation. The sections on Xitrogen Fixation and Autotrophic Bacteria are in all respects excellent much attention being given to questions of energy transfer.There are short sections on the Metabolism of Xucleic Acid and its derivatives and on Bacterial Photosynthesis and larger sections on Respiration Polysaccharides and Growth and Sutrition. The book contains many good things and it remains an invaluable guide to the genera1 reader provided he does not assume that in all its parts it reflects an equitable appraisal of the development of the subject and of the contribu- tions of different persons. The work of certain important groups of workers seems to the reviewer to be disregarded or inadequately recognised for example in the section on Growth and Nutrition in a chapter which contains much valuable information one would expect some reference to the work of Lodge and Hinshelwood and one misses the name of W.T. J. Morgan in the section on Bacterial Polysaccharides and so on. Nevertheless the author has examined and presented the subject as a whole in a stimulating and eminently readable book. FRANK c. H.4PPoLD. Principles of High-Polymer Theory and Practice. By A. X. Schmidt and C. A. Marlies. Pp. sii + 713. (Xew York McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc. 1948.) 45s. This is a most ambitious book its title implies it aims to cover both the theory and practice of high-polymer science and technology. The science and the technology ha1.e grown phenomenally in the past decade. On the one hand the science noir.includes a vast amount of both organic and physical chemistry antl the technology goes all the way through physics antl chemistq [ 277 3 to detailed engineering practice. Thus to do justice to the subject in a matter of 700 pages is no easy task for nowadays not even two authors can possibly be familiar at first hand with all the facets of the subject. This book is written for the undergraduate and also for the post-graduate student. It is by its contents primarily written for the chemist and therefore in appropriate places matters not usually familiar to chemists such as the determination and the interpretation of the experiments on the properties of matter are dealt with in more than usual detail simply because the mechanical properties of high polymers have such an important bearing on their application.On reading through the book it is surprising how far the authors have got towards the goal of giving a generalised survey. The necessary scientific information on synthesis and also the determination of the size and structure of high polymers is gone into in remarkable detail. Furthermore it is not assumed that the basic physical chemistry is completely known and there is no harm in having it repeated in a form suitable for use with high polymers. This part occupies rather more than a third of the book and forms in a way the purely scientific discussion. Then follows a chapter on the manipulation of high polymers. The mechanical electrical and optical properties of the polymers can then be conveniently dealt with.Having prepared this back- ground the authors proceed to discuss separately the specific applications of high polymers in fibres rubbers surface coating agents adhesives and syn- thetic resins generally. In the latter half of the book the choice is very much a matter of individual taste. But perhaps the outstanding feature is the choice of numerical and quantitative illustrations. It gives the treatment a reality that might easily have been lacking in the desire for comprehensiveness. The volume is thus essentially designed for the student who is going to be concerned eventually in the practical application of high polymers. Yowa-days the science becomes a vital necessity for going about this business with a thoroughly sound background of knowledge.The book is produced in accordance with the usual high standard of the McGraw-Hill Book Company. H. M’.MELVILLE. The Plant Alkaloids. By T. A. Henry. 4th Edition. Pp. viii + 804. (London J. & A. Churchill Ltd. 1949.) 63s. net. The Plant Alkaloids by Henry of which the fourth edition has nou appeared has become the standard work in English on this section of organic chemistry. The treatment follows in the main that adopted in the earlier editions but the preface opens with the remark that so much work has been published since the third edition appeared in 1939 that it has been necessary to rewrite much of the material comprised in the new volume and thus add greatly to its content. Even so however it is both satisfying and surprising to find the volume still easy to handle and in fact its 780 odd pages are not much bulkier than the first edition containing 450 published in 1913.This result has been achieved by use of thinner paper and each page now contains almost double the printed matter of a page of the first edition. The latter devoted 111 pages to alkaloids of then unknown constitution including the harmine strychnos lupin cryptopine and lobelia groups. The morphine group was treated in the “known” section on the basis of the Pschorr and Knorr formulae and what a wealth of ingenuity and effort went into this problem before Schopf’s elegant work in 1927 decided the issue between the then rival Robinson and Wieland formulae in favour of the former. The fact that all the above-mentioned groups now receive full and clear treatment is some indication of the great advance in the structural knowledge of alkaloid chemistry since the first edition appeared.r 278 1 This can be largely ascribed to the early work in this field by W. H. Perkin jnr. which has been so richly developed by Robinson since their first joint alkaloid paper in J.C.S. 1909 1977. That this advance continues is evident from the fact that in the latest edition it has only been found possible to include a number of important advances as stop-press items in the introduction. Amongst these are the Australian work on the alkaloids of acridine type and the ingenious suggestion of Woodward on the biogenesis of strychnine which has been adapted by Robinson to deduce a formula for emetine.Prominent amongst the important additions to the latest volume is the chapter on the alkaloids based on the tetracyclic sterol system. The inclusion here of the delphinium alkaloids for which the tricyclic diterpene skeleton has been claimed is unexpected and if lysine is the precursor of the isopentane system may herald a new chapter of alkaloids containing terpene ring systems. The great isoquinoline group however still dominates the volume and occupies pages 154-405. The method of treating this group makes it rather difficult for the non-specialist reader to grasp and appreciate the fact that a close structural relationship runs throughout this apparently forbidding structural story. This becomes clear however if the alkaloids are uprooted from their botanical connection which leads to such structurally related compounds as papaverine and hydrastine being treated on pages 182 and 162 respectively and treated together in their proper structural groups.Thus if instead of describing papaverine laudanosine and a few less ivell-knoma members such as the “benzylisoquinoline sub-group,” the whole was treated as sub-groups of the benzylisoquinoline unit then the structural relationship running through the whole chapter would be as clear as the isoprene character of the terpenes. The sub-groups suggested for this chemical treatise would then be (a)papaverine etc. (b) berberine etc. (c) cryptopine etc. (d)glaucine etc. (e) morphine etc.(f)emetine etc. (g) curare group. Whilst then the structural side of alkaloid chemistry is to-day an amazingly imposing if incomplete edifice the story of their biogenesis and function in the plant’is still very much of a mystery. -An essential preliminary to the unravelling of nature’s synthetic methods is of course the determination of the structure of the products produced and here the organic chemist has been conspicuously successful in solving the architectural problems involved. The suggestions first made by Robinson in his classical paper (J.C.S. 1917 876) and much extended since in other papers have received support from recent work particularly that of Cromwell on the results which follow the injection of various amines into plants. Furthermore the suggestions have led to the synthesis in the laboratory of many alkaloids under so-called physiological conditions.It is probable that the use of the isotopes of carbon and nitrogen M-ill lead to a precise knowledge of plant cell chemistry. The new volume is excellently printed and contains very few errors. It should find a place on the bookshelf of all who seek to understand and then extend plant chemistry. G. R. CLEMO. [ 279 ] EXAMINATIONS MARCH-APRIL I949 ABSTRACT OF THE REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS Examinations were held as under :-Eitfeyed Passed For the Associateship. Examiners Dr. T. G. Pearson and Professor 1). H. Hey. The examination was held in the Examinations Hall and Chemical Laboratory of the University of London South Kensington and at the University of Leeds theoretical papers being taken also at various local centres in the periods 4 to 9 April and 11 to 14 April 1949.Five candidates were examined at Rhodes University College Grahamstow-n South :lfrica. .. 120 30" For the Fellowship. Unless otherwise stated the examinations were held in the Examinations Hall and Chemical Laboratory of thc University of London South Kensington in the mcli beginning Monday 28 March 1949. Branch B Physical Chewistry. Examiner Professor R. G. M'. Surrish 1;.R.S. 111 the Department of Physical Chemistry University of Cambridge. 19 to 23 April inclusive .. .. 1 0 Branch C Organic Cheiiiistr?,. General Examiner Professor L). H. Hey . . .. 1 1 With special reference to High Polymers.Examiner Dr. E. H. Farmer F.K.S. .. .. 3 With special reference to Petroleum .. With specia2 reference to Fine Chemicals. .. .. 1 Examiner Dr. J. R. Kicholls .. .. .. I 0 Brumh E The Chewistry including i44icrom~~~, oj Food and Drugs ad of Water. Examiners Mr. G. Taylor O.B.E. and Dr. C. H. Hampshire . . .. .. .. .. .. 1.i Bvmtch F Agricultural Chemistry. Examiner Mr. R. 0. Davies. At University College ,\berystwyth . *. .. .. 1 Branch G Industrial Chemistry. General Examiner Dr. W. Preston .. .. .. With speciul reference to Petroleum. Examiner Professor I;. H. Garner O.B.E. -It Abadan Iran.. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1 With speciul refeveuce fo Powev Sfutiuir Opei,ntioir ad Practice. Examiner blr.C;. \V. Hcwson. *At the Institute and the Rattersea l'ower Station.. I 0 Brumh I It'ntev Sibpply and the I'reafnrrwt of Sewage and Trade Eflztents. Examiner :Mr. W. Gordon Carey. ;It the Technical College Sunderland and in the Laboratories of 1. Nr. W. Gordon Carey. .. .. .. 1 1 [ 280 1 .$pPi.iaL L:‘xrit,ii ritrtion in Texfile Chemicfry. Examiner Mr. F. Scholefield. At the College of Technology Manchester . . .. I 1 Special Examination in Chemical Spectroscopy. Examiner Professor R. A. Morton. At the University of Liverpool . . .. .. 1 1 148 47 * Eleven candidates satisfied the Examiners in all parts of the examination except in the translation of foreign languages. t TIVOcandidates failed only in Therapeutics Pharmacology and Micro-scopv.EXAMINATION FOR THE ASSOCIATESHIP MONIlA Y 4 -4 PAIL 1949 10 a.rti. to 1 p.i~ (.4nswer F~VEquestions only. Give formulae and equations where possible.) 1. Account for some of the physical and chemical properties of inorganic compounds in terms of the size and electronic structure of the constituent atoms or ions. 2. Describe how you would carry out FOUR of the following prepara- tions :-(u) chroniyl chloride from chromite; (h) potassium permanganate from pyrolusite ; (c) pure metallic titanium from rutile; ((2) uranyl nitrate from a mixed precipitate of ferric and uranyl hydros- ides; (P) potassium ferrocyanidc from gasworks “spent oside” containing Prussian blue ; (f) sodium cobaltinitrite from smaltite (Fe Ni Co).4s2.3. Describe the preparation of pure carbon monoxide. How may 3 trace of this gas be detected in air ? State the conditions under which carbon monoxide reacts with the following and formulate the reactions (a) chlorine (b) nickel (c) sodium hydroxide. 4. Outline the methods used in the production separation and concentra- tion of radioactive “tracer” elements antl give some examples of their use in solving chemical physical or biochemical problems. 5. lliscuss the statement that antimony seleniini tellurium antl iodine are “metalloids.” 6. Enumerate the chief naturally occurring compounds of calciuni. Describe the commercial preparation and applications of the following :-(a)metallic calcium ; (b)bleaching powder; (c) calcium cyanamide; (d)calcium carbide.7. Write an essay under ONE of the following titles*- (a) Ion Exchange Processes; (h) The Structure and Bond Characteristics of the Carbonyls of the Transition Metals. 2 lo 6 P.?tl. (-4ws‘uley F~VEy uestiom ody. Give formuhe apzd equatiojis where possible.) I. Very briefly explain the meaning of the following terms:-(a) free energy (b)chemical potential (c) fiigacity (d)activity (e)osmotic coefficient. 281 1 Explain fully how the activity of the solvent and non-vulntile solute in a binary solution may be derived from the results of accurate \yapour pressure measurements. 2. Describe and explain the characteristic features of the conduction of electricity through liquids (including solutions).Briefly enumerate the chief differences between the conduction of electricity through liquids and EITHER gases OR solids. 3. Discuss the principal factors affecting the stability of emulsions. Describe the tests you would apply to an emulsion of oil and water to deter- mine which constituent is the continuous phase. 4. Derive the Clausius-Clapeyron equation indicating the approximations made in the course of the derivation. Demonstrate how the vapour pressure of a pure liquid is altered by admitting an inert gas to the vapour phase. 3. Indicate (do not prove) the properties of EITHER the equilateral triangle OR the right-angled triangle that make it particularly useful for the graphical representation of three-component systems. Sketch triangular diagrams for the various possible types of system arising from the three components salt A salt B and water.Identify the phase fields and add an explanatory title to each sketch. Do not explain the full significance of each diagram but point out any features of particular importance. 6. Suggest possible methods mentioning essential experimental details for the determination of TWO of the following properties of nzolteiz sodium chloride :-(u) density (b) surface tension (c) viscosity (d) specific electrical conductivity. If you know the heat of formation and entropy of solid sodium chloride at 15"C. what additional data would you need to enable you to calculate the free energy of formation of the molten compound at its melting point? 