THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND FOUNDED 1877. INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER, 1885. Patron H.M. THE KING. JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS. PART 111: 1938. Issued under the supcrvision of the Publications Committee. RICHARD B. PILCHER, Registrar and Secretary. 30, RUSSELLSQUARE W.C.1.LONDON, June, 1938. Publications Committee, 1938-39. W. J. A. BUTTERFIELD (Chairwzan), Sir ROBERT H. PICKARD (President), W. M. AMES, A. L. BACHARACH, JAMES BELL, HAROLD BURTON, ALBERT COULTHARD, H. E. COX, B. S. EVANS, A. E. EVEREST, A. E. FINDLEY, J. B. FIRTH, A. A. HALL, J. W. HAWLEY, H. H. HODGSON, J. R. JOHNSON, EDGAR LEWIS, P. LEWIS-DALE, C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, J. R. NICHOLLS, G. S. ROBERTSON, E.A. TYLER. Editorial. Social Relations of Science.-A supplement to Nature of 23rd April, 1938, is devoted to the question of founding a Society for the Study of the Social Relations of Science, and contains opinions of a number of distinguished men of science regarding the suggestion. The proposed society should have “a large individual membership, which should not be confined to men of science, though they should play the principal part in it.” “Its attitude towards papers submitted to it should be scientific and objective, and it should not in general express corporate opinions, but leave readers to accept or reject the statements in its publications, according to their view of the credit of the authors.’’ “The S.R.S.would be a society for the advancement of knowledge, not a propagandist body for the advancement of science in the public councils and esteem (like the former British Science Guild) .” Underlying the opinions which support the view that such a society might do useful work, are the feelings, inter alia, that all is not well in the way science is applied to social life, that social developments are ill-balanced, that the rapid growth of knowledge leads increasingly to effects which ought to be corr related, and that there is a need for direction and guidance in the organisation of society in consequence of, and in order to utilise to the best advantage, the rapid advances in scientific knowledge. Recent editorials in the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS have touched upon subjects more or less closely connected with the general question of the social relations of science-or, perhaps better, the interrelationship of human society and science.It is appropriate to consider the matter again, from the particular standpoint of chemists, with reference to the general issues recently raised in Nature, and without expressing any definite opinion as to whether the inception of yet another organised society is likely materially to help to rectify or ameliorate a situation which many informed people view with an increasing sense of uneasiness, if not apprehension. The representative opinions referred to above express concern at various modern developments-t he intolerance displayed towards science, for example, by totalitarian governments, or by “capitalists” ; popular misconceptions regarding science; and current obvious misapplications of scientific discovery, either in war or peace.220 The old complaint that the executives of firms dependent for their financial success on science and scientific workers do not include representatives of the latter on their controlling boards is revived. It is doubtful how far this can be seriously sustained as regards the chemical industry at the present day. Those who can think back 30 or 40 years, at all events, must feel that the present position in this respect, if not as satisfactory as it might be, represents marked progress. Few progressive firms are nowadays controlled by boards from which technical representation is missing.Admittedly, there is reason to feel that such representation might in many cases be strengthened with advantage to the industry; but in fairness it must be remembered that the matter is not necessarily as simple as it may appear. Qualities additional to scientific aptitude are involved : sound judgment, knowledge of affairs and men outside the confines of the immediate work or processes involved, and so on. There is no reason why chemists should not become as qualified in these respects as chartered accountants, secretaries, or sales- men; indeed, many do so. The primary responsibility of chemists in the matter, however, must be to acquire-by contact with interests additional to the laboratory or plant, by reading or by what method they will-the additional values which will fit them to employ their scientific attainments in the control, instead of merely in the service, of industry.Their own responsibility cannot wholly be disregarded. It behoves members of the pro- fession of chemistry to attend to this aspect as well as to pressing for adequate representation of technical advice on the directing bodies of chemical businesses. The value of well-informed scientific men of sound and broad judgment on the boards con- trolling such businesses is being increasingly realised. Much the same applies to the extent to which the Departments of State call, or fail to call, informed scientific opinion to their aid in connexion with numerous problems which involve the interplay of science and the life of the community.There have been many commendable advances in this direction on the part of Government Departments, although there is doubtless room for still more. It is frequently evident that scientific advice is welcomed in these quarters, especially when it is offered, and when technical matters are explained, in such a way that the essential implications are made plain to the administrator without unnecessary recourse to highly technical details, but with due appreciation of the general issues upon which the Department concerned has to take a decision. The case of Governmental calls upon science approaches nearer to what is probably the crux of the matter as regards the relations between science and the community.Society in this country is based on the existence of a democracy, and in the final event the policy of any British Government is controlled by public opinion. It is the attitude of the public at large to science and scientific applications which is the most important factor in this country in the relationship of the community to science. It may be asked whether a society such as has been proposed could bring much influence to bear upon the general views held by the mass of the population on the implications of scientific discovery, at any rate for a very considerable period of years. Popular ideas on this subject, if not wholly erroneous, are liable to be distorted, and in many cases are based solely on what appears in the popular daily or weekly press.Except in a very few instances-and those not journals which are habitually read by the majority of British people-references to scientific matters in British newspapers are usually badly written, often inaccurate, and for the most part obviously written up for their supposed "news value " rather than for the definite information which they might impart. This appears the most urgent need for attention from those who desire better and more useful relation- ship between the community and science. If the new society could take steps to ensure that scientific or technical news-of whatever character-is given accurately and dispassionately, as well as in attractive form, in newspapers and magazines, it would probably accomplish more constructive work towards the end in view than by any other means.But the