7.Illustrate diagrammatically and briefly explain the principles under- lying the use of THREE of the following:-(a) McLeod gauge (b)Pirani gauge (G) one form of photoelectric absorptiometer (colorimeter) (d) one form of refractometer (P) Beckmann thermometer (f)Geiger-Miiller counter (g) one form of Thermistor. TUESDAY 5 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 1 p.v2. (Answer FOUR qwstions only.) 1. Compare and contrast the addition reactions of the following systems >C=C< ;>C=CH-CH=C< ;>C=CH-C=O. I 2. Discuss the evidence for the existence of ethyl acetoacetate in keto and enol forms and give examples to show how ethyl acetoacetate may be utilised for the preparation of (a) branched chain acids (b) diketones and (c) heterocyclic compounds.3. Describe the methods of preparation and properties of aromatic aldehydes ketones and acids containing a hydroxyl group in the ortho position. Show how these compounds may be differentiated from the corresponding ineta and para isomerides. 4. Review the methods which are available for the synthesis of the quinoline and isoquinoline ring systems and compare and contrast the prop- erties of atoms and groups attached to the heterocyclic and the homocyclic rings in these compounds. Give examples of natural compounds based on these two structures. 5. Discuss the evidence on which the accepted constitutions of THREE 6. Write an essay on the chemistry 04 starch iiud ccllulosc. 7. Indicate briefly how FOUR of the following compounds may be prepared of the following are based :-(a) phenolphthalein (h) caffeine (c) ascorbic acid (d)thyroxine (e) civetone.r 282 3 from readily accessible materials :-(a) triphenylethylene (b) 8-phenyliso-propylamine (c) /?-phenylglutaric acid (d) ethyl p-methoxyphenylacetate (e) 3-bromo-4-chlorobenzoic acid. 2 to 3.30 p.m. Translation of French and German technical literature. Practical First Group. WEDNESDAY 6 .4PRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.117. (Lengthy descriptions of practical work are 9zot required. Make cowcise szofes of yoiir eqberiments as they are made and where possible in fnbirlarform. Stnte your final conclusions clearly.) * 1. Solution (A) contains silver and copper nitrates. Determine the concentration of silver ions in grams per litre by the method prescribed.? (This exercise must be complefed to-day.) 2.Standardise the silver nitrate solution (C) by precipitating and weigh- ing the silver as silver chloride. (This exercise way be roitipleted to-uiorrotu.) 3. Identify by means of qualitative tests the ore (D). [(D) = Ilmenite OR Wolfram.] (This exercise must be completed to-day.) THURSDAY 7 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. Complete the standardisation of the silver nitrate solution (C) begun yesterday. 4. Determine the concentration of copper ions (in grams per litre) in solution (A) by the method prescribed.$ 6. Identify by means of qualitative tests the components of mixture (F) which contains two “insoluble” substances. [(F) = Barium sulphate and silica OR barium sulphate and alumina.] FRIDAY 8 APRIL 1949 10 a.m.to 4.30p.m. 1. From the chlorobenzene provided prepare specimens (approx. 2 g.) of 2 4-dinitrochlorobenzene 2 4-dinitroaniline and 2 4-dinitrodiphenyl-amine. 2. Identify the substance (G). [(G) = Formanilide OR propionamide OR benzamide.] SATURDAY 9 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 4.30p.ni. 3. (H) is a mixture of two organic compounds. Isolate a pure specimen of each constituent and identify them. [(H) = Salicylic acid and p-hydroxy- benzoic acid OR 2 4-dinitrophenol and p-nitrophenol.] 4. Report on the nature of the substance (I). [(I) = Technical triethan- olamine.] * This note was repeated on each of the three following papers. f Not reproduced. $ Not reproduced. In the course of this exercise some candidates are known to have referred to an old edition of a standard text-book in which the amount of copper equivalent to 1 ml.N.sodium thiosulphate was wrongly stated. The Examiners made the necessary correction when assessing the results. [ 283 1 Il’r(icfitctl Set ond Groiip. MOND-4 Y. 11 APRIL 1949 10 u.~. to 4.30p.~ (Lengthydescviptiol-zs of practical work are not required. Make concise notes of yoztr experiments as they we made and where possible in tabular fornz. Stnte your final conclusions clearly.) * 1. Solution (J)contains the nitrates of silver and manganese. Determine the silver ion concentration in grams per litre by the method prescribed.t (This exercise must be completed to-day.) 8.Standardise the silver nitrate solution (L)by precipitating and weighing the silver as silver chloride. (Thisexercise r~nybe con./fAeierl to-mov~oic).) 3. ldentify by means of qualitative tests the ore (hl). ((11) :Mispickcl OR nickel g1ance.j (This exercise Inzist be covnplefed to-day.) TUESDA Y 12 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 4.30 $.in. Complete the standardisation of the silver nitrate solution (L)begun yester- day. 4. Determine the concentration of manganese ions (in grams per litre) in solution (J) by the method prescribed.t 5. Identify by means of qualitative tests the components of the mixture (P)which contains two “insoluble” substances. [(P) = Calcium phosphate and titanium dioxide OH lithium phosphate and stannic oxide.] 1. From the toluene provided prepare specimens (approx.2 g.) of 2 4-dinitrotoluene p-nitrotoluene and p-nitrobenzoic acid. 2. Identify the substance (9). [(Q)-Ethyl oxalate OK ethyl formate.] THURSDAY 14 APRIL 1040 10 u.w.to 4.30 p.m. 3. (R) is a mixture of two organic compounds. Isolate a pure specimen of each constituent and identify them. [(R)= fi-Nitrobenzoic acid and diphenyl OR ni-nitrobenzoic acid and nz-dinitrobenzene .-\ 4. Report on the nature of the substance S. [(S) = Technical oleic acid.] EXAMINATION FOR THE FELLOWSHIP Branch B Physical Chemistry. TUESD.4 Y 19 ,4PRII- 1949 9.30 a.w. to 12.30p.iii. (,4iiswer FOUR qut-Ffions ONLY.) 1. Explain how the Alvogadronumber has been measured by (1) observa-tion of the Brownian movement and (2) determination of the distribution of the particles of a suspension under the action of gravity.2. Give a general account of the methods by which the bond energy of molecules may be measured. By what evidencr is the bond energy of the hydrogen molecule fixed at cn. 103 kcal. ? * This note wab repeatrd on each of thc tlirct. following papers. + Not reproduced. [ 2s4 ] 3. What is understood by the term “chain reaction”? Give a gencral account of the theory of branching chain reactions and describe how they can be recognised. Illustrate your answer by suitable examples. 4. Show how the first and second laws of thermodynamics are combined in the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation and indicate the application of this relation- ship to chemical problems of affinity Explain the attempt to overcome its limitations by the conceptions of the Nernst heat theorem.6. Describe the phenomena attending the adsorption of gases on solids and show how they have been explained Correlate these processes of adsorption with the various types of heterogeneous gaseous reactions and discuss thcir mechanism. Give examples where possible. 6. Explain the assumptions on which the Debye-Huckel theory of strong electrolytes is based. What relationship can be derived by means of this theory between the activity coefficient of a uni-univalent electrolyte and the ionic strength of the solution ? How can such a relationship be tested experi- mentally ? 7. Give a brief description of the glass electrode and its use in the determ- ination of pH.Indicate the limitations and advantages of the method. Assuming that the electrode consists of a membrane permeable only to hydrogen ions derive a relation between the potential of the electrode and the pH of the solution in which it is immersed. In what respects does the actual behaviour of the electrode deviate from the theoretical ? 2 lo 5 p.w. (,4?zswer FOUR questions 0NLY.j 1. Write an historical account of the theoretical and practical aspects of the liquefaction of gases. 2. Outline Einstein’s theory of the specific heats of solids and indicate briefly how it has been extended. Mention the more important aspects of specific heats in chemical theory and practice. 3. What information about photochemical reactions may be derived from a study of molecular absorption spectra ? Illustrate your results by reference to suitable reactions.4. Give an account of the general features of the kinetics of polymerisation of vinyl compounds and indicate the conclusions which have been drawn about the mechanism. How have these matters been studied experimentally ? 3. Draw diagrams showing the various types of equilibria exhibited by binary systems which give (n) continuous and (b) discontinuous series of solid solutions and indicate the nature of the various phase relationships and conversions. Give a short account of the experimental methods by which such diagrams are constructed. 6. Give a general account of thc modern theories of acids and bases including the phenomena of hydrolysis and the theory of buffer solutions.7. Discuss the structure and stability of the various types of lyophilic colloids. How would you determine (a) the isoelectric point and (h) the molecular weight of a protein colloid ? WEUSESUAY fo S.4 TURDA Y 20 to 23 -dPl?IL,1949 9 a.w. to 6.30 P.)IL. each day. 1. (a) Investigate the effect of neutral salts on the initial rate of the reaction between potassium persulphate and potassium iodide in slightly acid solution. i 286 J The overall reaction is 21-+ s,o,-= I + 2s04= and the rate can be followed by titrating the liberated iodine in 50 mI. portions of the reaction mixture with N/100 thiosulphate. Solutions of the following compositions are suitable M 200 m1.-KI + 100 m1.-M -K,S,O -+ 5 ml.2N acetic acid 20 20 AgNO i i XgNO (0.05X) Ag NH,NO,j Satd. SH4N0 iNH,NO (0.05X) -1g NH j where C is the concentration of the complex ion and CA~+ and CNH*are respectively the concentrations of free Ag+ and free NH (i.e. of Ag+ and NH not combined in the complex). Tt may be assumed that the E.M.F. of the The following procedure is suggested (u)Carry out a potentiometric titration of 50 nil. YjIO AgNO -+ 50 ml. N/10NH,NO with approximately N XH solution. Hence determine the ratio y/x and show that CA~+is negligible in comparison with the total (free + complex) silver concentration provided an appreciable excess of NH is present. (b) Measure the E.M.F. at 25* C. of say four cells in which soln. 2 has the composition given above and soln.1 has the following compositions Total hg = 0.005 0.01,0.02 0.05 3. Free NH = constant about 0.5 N. NO,-= 0-10 N (by suitable addition of NH,NO,). Determine x from the variation of E with [total Ag]. (c) Measure the E.M.F. of similar cells in which soln. 1 has the following compositions Total Ag = 0.01 N. NH4+ = 0.09 3. x0,-= 0.10N. Free NH = 0 0.08 0.04,0.08 0.16 . . . . . . ca. 1.0 Plot E against log CNH:,and show that the graph confirms your previous value of ylx. Calculate K from experiments (b) and (c). Branch C Organic Chemistry. IMONDAY 28 llf,4RCH 1949 10 ~.wz. to 1 P.PIZ. (Answev THREE quesfioizs ONLY.) 1. Discuss the evidence for the classification of reagents into electrophilic (or cationoid) and nucleophilic (or anionoid) types and show to what extent satisfactory theories have been developed on this basis to account for the phenomena of (a) aromatic substitution and (b) addition reactions of the carbon-carbon and of the carbon-oxygen double bond.2. Review the methods of preparation and properties of the organo- metallic compounds exclttdipzzg those containing magnesium. 3. Write an essay on EITHER the Vitamin 13 Complex OR Antimalarial Drugs 4. Write an essay on the chemistry of the chromones and coumarins. 5. Discuss the formation and stability of large rings. 6. Write an account of the history occurrence isolation synthesis and stereochemistry of the natural sex hormones. 2 fo 5 p.m. (Atzswev THREE questions ONLY.) 1.Write a review of the uses and limitations of electrolytic reactions in organic chemistry. 2. Review the methods available for the synthesis of heterocyclic com- pounds containing (a) two different and (b) two similar hetero-atoms in one ring. 3. Indicate how FOUR of the following reagents may be prepared and illustrate their uses in organic chemistry (a)aluminium tertiary butoxide (b) N-bromosuccinimide (c) lithium aluminium hydride (d) trimethylam-moniumacetohydrazide chloride (e) acetyl peroxide. 4. Review the chemistry of the anthraquinone dyestuffs. 5. Compare and contrast the phenomena of addition polymerisation and [ 287 ] condensation polymerisation. Give examples of both types and describe in detail the accepted mechanisms for addition polymerisation and the evidence on which they are based.6. Give an account of recent developments in the chemistry of the pro- teins and their degradation products. TUESDA Y and WEDNESDA Y 29 atad 30 M-dRCH 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Identify the substance (A). [(A) = p-Aniinobenzenesulphonacet-amide.] 2. From the diphenyl provided prepare pure specimens (about 2 g.) of (a)4-nitrodiphenyl (b)2-nitrodiphenyl (c)4-aminodiphenyl (44-acetamido-diphenyl (e) 3-nitr0-4-acetamidodipheny1 (f)3-nitro-4-aminodiphenyl. (This exevrise may be continued on subsequent days.) THURSDAY and FRIDAY 31 MARCH and 1 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 5 P.m. each day. Complete yesterday’s exercise 2. 3. (B) is a mixture of p-toluidine and m-toluidine.Using a standard solution of potassium bromate determine the proportions of each present 4. Separate and identify the constituents of the ternary mixture (C). [(C) = Adipic acid p-bromophenol and triphenylmethane.] Branch C Organic Chemistry with Special Reference to Fine Chemicals. MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1 P.m. As for Branch C Organic Chemistry p. 287 2 to 5 p.m. (FOUR questions ONLY to be amwered of which ONE must be EITHER (1) OR (2).) 1. The following substances are specified in a Purchase Tax 0rder:- (a) “dl-2-dimethylamino-4 4-diphenylheptane-&one”; (b) “3 4-dihydroxyl- I-(a-hydroxy- p-aminopropyl) benzene hydro- chloride.” Write down the formula of each and suggest methods for its synthesis.2. Describe the synthesis of any THREE of the following:-(a) pethidine hydrochloride (b) phenazone (antipyrin) (c) procaine hydrochloride (d) sulphonal (e) thyroxine (f) amphetamine (benzedrine). 3. Describe the preparation and properties of one important group of synthetic colouring matters which might be used in food. In what respects might such a colour differ when made solely for technical use? 4. Give examples illustrating the use of the reducing agents more com- monly employed in preparing fine chemicals. 5. Describe the production of saccharin and dulcin for use as sweetening agents. How-are their comparative sweetnesses relative to sugar determined ? 6. Give an account of the application in research on fine chemicals of:- (a) Chromatographic adsorption (b) The molecular still (c) Infra-red spectrography.7. By means of typical examples illustrate the use of FOUR of the following reagents in organic synthesis :-(a) dimethyl sulphate (b) diazomethane [ 288 ] (c) thionyl chloride (d) maleic anhydride (e) ethyl acetoacetate (f)p-toluene sulphonyl chloride. TUESDAY and WEDNESDAY 29 and 30 March 1949 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. each day. As for Branch C Organic Chemistry p. 288. THURSDAY and FRIDAY 31 MARCH and 1 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. Complete yesterday’s exercise 2. 3. Determine the saponification equivalent of the ester (D). Separate the monobasic acid formed by hydrolysis and determine its molecular weight by titration. 4.Separate and identify the constituents of the ternary mixture (C). [(C) = Adipic acid pbromophenol and triphenylmethane.] Branch C Organic Chemistry with Special Reference to High Polymers MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. lo 1 p.m. As for Branch C Organic Chemistry p. 287. 2 to 5 p.m. (FOUR questions ONLY to be answered.) 1. Describe briefly the usual procedure for obtaining long-chain polymers from the following monomers indicating particularly the chemical nature of the initiation step (a)ethylene oxide (b) isobutylene (c)vinyl chloride and (d) ethylene. 2. Describe the scope for and the specific paths of reaction pursued in the production of condensation polymers from urea and formaldehyde discussing briefly the influence of the chemical structure and the physical properties of the polymers on the range of their industrial utility.3. Write a short essay on ONE of the following subjects (a)The reactive character of the methylol-phenol system (0,m p) and its reflexion in the resinification process which leads to phenol-formaldehyde resins ; (b) The manner of linking of the sugar units in cellulose and starches and the means available for breaking the links. 4. Discuss the advantages (if any) and the disadvantages (if any) arising from the presence of ethylenic linkages (repeated or occasional) in the chains of high-molecular polymers. Illustrate your answer with examples. 5. Give an account of methods for the production of halogenated long- chain polymers. Discuss the specific influence of the halogen atoms on the physical and chemical properties and on the utility of the materials.6. Give an account of the structural importance of sulphur as contributory to the production of useful properties in well known polymeric materials. TUESDAY to FRIDAY 29 MARCH to 1 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. As for Branch C Organic Chemistry p. 288. Branch E The Chemistry including Microscopy of Food and Drugs and of Water. MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 11.30 a.m. 1. Discuss the standards of identity and purity for gelatine laid down in Section 1 of the accompanying copy of the Edible Gelatine Order 1948. [ 289 1 2. Write a short essay on either:- (a) The relative biological value of the various proteins OR (b) Methods for distinguishing between amino-acids.3. What are the characteristic constituents of water which cause corrosion or solution of the metals iron lead and zinc? What treatment would you apply to such waters? 11.30 a.m. to 1p.m. (THREE questions ONLY to be answered.) 1. Discuss the methods of testing materials for injection for (a) sterility (b) absence of pyrogens. 2. Write an account of the pharmacological actions of EITHER morphine OR digitalis. 3. Write short notes on the pharmacology and therapeutics of (a) men-thol (b) methylthiouracil (c) picrotoxin (d) squill (e) sulphaguanidine. 4. Describe the principal effects of poisoning by (a) phosphorus (b) mercury. 2 to 5 p.m. (FOUR questions to be answered.) 1. Suggest definitions or standards for the following giving reasons for your views (a)white pepper (b)custard powder (c)curry powder (d)mustard flour (e) dried herbs and (f)coffee and chicory mixture.2. Outline the method you would employ to examine the contents of the crop of a chicken suspected of having been poisoned by the rat poison zinc phosphide contained in a poultry food. 3. Give short accounts of the application in routine food analysis of the following instruments :-Refractometer Polarimeter Polarograph Ultra-Violet lamp Spectrometer. 4. Discuss the composition of the present-day wheat flour. Review the alteration in grade of composition during recent years. Give your views on the use of “improvers.” What methods are employed for the detection and estimation of “improvers” ? 5.What methods would you employ to determine the amount of chloro- xylenol contained in a disinfectant consisting of an emulsion of pine oil chloroxylenol cresols soap and water ? TUESDAY 29 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Determine the fish content of the fish paste (A). 2. Determine the amount of benzoic acid preservative in the fish paste (B). (The whole of the portion (B) must be used for the determination). [Benzoic acid = 500 parts per million.] (These exercises may be finished to-morrow.) WEDNESDAY 30 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Finish yesterday’s exercises 1 and 2. 3. Determine the amount of saccharin or dulcin in the soft drink (C). 4. Determine the percentage of coffee in the coffee and chicory mixture 5.The liquor (E) is a factory effluent said to destroy the activity of the THURSDAY 31 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. io 5 p.m. (D). [Coffee approximately 60 per cent.] [ 290 j micro-organisms in the biological filter-beds of a sewage disposal works. Analyse the liquor (E) for any possible cause. (This exercise may be finished to-morrow.) FRIDAY 1 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Finish yesterday's Exercise 5. 6. Isolate and prepare a stained miscroscopical slide of one of the colonies in the culture (F). Report any opinion that you may form from the micro- scopical examination. (Leave the prepared slide on your bsnch.) 7. Estimate microscopically the proportions of the two starches in mixture (G). 8.Identify the specimens (H) (I) and (J). SATURDAY 2 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. (Reports of all microscopical examina<ions should be accompanied by annotated sketches.) 1. Make a microscopical examination of the powdered vegetable drug (K). Name describe and sketch the structures seen. Identification of the drug is not required. 2. Identify by microscopical examination the powdered vegetable drugs (L) (W,(N) (0)and (P). 3. Identify the alkaloidal poisons in the tablets (Q) and (R). Branch F Agricultural Chemistry. MONDAY 28 March 1949 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (FOUR questions ONLY to bs answered.) 1. What are the principal changes that nitrogenous substances of animal and vegetable origin undergo in the soil? Indicate the extent to which these changes are influenced by the nature of the nitrogenous substances and the conditions in the soil.2. Discuss the availability to crops of the potassium and phosphorus present in soils as assessed by the laboratory methods in use for the quanti- tative estimation of these constituents. 3. Describe the main processes in the development of the soil profile. Explain what is meant by (a)podsols; (b)brown earths; (c)black earths. 4. Indicate the origin composition and use of the following manures:- triple superphosphate nitro-chalk muriate of potash steamed bone flour mono-ammonium phosphate. 5. What is meant by the exchangeable calcium of the soil ? Describe and explain the harmful effects on productivity that may follow the application of an (a)inadequate (b)excessive amount of lime.6. What are the main factors that determine the composition of (a)dung (b) compost? Show how the contribution made by each towards increased fertility is related to the amount and nature of the constituents they contain. 2 to 5 p.m. (FOUR questions ONLY to be answered.) 1. In the light of present knowledge discuss the usefulness and limitations 2. What are the different forms of combination in which phosphorus of the routine methods of analysis of a feeding stuff. [ 291 ] exists in plants and animals? Discuss briefly the functions performed by these compounds. 3. Briefly describe the chemical changes that may be activated through the metallic contamination of milk. Mention and explain the action of other factors that can influence these changes.4. Summarise the evidence in support of the view that copper cobalt and iodine are essential constituents in the food of farm animals. 5. Indicate the composition and main properties of casein and albumin and explain their significance as food constituents. 6. Discuss the nutritive value of any three home grown foods used as substitutes for imported concentrates in the feeding of farm animals. Illu-strate how these home grown foods can be used by constructing rations for a 9 cwt. bullock to give a live-weight increase of 2 Ib. daily. TUESDA Y and WEDNESDA Y 29 and 30 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Determine (a)the pH (b)exchangeable calcium in the soil sample (A). Give your opinion as to the lime dressing required for horticultural pur- poses.2. Analyse the feeding stuff (B) and report fully on the sample. (These exercises may be completed on the following day.) THURSDAY and FRIDAY 31 MARCH and 1 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 5 9.m. each day. 3. Report on the sample (C) of milk. 4. Estimate (a)the nitrate nitrogen and (b) the citric soluble phosphate in manure (D). Branch G Industrial Chemistry with Special Reference to Petroleum. MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Answer at least ONE question from Section A and attempt FOUR questions in all.) A. 1. Give an account of the duties and responsibilities you would be expected to undertake if appointed Safety Officer in a chemical works. 2. Discuss briefly the contribution made to the chemical industry by any TWO of the following:- Baekeland Castner Chance Tennant Muspratt.B. 3. What materials would you recommend for fabrication of plant for the undermentioned duties :-(a) Dilution of nitric acid to a 20 per cent. solution; (b) Washing of mineral oil with sulphuric acid; (c) Evaporator for strong caustic lye; (d) Heat exchanger for dilute hydrochloric acid. In each case discuss the advantages or limitations imposed on the designer by the nature of the material you select. 4. Prepare drafts of the following documents:- (a) A form to be completed in respect of all samples sent to your labor- (b) A plant record sheet to be completed by process operators in charge atory for examination; [ 292 3 of either (a) a still or (b) a steam raising plant with the object of maintaining chemical control.5. Give a description with simple sketches of three of the following pieces of equipment :-(a) Simple gear pump; (b) Some form of temperature recorder; (c) Water meter; (d) A system for the continuous observation of fluid specific gravity. 6. EITHER Describe the method of operation of any type of industrial filtration unit with which you may be familiar and give an account of the materials now available for filter media; OR Discuss the difficulties encountered in taking samples from bulk both of solids and liquids and indicate how you would attempt to overcome them.2 to 5 p.nz. (FIVEquestions ONLY to be answered.) 1. Write an essay on knocking with special reference to the effect of the constitution of hydrocarbons on their behaviour in the internal combustion engine. 2. List the chief solvents used in solvent refining processes for lubricating oil treatment and describe one process in detail with a line diagram. What are the most important solvents being used in the current solvent refining plants ? 3. Describe the development of infra-red analysis as a method for the determination of the hydrocarbons present in a mixture with particular reference to C hydrocarbons. Refer briefly to the use of infra-red analysis in plant control. 4. Write an essay on the development of catalytic cracking of petroleum with particular reference to one of these processes.5. What are the principal materials used as adsorbents in the refining of petroleum ? Describe briefly a modern continuous plant using adsorbents in the refining of lubricating oils. 6. Describe briefly the production of petrolatum from petroleum. Dis-cuss the difference in properties between a petrolatum wax and paraffin wax. 7. Describe the principal sulphur compounds present in crude petroleum and discuss their possible commercial uses. TUESDAY lo THURSDAY 29 to 31 MARCH inclusive 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. (Attempt TWO exercises one of which must be No. 1.) 1. Evaluate the given crude petroleum with respect to its gasoline and kerosine yield and prepare small samples of each of the products in a form suitable for marketing.2. Analyse the given sample of gas for n-butane and isobutane content. 3. Determine the viscosity and viscosity index of the given sample of lubricating oil. Branch G Industrial Chemistry with special reference to Power Station Operation and Practice. MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1p.wi. As for Branch G Industrial Chemistry with special reference to Petroleum p. 292. [ 293 I 2 to 6 p.m. (Answer THREE questions.) 1. How do acidity and excess alkalinity affect the corrosion of steel and what are the implications in the design and operation of boiler plant? 2. How may the presence of silica in boiler water affect boilers and turbines ? Discuss remedies. 3.Describe briefly the process of water purification known as “demineral- isation.” Supposing that a 200 MW closed feed station operating at 900 lb./sq. inch is to be erected and that you have been asked to choose between this pr4)cess and the evaporation of base-exchange softened water as a means of providing the 6 per cent. make-up water which may be required what are the technical and economic factors in which you would be particularly inter- ested and how would they influence your decision? How would the rest of the engine-room plant differ in the two cases ? 4. What are the chemical reagents which are commonly used for boiler water treatment? What are their functions and how do they act? TUESDAY 29 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1 P.m. (Answer THREE questions.) 1.Give an account of the degradation of turbine lubricating oils in service. 2. Give an account of the use of additives in turbine lubricating oils. 3. What steps have been taken to minimise the deleterious effects of chimney emissions ? Describe briefly the principles on which the appliances you mention are based. 4. Discuss the formation of sulphur trioxide in the furnace and gas passes of a boiler fitted with a travelling grate stoker. 2 to 5 9.m. (Answer the FIRST question and TWO others.) 1. Discuss critically the various methods of determining small concen- trations of oxygen in feed water. 2. Describe with the aid of diagrams feed water systems suitable for a two-shift station operating at 900 lb./sq. in. 3.What are the principles governing the operation of vacuum deaerators for power stations? Describe with the aid of diagrams the types of vacuum deaerators that are known to you. 4. Describe a suitable method of sampling and condensing steam in order to determine steam purity by a measurement of electrical conductivity. Supposing that the steam is contaminated with boiler salts and ammonia but not with carbon dioxide how would you use the laws of dilute solution to calculate the conductivity due to boiler salts if the equivalent conductance of ammonia at infinite dilution has not been calculated at concentrations lower than 10 milliequivalents NH per litre? WEDNESDAY 30 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Answer THREE questions.) 1. Give an account of the combustion of carbon in boiler furnaces with special reference to theory.2. A sample of flue gases which was withdrawn from the air-heater outlet of a boiler fitted with a chain grate stoker gave the following results when analysed in a Haldane apparatus:- [ 894 ] Carbon dioxide . . .. . . 10.91 per cent. Oxygen .. .. .. . . 8.69 , On combustion :-Contraction .. .. ,. 0.16 , Carbon dioxide formed . 0.14 , Oxygen consumed .. .. 0.14 , Calculate the theoretical CO percentage on complete combustion with no excess air. Compare the result with the theoretical CO percentage calculated from the following analyses of coal and refuse and comment on the discrep- ancy assuming that the coal analysis fairly represents the coal fed to the grate :-Moisture .... .. 10-6 per cent. Ash . . .. .. . . 14.4 , Carbon . . .. .. . . 64.38 , Hydrogen .. .. . . 4.11 , Oxygen .. .. . . 4.48 , Nitrogen .. .. . . 0.96 , Sulphur .. .. . . 1.07 , Combustible in ashes and fly grits equals 2.5 per cent. of the weight of coal fired. The air contains 21-0per cent. oxygen by volume. 3. A boiler which requires an unusually large quantity of topping-up water when banked is suspected of leakage at expanded tube ends although there is no audible indication of leakage. You have been asked to explore the possibility of discovering leakage by comparing the water vapour contents of the flue gases at a number of stages through the boiler with each other and with the water-vapour calculated to arise from combustion.(a) Briefly describe methods of estimating the water vapour content of the gases; Criticise the validity of the comparison with special reference to (b) errors and to the magnitude of the leak. The boiler loading can be adjusted to suit your investigation. Use the analyses of Question 2 to illustrate your remarks. 4. Define the high and low heats of combustion of solid fuels at constant pressure and constant volume. Derive relationships between them. Outline a method of determining the heat of combustion of pure benzoic acid which is intended for use as a standard in the calorimetry of coal. 5. What changes do the mineral constituents of coal undergo during incineration? How has the method of determining ash in coal been modified in order to diminish disagreement between laboratories which may arise from this cause? 2 to 5 P.m.(Answer Question 1 and EITHER Question 2 OR Question 3.) 1. Plan an organisation to handle the chemical work (including routine investigational and simple metallurgical aspects) of a group of twelve power stations indicating briefly how you would allocate duties and responsibilities if you were free to do so in order to bring the maximum economic benefit to the group as a whole. You should take it that the group contains two new base load stations of 240 MW each operating at 900 Ib./sq. in. which are 60 miles apart but you are free to imagine the capacity steam pressure and location of the other ten stations. 2. Write a brief essay on the use of the microscope in the chemical and 3.Discuss the relationships between the type of firing equipment and the simple metallurgical work which arises in power station practice. r 295 1 characteristics of coal which affect its suitability for use with that equipment for ONE of the following:-(a) a travelling grate stoker; (b) a retort-type stoker; (c) pulverised fuel. THURSDAY 31 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 5 9.m. 1. Examine the sample of water (A) and recommend a method of treat- ment to provide make-up water for boilers operating at 1,350 lb./sq. in. The normal feed to these boilers is 97 per cent. return condensate and 3 per cent. make-up water. (Hand in your answey to this question at the end of the day.) 2. Determine the percentage of sulphate and phosphate in the sample (B) which is an external scale from an economiser.Comment on the possi- bility of cleaning the economise? by spray washing or steaming. (This exercise may be finished tomorrow.) FRIDAY 1 APRIL 1949 10 a.m. to 5p.m. Finish yesterday's Exercise 2. 3. Determine the carbon hydrogen and chlorine contents of the coal sample (C). Branch I Water Supply and the Treatment of Sewage and Trade Effluents. MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1p.m. (Answer Question 1 and THREE others.) 1. The following analytical results were obtained upon examination of two samples of water (A) and (B). Sample A Sample B (parts per MILLION) Total solids dried at 180" C. .. .. .. 100 390 Ammoniacal nitrogen .... .. .. 0.05 0.005 Albuminoid nitrogen .. .. .. .. 0-14 0.060 Nitrite nitrogen . . .. .. .. .. nil nil Nitrate nitrogen .. .. .. .. .. 0.40 1.20 Oxygen absorbed from permanganate (4 hours at2Y C.) . . .. .. .. .. 11.9 0.1 Carbonate hardness .. .. .. .. 68 254 Xon-Carbonate hardness .. .. .. 3 61 Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28.1 - 71.1 33.3 Sulphate (SO,) .. .. .. .. .. 2.1 34.7 Chloride (Cl) .. .I .. .. .. 10.7 46.0 Free carbon dioxide . . .. .. .. 4 25 Metals iron .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 nil Colour Hazen degrees .. .. .. .. 170 10 pH . . .. .. .. .. .. .. 7.0 7.4 48 hours at 37" C. Plate count on agar- .. .. .. .. 2,500 2 72 hours at 21" C. .. .. .. .. 10,000 5 Coliform organisms per 100 ml. .. .. (approx.)35 nil Report upon the suitability of each of these waters for a Public Supply giving reasons for your opinion.State in detail the treatment if any that you would advise to render each water suitable for this purpose. 2. State what you understand by simple chlorination chloramine treat- ment break point chlorination and super-chlorination with dechlorination. Which particular modification would you recommend for sterilising a swim-ming bath water ? 3. Discuss the principles of coagulation as applied to water purification illustrating your answer by reference to alum ferric salts and sodium alum- inate. What experiments could you make in the laboratory to ascertain the best type and amount of coagulant to be added to a particular water? 4.Discuss the possibility of using a sewage polluted river water for a public water supply. What treatment would you advise? 5. Describe the design and operation of a “sludge blanket” type of lime-soda water softening plant. Assume that such a plant softening 1 million gallons per day has to dispose of 30 tons of sludge containing 10 per cent. of solids how would you treat and dispose of this in a satisfactory manner ? 2 to 5 p.m. (Answer Question 1 and THREE others.) 1. State with full experimental details how you would determine in a ferruginous water (a)lead (b) copper (c) manganese. 2. Upon bacteriological examination a water is found to contain coliform organisms. What differential tests would you apply to ascertain the type of organism present ? 3.What do you understand by the term “aggressive” as applied to water ? How would you determine whether a water is aggressive and how would you render a water non-aggressive ? 4. Discuss and compare the two tests “Biochemical oxygen demand” and “Oxygen absorbed from acid permanganate.” 5. For what purposes are (a)trisodium phosphate and (b) sodium hexa- metaphosphate used in water treatment ? TUESDAY 29 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Answer Question 1 and THREE others.) 1. Discuss in detail the various criteria which enable you to judge the quality of a sewage effluent. . 2. Give an account of all the methods of sludge disposal with which you are acquainted stating the advantages and disadvantages of each method. 3. Write a short essay on the chemical and biological aspects of the self- purification of streams polluted with sewage.4. Discuss EITHER the possible effects of synthetic detergents upon the treatment of sewage containing them OR the question of the admittance of trade wastes into the sewers of a local authority. 5. How would you advise that trade wastes from any two of the following types of works should be dealt with (a)chromium plating works (b) gasworks (c) a vegetable canning factory ? [On the Tuesday afternoon a borehole supply of a Water Undertaking and a water supply pumped from a colliery were inspected and samples were taken.] WEDNESDAY to FRIDA Y 30 MARCH to 1 APRIL iizclusive 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Make bacteriological examinations of two samples of water collected for that purpose.3. Analyse the sample of borehole water. [ 297 ] 3. Make a complete analysis of the colliery water calculate amounts of lime and other chemicals necessary to soften it and determine the iron and manganese therein. 4. Determine the chloride and thiocyanate content of the sewage effluent 5. Determine the total phosphate content of the water containing sodium hexametaphosphate. 6. Complete the bacteriological examination of the waters and in conjunction with chemical results obtained write reports as to their suitability for a Public Supply. Special Examination in Textile Chemistry with special reference to the Technology of Fibres including Bleaching Dyeing and Finishing Synthetic Fibres Etc.MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Answer FIVE questions ONLY.) 1. What are the principles applicable to all manufactured fibres which govern the attainment of high ultimate strength in the fibre? Give examples of the application of these principles in the manufacture of high-tenacity cellulose fibres. 2. Give an account of the work which has led to the elucidation of the chemical structure of cellulose. 3. Compare the behaviour of natural and of regenerated forms of fibrous cellulose in cold caustic soda solutions over the concentration range N to 10N. Discuss the technical significance of this behaviour. 4. What are the essential structural features in the molecule of a sub- stance showing a high surface activity? How are variations in this structure related to the conditions in the solution (temperature electrolyte concentra- tion etc.) at which optimum activity is manifested? How do you account for the fact that cation-active agents are not normally employed primarily for the purpose of facilitating wetting-out ? 5.Discuss briefly the significance of the following substances in the production of synthetic fibres of distinctive. properties :-(u) cyclohexanol (b) o-caprolactam (c) acetic anhydride (d) ethylene glycol (e) acetylene. 6. Suppose that you conceive an idea for a new dyeing process and that you desire to amplify your information in order to make use of data already available and also to satisfy yourself that your idea has not been anticipated. How would you conduct a search of the relevant literature with the above objects in view? 7.What procedure is required in order to obtain critical definition in a photomicrograph of the cross-section of undyed viscose filaments ? 8. Give an account of modern shrink-resisting processes and show how they are related to our present knowledge of the structure of the wool fibre and of the chemical constitution and reactions of wool protein. 2 to 5 p.m. (Answer FIVE questions ONLY.) 1. An acetate warp satin after desizing and dyeing shows the presence of penodically-spaced narrow stripes in the warp direction which are more intensely coloured than the rest of the fabric. Discuss the probable causes of this effect and state what tests you would apply in order to ascertain how it had in fact occurred.[ 298 2. Discuss critically the requirements at each stage which would be necessary for conducting the bleaching of cotton piece goods on a completely continuous system. How far have modern developments progressed towards the realisation of such a process? 3. Outline briefly the theory of the determination of pH by an electro- metric method and describe the practical determination of this quantity in a solution containing an active oxidising agent. 4. Assess the importance of the recently discovered Alcian Blue 8G in the dyeing and printing of textiles. What is known of its constitution and how does this govern the methods suggested for its application ? 5. Discuss recent suggestions that have been made for determining the most favourable conditions for applying the direct cotton dyes in order to obtain (a) maximum levelness of result on a regenerated cellulose of variable adsorptive capacity (b) maximum levelness and penetration when dyed on closely woven fabrics or wound yarn packages.How are these tests based upon fundamental knowledge of the behaviour of these dyes ? 6. Discuss the application of synthetic resins in the finishing of textiles. 7. How may a loom-state viscose woven with tightly twisted weft yarns be finished to produce a material with a pronounced and uniform crepe? 8. Describe methods that have been introduced for conferring dimensional stability on woven textile materials. 9. Compare the advantages and disadvantages economic and technical of the screen block and machine methods of textile printing.TUESDAY to FRIDAY 29 MARCH to 1 APRIL inclusive 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Examine the sample of the dyebath (A) which has been used for dyeing a batch of woollen yarn in respect of dye content acid content and sulphate content. A pure specimen of the dye employed will be provided. 2. Report on the suitability of the hypochlorite solution (B) for the bleaching of a scoured cotton cloth by a process in which the time of treatment is specified as two hours. 3. Identify the fibres present in the sample of printed cloth (C) and the classes of dye used for its coloration. 4. The two specimens (D) and (E) have been offered at the same price as pure textile soaps suitable for scouring and crepeing acetate fabrics.Which of the two should be chosen as having the best competitive value? 5. Place the dyes (F),(G) and (H) in the order of their suitability for the uniform dyeing and full penetration of cotton and viscose yarns. Special Examination in Chemical Spectroscopy. MONDAY 28 MARCH 1949 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Answer FOUR questions ONLY.) 1. Give an account of recent developments in spectroscopic equipment for the study of EITHER infra-red absorption spectra OR ultra-violet absorption spectra. 2. Discuss the general problem of light sources in spectroscopy and deal in detail with two or three important types. 3. Describe the various types of photographic plate used in spectroscopy. Discuss the principles governing the relationship between incident light intensity and blackening in the developed negative.r 299 1 4. Given a negative taken with a large quartz spectrograph and showing in juxtaposition (a)the iron arc (b) the spectrum of a new metal how would you determine the wave-lengths and intensities of the spectral lines of the new element ? 5. Describe the experimental methods available for determining Raman spectra. 6. Discuss the technical problems of spectroscopy in the region of the ultra-violet below 2,000A. 7. Explain in detail what is meant by FOUR of the following:-(a) polari-sation photometers (b) Littrow-type spectrograph (c) under-water spark (d) echelon cell (e) double beam instrument (f) reversion spectroscope (Hartridge) (g) micro-spectrography (h) molecular extinction coeficient and E 1',??,, (i) ionisation potential.2 to 5 p.m. (Answer FOUR questions ONLY.) 1. Write an essay on the methods available for determining quantitatively the impurities present in a relatively pure specimen of ONE of the following:- copper lead aluminium carbon. 2. Discuss the determination of trace metals in vegetable products or tissue. Refer briefly to the significance of such studies. 3. Give an account of some of the results obtained during the last decade in the study of infra-red absorption spectra of organic compounds and assess their value. 4. Describe the present position of ultra-violet spectrophotometry as an analytical tool with special reference to any ONE problem.5. Outline the theoretical aspects of the interpretation of ONE of the following:-(a) spectra of diatomic molecules (b) spectra of alkali metals (c) absorption spectra of the vapours of benzene and related substances (d) absorption spectra of poly-enes (e) absorption spectra of polycylic hydrocarbons. 6. Write an essay on works of reference and monographs in the field of chemical spectroscopy. Discuss also the problem of abstracting and indexing the literature of the subject. 7. Describe the problem of designing and equipping a spectroscopic laboratory in a research institution concerned with a wide range of problems. TUESDAY lo THURSDAY 29 to 31 MARCH inclusive 10 a.m. to 5 p-m. each day. 1. Report on the alloy (A) provided.2. Determine the absorption spectrum of the substance (B),and estimate its molecular weight given the spectra of substances (C) and (D). The nature of (C) and (D) will be disclosed after you have determined the spectrum of (B). REPORT EXAMINATIONTHE ASSOCIATESHIP FOR Inorganic and Physical Chemistry. The standard reached in answering the inorganic chemistry paper was generally good and a welcome feature was the demonstration of a good grasp of the fundamental principles and essential facts. There were however clear indications in many cases that candidates were far below the standard r 3001 and would have been well advised not to enter the examination without further study. The misuse of the terms “cation” and “anion” resulted in a surprising number of confused answers.Candidates would be well advised to use the terms positive ion and negative ion if the meanings of the shorter terms do not immediately spring to their minds. Many of the answers to Q. 4 and Q. 7 (b) showed a sound appreciation of the basic developments in the important fields concerned. The paper on physical chemistry continues to present more difficulty than that on inorganic chemistry apparently because basic principles have not been fully assimilated. About half the candidates attempted Q. 1 but none gave an accurate answer to the second part. The definitions of the important concepts “free energy,” “chemical potential” and “activity coefficient” were often loose and showed that the meanings were not properly understood.The answers to Q. 2 and Q. 3 and the standard bookwork comprising the first part of Q. 4 were well done. The rider to Q. 4,asking for a demonstration of the effect of an inert gas on the vapour pressure of a pure liquid was admittedly rather difficult and few candidates provided satisfactory solutions. In Q. 5 a number of candidates were unable to enumerate the useful features of the equilateral triangle and none chose the right-angled triangle. The second part of the question was very well answered. Only about 30 per cent. of the candidates were prepared to attempt Q. 6 which was included for those who like to exercise their native wit. It was not anticipated that the candidates would have met any of these determinations in practice and what was sought was an intelligent approach to the problems.Some of the answers showed good discrimination in selecting methods and ingenuity in experi- mental arrangements. The second part should have proved straightforward to all who attempted the question yet a few omitted it and others gave in- accurate answers. A large choice was deliberately presented in Q. 7 because it was realised that few candidates would have met with all the items either in the laboratory or in their reading. The least popular items were the McLeod gauge Pirani gauge and Thermistor. The principles underlying the use of the various refractometers described were not presented in a very satisfactory manner. In the inorganic practical examination the quantitative work was very good.Both in London and Leeds some candidates were misled by a misprint in an old edition of a standard text-book-1 ml. of N Na,S,O = 0.0357 g. Cu instead of 0.6357 g. Cu. The results were accordingly corrected and the candidates were not penalised. The same work is misleading over the standardisation of iron by potassium permanganate in the bismuthate method in that the removal of excess sodium bismuthate by filtration is omitted. This should not have led candidates astray but since candidates are under a stress some account was taken of this source of error in assessing the results. The qualitative work was on the whole much less satisfactory. Sulphur was frequently missed in Mispickel; titanium was missed in Ilmenite because candidates did not get the material properly into solution ; silicon frequently appeared as aluminium in the mixture (F);and in the corresponding mixture (P)some candidates even missed phosphate.It was evident that much more practice is needed in qualitative analysis particularly in the examination of mixtures containing insoluble constituents. Organic Chemistry. With the sole exception of the answers to the question on ethyl acetoacetate the standard attained in organic chemistry by most of the candidates was low. A comparatively large number were obviously out of their depth and appeared to have entered for the examination without having covered the necessary [ 301 1 ground. In Q. 1 many candidates had no conception of the special properties associated with a double bond between the cc and /3 carbon atoms with reference to a carbonyl group and in Q.3 considerable difficulty was experienced in suggesting methods for distinguishing between the ortho-hydroxy compounds and their meta-and para-isomerides. The answers on the chemistry of starch and cellulose were mostly very elementary in character and Q. 4 was done less satisfactorily than it might have been because many candidates compared the properties of the two rings in quinoline and isoquinoline whereas the question asked for a comparison of the properties of atoms or groups attached to the rings. The answers to Q. 7 were with a few exceptions very poor many candidates’ ideas on organic syntheses never extended beyond the Wurtz and Friedel-Crafts reactions which were applied without any discretion to the most unsuitable starting compounds.In the examination in practical organic chemistry the genera1 standard reached was more satisfactory. In the separation and identification of the constituents of a binary mixture the emphasis was on the method of separation rather than on the identification of the rather commonplace constituents and this reversal of the more usual procedure proved troublesome to many candidates. The identification of benzamide proved surprisingly difficult. Translations. The Board wishes to call special attention to the fact tLat no less than eleven candidates failed to satisfy the Examiners in the translation of foreign languages particularly German.Candidates should realise that this transla- tion test is regarded as an important part of the examination. The Council does not now insist on a foreign language at the preliminary examination stage but candidates would be wise to study foreign languages at as early a stage as possible and to regard ability to consult foreign technical literature as an essential part of their training. EXAMINATION FOR THE FELLOWSHIP Branch E The Chemistry including Microscopy of Food and Drugs and of Water. The theoretical work was generally well done. Sometimes however sufficient thought was not given to questions before commencing to answer them. The contents of the crop of a fowl would probably be in an incipient or even advanced stage of decomposition when received for analysis and any smelling test would be of little use; also evidence from examination for phosphorus would be doubtful.The practical work was uneven. The determination of benzoic acid in fish paste yielded disappointingly varying results even when allowance was made for the tendency to a low result due to the pressure of time. A similar variation occurred in the determination of the amount of coffee in the coffee and chicory mixture but here the time factor did not apply. On the other hand the routine determination of oil nitrogen moisture and ash in fish paste was generally well done. The estimation of potassium dichromate in a dirty effluent presented much difficulty. In therapeutics pharmacology and microscopy the general level of the work done by those candidates who passed was very satisfactory.In the microscopical work the identification of vegetable powders was on the whole well done and the results of the exercise which called for investigation and description of an “unknown” root were quite creditable. The identification of two poisonous alkaloids in tablets proved well within the capacity of most of the candidates. It is again necessary to stress the importance of giving sketches and details of procedure in the reports on microscopical investigations. I 302 1 PASS LIST EXAMINATION THE ASSOCIATESHIP FOR Arthur Douglas Stuart Roland B.Sc. (Lond.) The Technical College Halifax. Barrow Evelyn Thomas Edward The Technical College Brighton.Birks Frank Thomas Woolwich Polytechnic London and University College Swansea. Bryant Kenneth Henry Merchant Venturers’ Technical College Bristol. Camm Frederick Allen College of Technology Leeds. Cook Herbert Michael College of Technology Leeds. Elgar Derek John B.Sc. (Lond.) The Technical College Brighton. Fisher James Edwin The Technical College Brighton. Gardner Miss Joyce Elizabeth The Technical College Coventry. Gibbs Brian Montague B.Sc. (Lond.) The Technical College Brighton. Houghton Francis Richard Wigan and District Mining and Technical College. Howard George Eric B.Sc. (Lond.) Battersea Polytechnic London. Jackson George Municipal Technical College Hull. Jenkins Henry Austen Technical College Cardiff. Kemp Alan Ronald The Polytechnic Regent Street London.Lovett Stanley Constantine Technical College Middlesbrough. Maker Deryk Leonard University College Exeter. Matthews Roy Derek The Technical College Coventry. Maxwell George Edward Rutherford College of Technology Newcastle upon Tyne. Moss Kenneth Bradford Technical College Central Technical College Birmingham Harris Institute Preston and Medway Technical College Gill ingh am. Murrell Clifford John The Polytechnic Regent Street London. Nava Harold Anthony City Technical College Liverpool. Norton Philip Douglas Merchant Venturers’ Technical College Bristol. Poppelsdorff Fedor The Polytechnic Regent Street London. Robinson Edward Leaver Blackburn Municipal Technical College. Shackleton. Ronald The Technical College Doncaster.Smith Kenneth Frederick Royal Technical College Salford. Spickett Robert Geoffrey William Woolwich Polytechnic London. Thompson Ronald John Harris Institute Preston and Northern Polytechnic London. Trappe Gordon Royal Technical College Salford. EXAMINATION THE FELLOWSHIP FOR Branch G Organic Chemistry. Rea Allen Arthur. Branch C Organic Chemistry with special reference to High Polymers. Greenhow Edward Joshua B.Sc. (Lond.). Holloway Maurice William B.Sc. (Liv.). Branch E The Chemistry including Microscopy of Food and Drugs aud of Water. Bushnell Alexander Claud. Davison Stuart Herbert Henry B.Sc. (Lond.). Halliday James Henry. Hayes William Peatman B.Sc. (Lond.). Johnson John Terrence George. Marshall James Herbert Evan B.A.(Cantab.). Pike Ernest Richard. Staniforth Victor B.Sc. (Lond.). Turner Mervyn Edward Iknnant BSc. (Lond.). [ 303 i Branch F Agricultural Chemistry. Collins Frank Caldwell. Branch G Industrial Chemistry with special reference to Petroleum. Burjorjee Hirjee Rustom M.Sc. (Rangoon). Branch I Water Supply and the Treatment of Sewage and Trade Efluents. Lester William Frederick B.Sc. (Lond.). Special Examination in Textile Chemistry. Gruschka John B.Sc.Tech. (Manc.). Special Examination in Chemical Spectroscopy. Thomas Leslie Charles BSc. (Lond.). ADDENDUM Examinations January 1949.-It is regretted that in the Examination Papers for the Associateship printed in JOURNAL 1949 11, AND PROCEEDINGS 134-137 the names of the substances set in the practical exercises were not stated.They were as follows:- P. 136 Q. 2. (B) = Lithium phosphate and sodium molybdate OR. Lithium fluoride and sodium molybdate. P. 137 Q. 1 (P)= Adipic acid OR phenylacetic acid. (Q) = Sodium tartrate OR barium citrate. (R) = p-NitrotoIuene and aniline OR p-toluidine and nitrobenzene. (S) = rvz-Nitrobenzaldehyde. THE REGISTER The letters preceding the names in the lists below indicate the Local Sections to which Members and Students are attached in accordance with the list of Local Sections which will be found on the inside back cover of this issue New Fe ilows (P) Blundell Laurence Walter M.Sc. (P) McCarthy Jeremiah Patrick (Lond.) A.R.C.S. D.I.C. M.A.(Oxon.) Ph.D. (Rome). A.M.1.Chem.E. F.Inst.Pet. Polya John Bela Dr.Sc.Tech. (R) Fear Group Capt. Athol Henry,. Dip.Ing.Chem. (Zurich) BSc. (X.Z.). F.A.C.I. (0) Hampshire George Kenneth (I?) Pring John Norman M.B.E. M.A. (Oxon.). D.Sc. (Manc.). Hassall Professor Cedric Her- (P) Stephens Roderick Louis BSc. bert M.Sc. (N.Z.) Ph.D. (Lond.) B.Pharm. Ph.C. (Cantab.). (C) Topley Bryan M.B. (Oxon.). (P) Lee George William M.Sc. (Leeds) F.Inst. F. Associates Elected to the Fellowship (P) Ballard Cecil Walter B.Sc. (K) Burnet William Deas B.Sc. (Lond.) Ph.C. (Edin.). (C) Bowcott Harold Joseph. (C) Bushnell Alexander Claud. Burjorjee Hirjee Rustom (N) Butcher Kenneth Leopold NSc. (Rangoon). BSc. (Lond.) Dip.Chem.Eng.[ 304 1 Chatterjee Durga Pada M.Sc. Marshall James Herbert Evan B.Met. D.Phi1. (Calcutta) B.A. (Cantab.). A.I.M. Marshall Peter Robert B.Sc. Collins Frank Caldwell. Ph.D. (Dunelm). Dagley. Stanley MA. B.Sc. Narayana-Iyer Subramania (Oxon.) MSc. (Lond.). M.A. (Madras) A.I.I.Sc. Davison Stuart Herbert Henry Nefdt Harry Mathys B.Sc. BSc. (Lond.). (S.A.). Ellis Bertram Stanley BSc. Pike Ernest Richard. (S.A.) D.I.C. Pressley Thomas Athol B.Sc. Gellman Alexander B.Sc. (N.Z.). (Lond.) . Price John William B.Sc. Greaves Edmund George Noel Ph.D. (Lond.). B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.). Rea Allen Arthur. Greenhow Edward Joshua Richardson George Gary M.Sc. B.Sc. (Lond.). (Lond.) A.I.R. I. Halliday James Henry. Ryder Samuel Edward ,411en Haselhurst Herbert William BSc.(Birm.). Reay B.Sc. (Durham). Sen Gupta Narayan Chandra Hawke Frank M.Sc. Eng. D.Sc. (Calcutta) . (Witwatersrand). Sharpe Clifford John. Hayes William Peatman B.Sc. Srinivasan Narasimha M.A. (Lond.). (Madras). Haywood Philip John Court-Staniforth Victor B.Sc. (Lond.). ney BSc. (Wales). Stanley Douglas Austen B.Sc. Holloway Maurice William (Lond.) M.B. B.S. M.R.C.S. B.Sc. (Liv.). L. R.C.P. Holt Fred O.B.E. MSc. Storrie Frederick Robert BSc. (Manc.). Ph.D. (Glas.). Howe Dennis John Thomas Taylor Alec B.Sc. (Lond.) B.Sc. (Lond.). A.M.I.I.A. Johnson John Terrence George. Thompson Robert Joseph Stan- Kerfoot Jack B.Sc. (Lond.). ley BSc. (Lond.) M.Inst.- King Miss Catherine Wilson Gas E. BSc. Ph.D.(Glas.). Thomson Ronald Hunter B.Sc. Kirkpatrick William Ford Ph.D. (Leeds) Dip. in Dyeing. A.H.-W.C. Turner Mervyn Edward Den- Lester William Frederick BSc. nant. B.Sc. (Lond.). (Lond.),M.1nst.S.P. Watson Mearns Bruce BSc. Lyth Rupert MSc. (Manc.) Ph.D. (Aberdeen). Dip.Bact. White Edward George MSc. (Witwatersrand). Re-elected Fellow McBain Professor James William M.A. (Toronto) Ph.D. (Heidelberg) F.R.S. New Associates (0) Addison William Eric B.Sc. (Q) Arnfield Robert Frank B.Sc. (Glas.). (Manc.). (P) Anstead Douglas Frederick (G) Arthur Douglas Stuart Roland B.Sc. (Lond.). B.Sc. (Lond.). (P) Armitage Frank. (F) Arthurs Joseph M.Sc. (X.U.I.). (P) Armstrong Donald Maurice (P) Bache Herbert Josiah. Gray B.Sc.(Lond.). (P) Barrow Evelyn Thomas Edward [ 305 ] Berry Lionel James B.Sc. (Lond.). Birks Frank Thomas. Blacker Robert Pardoe B.Sc. (Wales). Bowes Philip Charles B.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. Bright Norman Francis Henry B.Sc. Ph.D. (Bristol). Brown Eric Richard Ph.C. Brown Robert A.H.-W.C. Bryant Kenneth Henry. Burrows Arnold Arthur B.Sc. (Lond.). Cachia Gerald Patrick B.Sc. (Lond.) . Camm Frederick Allen. Clark Victor Malcolm B.A. (Cantab.). Clements Henry. Collier Kenneth Arthur B.Sc. (Lond.). Cook Herbert Michael. Cox Richard George. Cumming Miss Eva Barbara B.Sc. (Glas.). Cutting Charles Latham B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.). De Rycke Douglas Auguste Charles Ph.C. Deutsch Berthold Dip.Ing.Tech. (Vienna). Donaldson Daniel McIntosh B.Sc. (Glas.). Draper Alfred John Mountfort. Drewry John BSc. (Lond.) Dukes John Alexander. Dunbar Harold Jessup Douglas. Dunkerton Bertram Stanley BSc. (Lond.). Elgar Derek John BSc. (Lond.). Fisher James Edwin. Fowler Robert Thomas B.Sc. (Wales). Gardner Miss Joyce Elizabeth. Gee Granville Nicholas. Gellay Victor Peter B.Sc. (Lond.). Gibbs Brian Montague B.Sc. (Lond.). Goodchild Anthony Grayson B.Sc. (Lond.). Gourley. Samuel B.Sc. (Glas.). Greenwood Robert Fred B.Sc. (Lond.). Guile David Peter Maurice M.Sc. (Wales) Gwyn -4lan Stratton B.A. (British Columbia). Hadley William Jackson B.Sc. (Birm.). Hale Clifford William. Hammond Edgar B.Sc.(Lond.) Harms Alfred Joseph B.A. (Cantab.). Hawthorn Albert Neil. Hesling Stephen BSc. (Leedsj Dip. Ing. Chem. (Lond.). Hewett Douglas Richard. Hewitt Charles Harold. Hilton Miss Ardene Claverdon BSc. (Lond.). Hodds Brian William Gordon B.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. Hollingsworth Brian Laurie B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.). Holmes George Edmund M.A. (Cantab.). Holmes Stanley Edgar. Houghton Francis Richard. Howard George Eric B.Sc. (Lond.). Howard Peter M.Sc. (Leeds). Howarth Arthur James Ph.C. Humphries Ellis Arthur. Hussain Anwar M.Sc. (Punjab). Jackson Norman Frederick. Jelly Lawrence Grenville. Jenkins Henry Austen. Karim Abul Qasim Mohammad Bazlul BSc. (Dacca) MSc. (Aligarh) Ph.D. (Lond.). Kenzie Raphael George.Kerr-h'luir Ronald John M.A. B.Sc. (Oxon.). Kingsnorth Stanley William BSc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. Kraj keman Andrew Jan Dip. Ing. Chem. (E.T.H.). Lee David John Austin B.Sc. A.K.C. (Lond,). Lee Harold Norman BSc. (Lond.). Lee Henry Ramsden B.Sc. (Sheffield). Lee Neville Douglas B.Sc. (Leedsf Dip. in Dyeing. Lewis John Augustus. Loughlin Rev. Wilfrid James B.Sc. Ph.D. (1,iv.). Lovett Stanley. Macdonald Frederick James. Maker Deryk Leonard. Mann Jack B.A. (Oxon.). Martin Alfred Stirling B.Sc. (St. Andrews). Mathers Cecil George B.Sc. (Aberdeen). Matthews Roy Derek. Maxwell George Edward. McCoubrey Arthur B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.) M.P.S. McKee Robert Smith A.R.T.C. McNicol John Charles.McPherson Norman Spencer B.Sc. (St. Andrews). Mehta Fakirjee Sorabjee B.Sc. (Bombay) Ph.D. (Leeds). Mehta Himatlal Vrajlal B.Sc.- Tech. (Bombay) A.R.T.C. Milrnan Alwyn Darker B.Sc. (Lond. and Sheff.). Minton Arthur Sydney. Monigatti John David William M.Sc. (N.Z.). Morris John Douglas M.Sc. (Lond.). Moss Kenneth. Murrell Clifford John. Mutch John. Nair Ramannair Velayudhan M.Sc. (Travancore). Nava Harold Anthony. Norton Philip Douglas. Olivier Jacques Raymond BSc. (Reading) Dip.Agric. (Mauritius) Othen Clifford Warne M.Sc. Dip.Ed. (Wales). Owen John Thomas Roberts B.Pharm. (Wales) Ph.C. Owen Keith B.Sc. (Lond.). Pierce Mrs. Audrey Mary BSc. (Lond.). Poppelsdorff Fddor. Porter Miss Margaret Dora B.Sc.(Lond.). Poucher Charles Douglas B.Sc. (Lond.). Poulton Francis Cyril James. Powlesland Norman John B.Sc. (Lond.). Prescott John Roy. Rawlinson Sydney Bruce M.Sc.Tech. (Manc.). Raychoudhury Prodosh Chan- dra BSc. (Calcutta) MSc. Ph.D. (Dacca). [ 307 1 Robinson Edward Leaver. Roper Geoffrey Harold Dip. Chem.Eng. (Sydney). Roy Chowdhury Kali Pada MSc. (Calcutta). Samuel George. Secker John Segrue B.A. BSc. (T.C.D.). Seshadri Pennathur B.Sc. (Madras) A.R.T.C. Shackleton Ronald. Shellard Edward Joseph B.Pharm. Ph.C. Sheppard Malcolm Frederick BSc. (Lond.). Sherrington Leonard George M.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. D.I.C. Shrimpton Ronald Horace BSc. (Birm.). Sinclair Miss Violet Catherine BSc.(Glas.). Sly Rodney Alfred B.Sc.(Glas.) A.R.T.C. Smith Kenneth Frederick. Spickett Robert Geoffrey Wil- liam. Stephenson William Harold M.P.S. Ph.C. Dip.Bio-Chem. Sykes Harold B.Sc. (Lond.). Taylor Arthur. Thompson Ronald John. Thorne Walter Frederick B.Sc. (Lond.) A.M. Inst .GasE. Titterington William B.Sc. (Lond.). Topper Harry Hyman B.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. Trappe Gordon. Treharne Elgar Dennis Llewel- lyn B. A. BSc. (Sydney). Twichett Harry James B.Sc. Ph.D. (Leeds). Vines Gordon David. Walker Edward Neil BSc. (Lond.). Walker Jack B.Sc. (Leeds). Walker James Fairweather B.Sc. (St. Andrews). Walker John Howard B.A. B.Sc. (Oxon.). Wareham John Ferguson B.Sc. (Leeds). Watson Guy Harold Ralph B.A.(Cantab.). Whitfield Ronald BSc. (Lond.) . Williams Thomas Brinley (P) Wood Dennis Geoffrey Murray B.Sc. Dip.Ed. (Wales). B.Sc. (Lond.). Willis Raymond Albert B.Sc. (K) Wylie Joseph B.Sc. (Glas.). (Lond.). (X) Wynne Reginald George. Wolstenholme Arthur Wilks (P) Wyse William John B.Sc. B.Sc. (Lond.). (Lond.). New Students Addicott Harold Frank Davey Leo. Simpson. Davies David Wyndham. Ainscough John Ralph. Dearden Jack. Allan George Graham. Denby Alan Hubert. Anderson Miss Joan Audrey Dixon Garry Michael Langston. B.Sc. (Lond.). Ducker Colin. Andrewartha Edwin Rees. Duckham Robert Henderson. Archer Derek Paul. Dwyer Terence. Armond John Walter. Elliott Fred. Arnold David Anthony. Elliott Walter Norman.Athersuch Douglas. Elliston Stanley Calvin. Ault Miss Elizabeth Margaret. Exelby Kenneth Ashby. Avery Kenneth William John. Farrar Sydney. Barradas Remigio Germano. Fitch George Roy. Basketter Leslie Thomas. Forshaw Edward Robert Baxter Peter. Antony. Beal Miss Rhona. Gadsby Donald. Beale Edward Worthy. Gale Robert Brian. Beckett Miss Marjorie Con-Garnett Victor. stance. Gaston Peter James. Beech Sidney. Gibbard Ernest John. Bellingham Douglas Curtis. Grieve David Imrie. Bentham Norman. Halewood Gerard. Bond John B.Sc. (Lond.). Hanley Jack. Booth Alan Neil. Hare George Raymond. Bowles Bryan John. Harper Norman Thomas. Boyd George Scott. Harrison John. Brackman Derek Samuel. Harrison John Carrol. Brightman Roy Edward.Hawkes Stephen James. Briscoe John Palmer. Hayward Frank. Broughton William Hewson. Hobbis Ronald Seymour. Brown David Arther. Hoey Charles Eric. Brown John. Holden Norman. Bryon John Patrick Holdsworth Roy. Buck William Stanley. Honiball Alan Edward. Butler Peter Alister. Howard Eric. Carter Eric Ralph. Howling Harold Lawson. Casajuana Brian Eric. Hudson Alan. Chaderton Kenneth Bernard. Hunt Eric Charles. Chadwick John Graham. Hunter Kenneth John. Clare James Frederick. Hymas Michael Bayard. Collins Raymond Frederick. Ingram Miss Patricia Ann. Collins Rodney Harry. James David William Francis. Cook John Edmund. J effard Reginald. Cowgill Eric. Kay Douglas Francis. Crook Laurence. Kenney Ronald Joseph. Currell Marshall Geoffrey.Knight Ian Barkell. Dadswell Peter. Lewis John Lawrence. Lithgow Thomas. Sage Colin Henry. Littler John. Saxton Brian Leonard. Long Geoffrey. Sherwin Ernest. Luscombe Miss Mollie. Shuttleworth Kenneth. Lyons Raymond Charles. Singleton Dennis Oswald. Marsh Graham John. Smith Peter Joseph. Mayes James. Smith William Joseph. McLintock Robert Paterson. Spence Robert Wilfred. Measures Ralph Michael. Stacey Miss Joan. Meston Alexander Marshall. Stevenson Miss Jean. Middleton Peter Edwards. Sutton John Doran. Minns Ronald Ernest. Swanwick John Douglas. Moore Derek Francis. Swift George Edward. Moore Peter John. Taylor Percy. Myrans Samuel Manfred Carl. Thomas Alwyn John Pugh. Neaves Anthony Harold. Toon George Arthur. Neill Aubrey.Toothill Colin. O’Neill Terence. Trawford Alfred John. Ormrod George Thomas Tucker Austin Ormonde. Wallace. Turton George Gerald. Owen Thomas Ionverth. Twyford Ian Teasdale. Pattison Johnson. Vale Norman Wilfred. Peacock John. Vaughan John Edwin. Pedder Denis. Wain John Gordon. Pedley Kenneth Albert. Wall Dennis Charles. Platt George Ronald. Wall Ronald James. Porter Alan James. Warren Howard Rend B.Sc. Rawdon Peter Douglas. (Wales). Reynolds John. Webb Miss Joyce Eileen. Rhodes Bryan Waller. m’est Hugh Frederick George. Richards Harold Rex. Wetherley Donald Edmund. Riddett Norman James. Whitfield Thomas Matthew. Robertson Peter. Wood Dennis William. Rothwell Eric. Re-registered Students Davies William. (0) Knight John Frederick Leslie B.A.(Cantab.). DEATHS Fellows Alfred Appleyard M.Sc. (Leeds). John William Hawley B.Sc. (Lond.) A.M.1.Chem.E. Frederick StanIey Kipping Ph.D. (Munich) D.Sc. (Lond.) Hon. DSc. (Leeds) F.R.S. Sir Robert Robertson K.B.E. M.A. D.Sc. LL.D. (St. Andrews) F.R.S. Associates Walter Noel Bagshaw BSc. (Lond.). Cecil Wentworth Yearsley M.Sc. (Lond.). Registered Students Henry Alexander. Clifford Hordley Griffiths. [ 309 1 OBITUARY Henry Alexander a Registered Student of the Institute died on 2 April 1949 in his 22nd year. He was educated at College Lane School Elthorne Road School and Princess Mary Road School London Harrison Road School Leicester and The Gateway School Leicester. In 1943 he took a post as a laboratory assistant at the British United Shoe Machinery Co.Ltd. Leicester and in 1944 he obtained a similar appointment at The Gateway School. He studied meanwhile at the Leicester College of Technology and in 1946 entered upon a full-time course at the College. Alfred Appleyard died on 28 March 1949 in his 61st year. He entered the University of Leeds in 1907 with a West Riding of York- shire scholarship and graduated B.Sc. with 2nd Class Honours in Chemistry in 1910 and M.Sc. in 1912. From 1910-12 he was research assistant to Professor W. A. Bone at Leeds and then joined the staff of Rothamsted Experimental Station. In 1916 he became research assistant in the Admiralty Laboratory at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine working on the manufacture of acetone and butyl alcohol and in the same year was sent to develop the process at H.M.Factory King’s Lynn. In 1917 he was chosen by the Director of Propellant Supplies to go to India to organise a new acetone factory for the Government of India and was superintendent of the factory until 1921. After two years’ biochemical research at the University of Birmingham Appleyard was appointed in 1924 to the University of Bristol Fruit and Vegetable Preservation Research Station at Campden as resident director. In 1928 he went to South Africa as managing director of Rhodes Fruit Farms Ltd. Groot Drakenstein. He was elected a Fellow of the Institute in 1923. Walter Noel Bagshaw died on 12 April 1949 in his 64th year. Educated privately and at Ellesmere School Harrogate and Batley Grammar School he became an articled pupil to &lr.F. W. Richardson County Analyst to the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1903. He entered University College London in 1905 graduating B.Sc. of the University of London with 2nd Class Honours in Chemistry. After working from 1907 as assistant chemist to the West Riding Rivers Board he entered the Govern- ment Laboratory in 1911. In 1915 he was commissioned in the York and Lancaster Regiment and saw service in France being wounded in 1917. He was invalided from the service in 1920. He became chemist to G. & J. Stubley Ltd. Wakefield in 1921 and continued in their employment until his retirement in 1935. He took an active part in civic life and was an Alderman of the Borough of Harrogate.He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1917. Charles Thomas Bennett died on 18 March 1949 in his 73rd year. He was educated at Wyggeston High School Leicester and was apprenticed to T. Howard Lloyd and Co. Leicester in 1891. Having studied at the Metropolitan College of Pharmacy he qualified as a chemist and druggist in 1898 and.obtained his Ph.C. a year later. In 1898 he entered the service of Wright Layman and Umney Ltd. as an analytical chemist and remained associated with the firm as chief analyst until the time of his death. From 1902 to €905 he studied at the South-Western Polytechnic Chelsea and [ 310 graduated B.Sc. of the University of London in 1905. Bennett was an expert on the chemistry of essential oils and served on the sub-committees responsible for monographs on these and related substances in the British Pharmacopoeia 1932 and 1948 and in three editions of the British Pharmaceutical Codex.He also contributed numerous articles to pharmaceutical journals and to Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1906 and a Fellow in 1909. John Cecil Cranston died in December 1948 in his 34th year. He was educated at Coombe Road Council School and Vamdean School Brighton and received his scientific training at Brighton Technical College graduating B.Sc. of the University of London with First Class Honours in chemistry in 1937 and B.Pharm. In 1937 he was appointed works and research chemist to May and Baker Ltd.at Dagenham. During 1946 he was with the Control Commission in Germany and in 1947 went to May and Baker (India) Ltd. Bombay. At the time of his death he was Branch Manager at Karachi. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1939. Sir Thomas Hill Easterfield died on 1 March 1949 in his 83rd year. He was educated at Doncaster Grammar School and began his scientific training at Leeds Technical College whence he obtained a Senior Foundation Scholarship to Clare College Cambridge. He took the science tripos and secured honours in chemistry and geology. He then went to the Continent to study at the Polytechnic School Zurich and the University of Wiirzburg where he gained the degree of Ph.D. In 1888 he was appointed a demonstrator in the chemical laboratory at the University of Cambridge and also a University Extension Lecturer.Lectureships in pharmaceutical chemistry and in the chemistry of sanitary science followed in 1894. Four years later he was appointed a Foundation Professor of Victoria College Wellington New Zealand. He held the chairs of Chemistry and Physics until 1909 when he was relieved of the latter. He continued as Professor of Chemistry but resigned this chair to become the first Director of the Cawthron Institute Nelson New Zealand in 1919. In recognition of his great services to Victoria College the title of Professor Emeritus was conferred upon him. Easterfield guided the policy and work of the Cawthron Institute with great enthusiasm and success until his retirement at the end of 1933 and contributed notably to the development of scientific research and its applica- tion to the primary producing industries in New Zealand.His services were recognised by the conferment of the K.B.E. in 1938. He was a Foundation Member of the New Zealand Institute (now the Royal Society of New Zealand) and was its PresidenL in 1922. He was for some years President of the Nelson Philosophical Society and in 1909 was president of the Chemical Section of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science. Always keenly interested in the work of the Institute in New Zealand he was for many years Hon. Corresponding Secretary. He did much to foster cordial relations between the Institute and the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry of which he was sometime President.He was elected a Fellow of the Institute in 1898. Clifford Hordley Griffiths a Registered Student of the Institute was killed in a climbing accident on 4 April 1949 in his 20th year. He was educated at Winstone Road School and Holt High School Liver- pool and at the time of his death was a student at the Technical College St. Helens. [ 311 1 John William Hawley died in May 1949 in his 61st year. Educated at Musselburgh Grammar School he was apprenticed in 1904 to Messrs. Readman and Gemmell Analytical and Consulting Chemists Edin- burgh and was subsequently for two years with Messrs. Dott and Dougall. In 1912 he joined the Glasgow Corporation Chemical Laboratory as assistant to Mr.F. VI‘. Harris. He studied meanwhile at the Heriot-Watt College Edinburgh and the Royal Technical College Glasgow. He served in the Glasgow University O.T.C. and on the outbreak of war in 1914 was commissioned in the Highland Light Infantry. He saw service in France from 1915 and was in command of the 15th Divisional School of Signalling. On demobilisation Hawley returned to his post with thc Glasgow- Corpora- tion. He graduated B.Sc. of the University of London and in 1923 passed the examination for the Fellowship of the Institute in Branch E. In 1926 he was appointed Public Analyst and Official Agricultural Analyst for Dumfriesshire and subsequently added the corresponding offices for Kirkcud- bright and Wigtownshire.Hawley was an Associate Member of the Institution of Chemical Engineers. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1918 and a Fellow in 1923 and served as a Member of Council 1938 to 1941. George Winfield Hefford died on 25 February 1949 in his 78th year. He was educated at Leeds Modern School and received his scientific training at the Yorkshire College (now the University) Leeds graduating B.Sc. of the Victoria University in 1895 and B.Sc. of the University of Leeds in 1907. From 1896 to 1900 he was chemistry master at King Alfred’s School Wantage and from 1901 to 1908 at the Technical Institute and the County Technical School Stafford. After four years at Knaresborough School he went to Birmingham in 1913 and was one of H.M. Inspectors of Schools Technical Branch until his retirement in 1932.Besides being District Inspector in the midlands he conducted a course in advanced biology for secondary school staffs at Cambridge and was H.M. Inspector for this subject in training colleges in England. He was the originator of the Knaresborough scheme for rural education. Hefford was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1890 and a Fellow in 1895. James Hendrick died on 26 February 1949 in his 83rd year. His early scientific training was received at King’s College London where he graduated BSc. of the University of London with Honours in Chemistry and obtained the Diploma of A.K.C. In 1891 he became a lecturer in chemistry and chief assistant to Professor Kinch at the Royal Agricultural College Cirencester and three years later was appointed lecturer in agricultural chemistry at the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College.In 1896 Hendrick became lecturer in agricultural chemistry in the Univer- sity of Aberdeen and chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. At this time he was also Public Analyst and Official Agricultural Analyst to several Local Authorities but resigned these positions on his appointment in 1912 to be the first Strathcona-Fordyce Professor of Agri- culture and Head of the Department of Agriculture in the University. He also became Director of Studies and Research in the North of Scotland College of Agriculture. He took an active interest in the foundation of the Rowett Institute for Research in Animal Nutrition and the Macaulay Institute for Soil Research being the first Chairman of Council of the latter.In 1938 he became President of one of the Commissions of the International Society of Soil Science. 312 J On his retirement in 1942 Hendrick was given the title of Emeritus Pro- fessor and in 1943 the University of Aberdeen honoured him with the degree of LL.D. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1891 and a Fellow in 1894 and served as a Member of Council from 1904 to 1907. Frederic Stanley Kipping died on 1 May 1949 in his 86th year. He was educated at Manchester Grammar School and the LycCe de Caen and studied science at Owens College Manchester and the University of Munich where he graduated Ph.D.He subsequently obtained the D.Sc. of the University of London and was made an Hon. D.Sc. of the University of Leeds in 1936. His first appointment was as chemist in the Manchester Corporation Gas Works in 1882. In 1885 he went to study in Germany and on his return spent three years as assistant to Perkin at the Heriot-Watt College Edinburgh followed by six years as lecturer in chemistry at the Central Technical College South Kensington where he was associated with Armstrong Pope and Lapworth. In 1897 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at University College Nottingham which he filled until his retirement with the title of Emeritus Professor in 1936. He was elected F.R.S. in 1897 served on the Council of the Society 1911-14 and was awarded the Davy Medal in 1918.He received the Longstaff Medal of the Chemical Society in 1909 in recognition of his researches on organic derivatives of silicon which resulted in the resolution into optically active components of three compounds containing asymmetric silicon atoms. His many publications included the well-known text-books of which he was joint author with Perkin. Kipping was elected a Fellow of the Institute in 1898 and served on the Council 1899-1902. Nagesh Laxman Phalnikar died on 15 July 1948 in his 34th year. From the Govindarao English High School Ichalkarnji Kolhapur State he proceeded to the Willingdon College Sangli and the Gujarat College Ahmedabad graduating BSc. of the University of Bombay in 1934 and M.Sc. in 1936. After holding posts as demonstrator in chemistry at the Gujarat College and Elphinstone College Bombay he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Sir Parashurambhau College Poona in 1938 where he remained until his death.In 1939 he gained the Ph.D. of the University of Bombay and was elected an Associate of the Institute of Physics in 1947. The National Insti- tute of Sciences India awarded him a Junior Research Fellowship in 1946. He published many papers in the field of organic chemistry. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1944. Sir Robert Robertson died on 28 April 1949 in his 81st year. Educated at the Madras Academy Cupar he received his scientific training at the University of St. Andrews graduating M.A. in 1889 and BSc. in 1890 and obtaining his D.Sc.in 1897. He was subsequently made Hon. LL.D. After two years as assistant to R. R. Tatlock City Analyst for Glasgow he entered the Royal Gunpowder Factory Waltham Abbey in 1892 working in the laboratory and subsequently being in charge of the manufacture of nitroglycerine. In 1907 he became superintending chemist in the Chemical Research Department of the Royal Arsenal Woolwich and rose to be Director of Explosives Research in which capacity he made contributions of the utmost value during the 1914-18 war. In 1921 he was appointed Government Chemist from which post he retired in 1936. In the following year he became Director of the Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry. [ 313 j On the outbreak of war in 1939 he returned to the Armament Research Department and continued there until 1946.Robertson was elected F.R.S. in 1917 and received the Davy Medal of the Society in 1944. He was President of the Faraday Society 1923-24 and President of Section B (Chemistry) of the British Association in 1924. From 1929 to 1946 he was Treasurer of the Royal Institution. For services during the 1914-18 war he was created K.B.E. in 1918. He was elected a Fellow of the Institute in 1897 served on the Council 1915-18 as Vice-president 1918-21 and as Censor 1921-32 and 1935-46. Edward Tyghe Sterne died on 2 February 1949 in his 60th year. He received his general education at Ontario Collegiate Institute and his scientific training at Queen’s University Kingston Ontario and the Univer- sity of Chicago graduating B.Sc.of Queen’s University. During the 1914-18 war he held a commission in the Canadian Army before becoming chief chemist to the Imperial Munitions Board in Canada. After a short residence in this country as European representative of Shawinigan Waters and Power Company he joined the firm of G. F. Sterne and Sons chemical manufacturers at Brantford Ontario in 1921 and remained associated with them as chemical director and later as Vice-president and General Manager until the time of his death. He was also president of Sternson Structural Specialties Ltd. and president and treasurer of Sternson Laboratories Ltd. besides being connected with many other companies. Sterne took an active part in the work of the Canadian Manufacturers’ Association and was a member of the Research Council of Ontario a director of the Ontario Research Foundation and a member of the Canadian Safety Council.During the recent war he was released by the company to become Director of Explosives for the Allied War Supplies Corporation and subsequently Controller of Chemicals Departmefit of Munitions and Supply and Adminis- trator of Chemicals for the Wartime Prices and Trade Board. For his services he was awarded the O.B.E. He took a keen interest in the work of professional organisations was a Fellow and Past President of the Chemical Institute of Canada and a past president of the Registered Professional Engineers of Ontario. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1919. Cecil Wentworth Yearsley died on 8 April 1949 in his 48th year.He received his early education at Sneyd Green School and Hanley High School Stoke-on-Trent. He was an assistant analyst to the Stafford Coal and Iron Co. Ltd. from 1918 to 1927 and studied meanwhile at the North Staffordshire Technical College graduating B.Sc. of the University of London in 1926. He gained his M.Sc. in 1932 for a research on the distribution and determination of chlorine in coal. In 1927 he became a technical assistant in the Coal Survey branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research at Stoke-on-Trent and was transferred to the Birmingham Coal Survey Laboratory as a senior technical assistant in 1932. On the transfer of the Coal Survey to the National Coal Board in 1947 he continued on the Birmingham staff as a Scientist.He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1942. c 314 3 ANNOUNCEMENTS EXAMINATIONS-see 9.ii. RESIDENTIAL CLUBS FOR THE ELDERLY AND PROCEEDINGS, As already reported in the Editorial in JOURNAL 1949 11 83 the Institute through its newly constituted Residential Clubs Fund has joined with a number of other professional bodies in the “Crossways Trust” for providing residential accommodation for elderly members their wives or their widows (and possibly other dependent relatives) in clubs where they may enjoy the amenities of a hotel at a substantially lower charge (not exceeding L3 10s. per week) than normally prevails at present. The first club under the Crossways scheme has now been established at West \Northing Sussex and three places in it have been allotted to the Institute’s Residential Clubs Fund.Elderly members and/or their elderly dependents who wish to be con-sidered for residence in this first club should notify the Secretary of the Institute forthwith giving particulars about themselves for reference in confidence to the Residential Clubs Fund Committee at its next meeting. THE LIBRARY During the recent rearrangement of the Institute’s Library several books were found to be missing. In past years books were available on loan and their return was sometimes overlooked. Will any member who has a book belonging to the Library kindly return it as soon as possible. Books may not now be borrowed from the Library but unfortunately some recent additions have nevertheless been removed without authority and not returned.In this connection it should be noted that many surplus books were sold through the trade during last year. The above remarks do not apply to books carrying the Institute’s book-plate which may have been purchased by members from second-hand booksellers during 1948. WARNING NOTICE Members are warned that a lady who claims to be related to a distinguished deceased Fellow has been visiting a number of well-known chemists and has obtained sums of money from them on a variety of pretexts. The Benevolent Fund of the Institute is available to assist genuine cases of distress amongst the dependents of deceased members. Any member who may receive a call from this lady is therefore asked to refer her to the officers of the Institute.IMPORTANT EVENTS IN 1949 AND 1950 Symposium on Recent Advances in the Fermentation Industries.-To be held at St. Andrews 23-30 July 1949 (see p. ii and Ieaj-let accompanying Part I). Fourth Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress.-The Fourth Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress convened by the Empire Council of Mining and Metallurgical Institutions will be held in Great Britain from 9 to 23 July 1949 under the Presidency of Sir Henry Tizard G.C.B. A.F.C. F.R.S. The chief object of the Congress is to afford an opportunity for scientists engineers and others concerned with the mining and metallurgical industries to meet and discuss technical progress and problems including the develop- ment of the mineral resources of the Commonwealth.The programme will be divided into three parts:- July 9 to 12 in London-Inaugural Meeting Government Reception Banquet at Guildhall excursions and visits. July 12 to 17-Technical Sessions in Oxford. July 18 to 23-Visits to industries and places of interest centred on Cardiff Cornwall Edinburgh and Newcastle upon Tyne. Further information may be obtained on application to The Joint General Secretaries Fourth Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress 436 Salisbury House Finsbury Circus London E.C.2. Second International Congress of Crop Protection.-The Second Inter- national Congress of Crop Protection will take place in London from 21 to 28 July 1949 under the presidency of The Rt.Hon. Viscount Bledisloe P.C. G.C.M.G. K.B.E. F.S.A. The Congress will be organised in six Sections (1) Insecticides (2) Fungi-cides (3) Plant Growth Regulators (4) Toxicology of Crop Protection Sub- stances (5) Methods of Application (6) Analytical Methods and Standardisation. In addition to the meetings of Sections there will be Congress lectures and visits to research stations and laboratories. Fee for the Congress L2. Further particulars and forms of application may be obtained from the Honorary Organiser Second International Congress of Crop Protection 56 Victoria Street London S.W.1. The First International Congress of Biochemistry will be held at Cambridge from 19 to 25 August 1949. The initiative has been taken by the Biochemical Society and the International Union of Chemistry has accorded official recognition to the project.The Vice-Chancellor and Council of the Senate of the University of Cambridge have promised their full support. Professor A. C. Chibnall F.R.S. will be President of the Congress. Professor E. C. Dodds M.V.O. F.R.S. is Chairman of the Executive Committee and the Honorary Organiser is Lt.-Col. F. J. Griffin 56 Victoria Street London S.W.1 from whom further particulars and forms of application for membership may be obtained. The fee for the Congress is L2. Early application is essential if accommodation in a college is desired. The Congress is being organised in twelve Sections:-( 1) Animal Nutrition and General Metabolism (2) Micro-biological Chemistry (3) Enzymes and Tissue Metabolism (4) Proteins (5) Clinical Biochemistry (6) Structure and Synthesis of Biologically Important Substances (7) Cytochemistry (8) Bio-logical Pigments Oxygen Carriers and Oxidising Catalysts (9) Hormones and Steroids (10) Chemotherapy and Immunochemistry (11) Plant Bio- chemistry ( 12) Industrial Fermentations including brewing production of solvents antibiotics and vitamins.British Association for the Advancement of Science.-The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held this year at Newcastle upon Tyne from 31 August to 7 September under the presidency of Sir John Russell O.B.E. F.R.S. The president of Section B (Chemistry) is Sir Alfred Egerton F.R.S. who has selected as the subject of his presidential address “Influence of studies of combustion on the progress of chemistry.” Subjects of symposia or discussions to be held by Section B include The propagation of flame; the nitrogen cycle in nature; fluorine the element and some of its newer compounds; the combustion of carbon; chemistry and the food supply.Among the visitors from overseas who are expected to contribute papers are Professor J. H. Quastel F.R.S. (Montreal) and Professor Dr. A. I. Virtanen (Helsinki) both in connection with the symposium on the nitrogen cycle in nature. Particulars of the meeting may be obtained from the Secretary British Association Burlington House Piccadilly London W. 1. I316 3 Second Oil Shale and Cannel Coal Conference,-The Second Conference on Oil Shale and Cannel Coal will take place in Glasgow during the week beginning 3 July 1950.At the same time the James Young Centenary will be celebrated by a Young Memorial Lecture. The technical sessions of the Conference will be in three sections A -Geology and Mining; B-Retorting Refining and Uses of By-products; C-Economics and Statistics. There will also be an all-day visit to a sliale mine and shale oil refinery. Registration forms (which should be returned not later than 1 September 1949) and further particulars may be obtained from the Secretary The Institute of Petroleum 26 Portland Place London W.l. The Fourth World Power Conference will be held in London from 10 to 15 July 1950. Study-tours will proably be arranged for the following week.The theme of the Conference will be “World Energy Resources and the Production of Power. ” Division I will deal with Energy Resources and Power Developments Division I1 with Preparation of Fuels and Division I11 with Production of Power. Sir Harold Hartley K.C.V.O. C.B.E. F.R.S. has accepted the Chairman- ship of the Conference The office of the British National Committee is at 201-2 Grand Buildings Trafalgar Square London W.C.2. SCIENTIFIC COURSES AND CONFERENCES The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy has arranged a Symposium on The Refining of Non-Ferrous Metals to take place at The Institution of Mechanical Engineers Storey’s Gate St. James’s Park London S.W.1 on Thursday and Friday 7 and 8 July 1949 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day.An invitation to attend the Symposium is extended to all interested persons. Further particulars and form of application for tickets (free of charge) may be obtained from the Secretary Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Salisbury House London E.C.2. A list of 19 papers has been prepared. They will not be read at the meeting. Preprints will be available free to members of the Institution and at a charge of i1 per set or Is. 6d per paper to non-members. The 22nd International Congress of Industrial Chemistry organised by the SociCt6 de Chimie Industrielle in conjunction with Spanish chemical industries will be held at Barcelona from 23 to 30 October 1949. The Congress will comprise 25 Sections and there will be works visits and excursions. Full particulars may be obtained from the Secrktariat SociCtC de Chimie Industrielle 28 rue Saint-Dominique Paris (VIIO).The Society of Dyers and Co1ourists.-A Symposium on “Photochemistry in Relation to Textiles” will be held at Harrogate from 22 to 24 September 1949. The Symposium is open to non-members of the Society. Full particu- lars may be obtained from the General Secretary Society of Dyers and Colourists 32-34 Piccadilly Bradford Yorkshire. Particulars of the following have been received:- Courses in Microche mistry at Battersea Potytech n ic.-Post-graduate lectures and practical courses in Microchemistry will be held under the super- vision of Dr. P. F. Holt during the 1949-50 session as follows:- Autumn Term (26 September to 16 December 1949) Inorganic Qualitative Analysis.Spring Term (9 January to 31 March 1950) Organic Microchemical Methods. i 317 ] Summer Term (24 April to 14 July 1950) Quantitative Organic and Inorganic Analysis. Fee 10s. per Term. Further particulars and enrolment forms may be obtained from the Head of the Chemistry Department Battersea Polytechnic London S.W.ll. Post-graduate Summer School in X-ray Crystallography at the University of Leeds.-A post-graduate course in X-ray crystallography will be held in the Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry University of Leeds from 29 August to 10 September inclusive. The lecturer will be Professor E. G. Cox Dr. G. W. Brindley Dr. N. H. Hartshorne Dr. G. A. Jeffrey and Mrs. M. R. Truter. Dr. Dorothy Jordan-Lloyd Memorial Fund.-A Fund is being established under this title to provide for a Travelling Fellowship to enable scientists engaged in the study of subjects underlying leather technology to spend a year at Universities in the British Commonwealth or the United States.Dr. Jordan-Lloyd was a prominent member of the Institute and was a Vice-President at the time of her death. Members who would like to pay a tribute to her memory by subscribing to the Fund should send contributions to the office of the Fund Leather Trade House Barter Street London W.C.1 making cheques payable to the British Leather Manufacturers’ Research Association and crossed ‘‘Dr. Jordan-Lloyd Memorial Fund.” MI SCELLANEOUS Technical State Scholarships 1949.-The Ministry of Education announces that the award of Technical State Scholarships will be continued in 1949 upon the same general lines as in 1947 and 1948.These Scholarships to the number of not more than 100 will be offered to students from Technical Colleges and other Establishments for Further Education to enable them to pursue full- time degree courses or courses of equivalent standard at Universities Univer- sity Colleges or Technical Colleges. Full particulars of the conditions of entry and method of application for these Scholarships are given in the explanatory leaflet (Form 1 U.T.) copies of which and of the form of application (Form 2 U.T.) may be obtained from Principals of Establishments for Further Education or from the Ministry of Education Curzon Street House London W.1. Applications must be sub- mitted by candidates through the Principal of the Further Education Establishment concerned and must reach the Ministry of Education not later than 30 June 1949. British Standards I nstitutio n .-B.S. 1547 1949-Flameproof Industrial Clothing (Materials and Design)-prepared by the Personal Safety Equipment Standards Committee has been issued recently. Copies may be obtained from the offices of the Institution 28 Victoria Street Westminster London S.W.1 price 2s. net post free. The Coal Tar Research Association has leased premises at Gomersal near Leeds for its Research Station and expects to move its headquarters from 9 Harley Street London W.l in June. The Gas Research Board has now established its headquarters at The Abbey Southend Road Beckenham Kent.Mineral Oil in Food.-The Minister of Food has made the Mineral Oil in Food Order 1949 to prohibit the use of mineral oils as an ingredient in the manufacture of food for sale to the public. COMING EVENTS The following list has been compiled from the latest information available. The Institute cannot hold itself responsible for its accuracy or for changes that may be made of which it may receive no notification. 1949 July 1 PHYSICAL SOCIETY(Colour Group) Visit to Lewis Berger and Sons Ltd. Paint Manufacturers Morning Lane Homerton London E.9 at 2.15 p.m. OF MININGAND METALLURGY: 6 INSTITUTION Second Sir Julius Wernher Memorial Lecture “The Effect of Impurities on the Properties of Metals.” Dr.C. H. Desch F.R.S. at The Royal Institution 21 Albemarle Street London W.l at 5 p.m. (Admission free without ticket.) 7-8 INSTITUTION Symposium on the Refining OF MININGAND METALLURGY of Non-Ferrous Metals. At The Institution of Mechanical Engineers Storey’s Gate St. James’s Park London S.W.l at 10 a.m. each day (see p. 317). 8 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) Visit to the Printing Packaging and Allied Trades Research Association Leatherhead Surrey at 2.30 p.m. EMPIRE CONGRESS(see p. 315). 9-23 FOURTH MININGAND METALLURGICAL OF CHEMICALINDUSTRY: 11-15 SOCIETY Annual General Meeting and other events in Manchester. 15 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) Visit to the Royal Mint Tower Hill London E.C.3 at 1.45 p.m.15-16 BRITISHRHEOLOGISTS’ CLUB Conference on the Rheology of Thickened Liquids. At the University Edgbaston Birmingham. 16 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) Social Outing to Hastings. 20 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) Visit to Teneplas Ltd. Insulators Upper Basildon Berks at 2.30 p.m. 20 BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF CHEMISTS (London Section) Visit to the Cavendish Laboratory Cambridge (2.30 p.m.).. “The Organisation of Chemists.” Mr. H. L. Howard in the Physical Chemistry BuiIding Cambridge at 6 p.m. INTERNATIONAL (see p. 316). 21-28 SECOND CONGRESSOF CROPPROTECTION 23-30 The Institute Symposium on “Recent Advances in the Fermentation Industries,” arranged by the Scottish Local Sections at St.Andrews (see p. ii). 26 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) Visit to Carreras Ltd. Hampstead Road London N.W.1 at 2.15 p.m. 29 BIOCHEMICAL SOCIETY. Meeting at Dundee. August 9 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) Visit to Yardley and Co. Ltd. Lavender Fields and Distilleries nr. Hunstanton Norfolk. Leave Liverpool Street Station at 8.20 a.m. 16-27 CAMBRIDGE SCHOOL MICROSCOPY. SUMMER IN ELECTRON CONGRESSOF BIOCHEMISTRY 19-25 FIRSTINTERNATIONAL (see p. 316). 31 August-7 September FOR THE ADVANCEMENT SCIENCE Annual BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF Meeting at Newcastle upon Tyne (see p. 316). Septem bet- OF DYERSAND COLOURISTS: 22-24 SOCIETY Symposium.23 BIOCHEMICAL Meeting at Leeds. SOCIETY [ 319 ] GENERAL NOTICES (For notices relating to matters of immediate importance see “Announcements” on pp. ii and 316.) Notice to Associates.-Regulations and forms of application for the Fellowship can be obtained from the Registrar. Appointments Register.-An Appointments Register is maintained by the Institute through which Fellows Associates and some senior registered students can be informed of vacancies. Facilities are afforded by this Register free to authorities and firms requiring the services of qualified chemists. Prospective employers and Fellows and Associates who desire to make use of this service should communicate with the Registrar. Li braries.-The comprehensive Library of the Chemical Society Burlington House Piccadilly W.l to the maintenance of whicn the Institute makes substantial contributions is available to Fellows Associates and Registered Students wishing to consult or borrow books from 10 a.m.to 9 p.m. on weekdays (Satudays 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.). Books can also be borrowed by post. Books may be borrowed from the Science Library Science Museum South Kensington S.W.7 on production of requisitions signed by the Registrar or the Secretary of the Institute. The use of the Goldsmiths’ Library of the University of London is also permitted to Fellows and Associates on application being made through the Office of the Institute. The Library of the Institute is open to Fellows Associates and Registered Students from 10 a.m.to 6 p.m. on week-days (not including Saturdays). Lantern Slides for Lecturers.-A list of slides of portraits of great chemists and other scientists throughout the ages can be obtained on application to the Secretary. As the slides are frequently in demand members are requested to notify their requirements at least 14 days before the date on which the $ slides are to be used. Joint Subscription Arrangements.-Fellows Associates and Registered Students who wish to participate in the arrangements whereby they can maintain on favourable terms their membership of the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry and also if desired of the Faraday Society or the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists with sub- stantial privileges as to publications (see special article JOURNAL AND PRO-CEEDINGS 1945 Part IV P.148) can obtain further particulars and necessary forms from the Conjoint Chemical Office 9 and 10 Savile Row London W.I. Benevolent Fund.-Contributions for 1949 may be sent to the Honorary Treasurer 30 Russell Square London W.C.I. Forms for Deeds of Covenant may be obtained from the Secretary. Covers for the Journal.-Members who desire covers (2s. each) for binding the JOURNAL in annual volumes should notify the Secretary AND PROCEEDINGS of their requirements. Covers for the years 1939 to 1949 inclusive are avai table. Changes of Add ress.-Fellows Associates and Registered Students who wish to notify changes of address are requested to give so far as possible their permanent addresses for registration When writing from an address different from that previously given they are requested to state if the new address is to be used in future and whether the change affects the Appointments Register.All requests for changes should be addressed to the Registrar and not to the Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections. In order to facilitate identification Fellows Associates and Registered Students are asked to give their full initials on communications addressed to the Institute. In the prevailing circumstances they are also asked not invariably to expect formal acknowledgments of communications addressed to the Institute unless replies are necessary. r 320 1