matter is most difficult as well as urgent. There is a fundamental clash of ideas-that of giving the public what it thinks it wants in the way the journalist thinks it likes it, and that of publishing facts as near the truth as possible, albeit in a form readily to be understood, and not tedious to be read, by the ordinary reader. So far as chemists are concerned, here is much scope for thought, if not action. The first idea to be implanted is, clearly, that science is not evil; the second, that applications of science need not be evil. In the Garden of Eden there was the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and there was also freewill allotted 222 to man. Both scientists and the “man in the street ” are nowadays apt, perhaps, to pay too little attention to these old writings, but they hold a pertinent truth as regards the uses to which the discoveries due to science may be put. Again, when a new discovery or application of science is reported-even with tolerable accuracy-in the press, it is almost always represented as though it abolished some previous conception or knowledge.Always these are ‘‘revolutionary discoveries.” This is another case, of course, of fundamental misconception in the popular mind of the procedures of scientific progress, and the misunderstanding matters, because it leads to other and deeper misunderstandings on the part of the reader.Scientific progress is not iconoclastic. More than in many fields, especially in present times, progress in discovery is marked, not by rejection of all that goes before, but by retention of what proves to be well-founded and wholesome, coupled with addition of new knowledge. Progress in scientific knowledge is a con-structive, not a destructive process. It doubtless appears supererogatory, if not absurd, to devote space here to such a platitude, But is it so obvious to any member of the general public, instructed only by the popular press? It would be easy, yet unnecessary, to continue with similar instances, or to refer (as has already been done in some earlier editorials) to specific examples such as the use of lethal gases or of explosives for aggressive and, alternatively, for useful and constructive purposes.Yet enough has been written to indicate the sense of the urgency of “getting over” to the public a more accurately proportioned view of the potentialities and limitations of science. Difficult as the problem may be, chemists will do well to ponder over it, to consider how they individually may find opportunities themselves to assist in the formation of a more correct and balanced view by the public at large of what scientific progress means, and on the other hand, by collective discussion, perhaps, even evolve some scheme of concerted action whereby progress towards this end may be accelerated. At least, it is well to keep in mind that, in a democratic community, under present day conditions, accuracy in general appreciation by the majority of the populace of the functions and possibilities of the applications of science is a vital consideration; and it may there- fore be considered a primary duty attaching to the professional position of the chemist to assist in ensuring this accuracy by any means which comes within his opportunity.223 Proceedings of the Council. Council Meeting, 29th April, 1938.The appointment of Dr. F. H. Cam and Professor J. F. Thorpe to represent the Institute at the Tenth International Congress of Chemistry to be held at Rome from 15th to zrst May was confirmed, as was also that of Dr. Harold G. Colman as representative of the Institute on the British National Committee of the World Power Conference.It was reported that information having been received that the regulations regarding passports did not include the mention of members of the Institute as qualified to sign declarations for passports, an enquiry had been addressed to the Chief Passport Officer (Foreign Office), and in reply the Institute had been informed that the signatures of Fellows and Associates (in verification of passport applications) would be accepted by the Passport Office, and steps would be taken to include the Institute in the Regulations. Having been informed by the British Standards Institution that a proposal to co-operate with the International Standards Association on volumetric glassware, thermometers, hydro-meters and silica laboratory-ware had met with the unanimous approval of the Technical Committee dealing with the subject, and of the manufacturers concerned, the Council of the Institute concurred in the decision of the Technical Committee to recom- mend to the Chemical Divisional Council of the British Standards Institution that action be taken on the lines suggested. A resolution was received from the Birmingham and Midlands Section asking that the Council, before framing the proposed new Supplemental Charter, should notify all Local Sections of the alterations which were considered necessary, and allow ample opportunity for the discussion of them.The resolution was sympathetically received, and referred to the Special Supple- mental Charter Commit tee.Reports were received from the Standing Committees. The Finance and House Committee reported that it was giving consideration to a scheme for staff superannuation and pensions. 224 The Supplementary Report of the Nominations, Examinations and Institutions Committee embodied the Report of the Board of Examiners on the April Examinations. The Publications Committee reported that the fourth edition of The Profession of Chemistry was in hand, and would be sent to press shortly; also that a new edition of the Register was being prepared, and that applications had been received from members for the inclusion of certain initials, not previously recognised, for registration, on which a recommendation to the Council was adopted. The Council adopted the recommendation of the Committee that the list of Fellows and Associates who had passed the examination in Branch E-the Chemistry of Food and Drugs, Therapeutics, Pharmacology and Microscopy, should be printed as a Supplement to the new edition of the Register.The Publications Committee also reported that arrangements had been completed for Professor F. M. Rowe to deliver two lectures at the Institute on “The Development of the Chemistry of Dyestuffs,” on the 14th and 21st October. Council Meeting, 20th May, 1938.-Apart from routine business arising from the reports of the Standing Committees, the Council gave special consideration to a Report from the Finance and House Committee on staff superannuation and pensions, a subject to which the Honorary Treasurer had referred at the Annual General Meeting.The Council expects to be able to submit definite proposals thereon to a General Meeting in due course. An offer from the Association of British Chemical Manu- facturers to allow the Institute to print and issue “Safety Rules for use in Chemical Works” having been reported, the Council expressed its appreciation of the offer and referred the matter to the Publications Committee. A statement signed by a number of members was received, directing attention to an advertisement, inserted by a public utility company, in the public press relating to a vacancy for a qualified woman chemist, at terms which were considered to be very unsatisfactory.The matter was referred to the Appoint- ments Committee. 225 Local Sections. [The Institute is not responsible for the views expressed or papers read, or in speeches delivered during discussion.] Aberdeen and North of Scotland.-Professor Alexander Findlay presided at a meeting of the Section, held in the Chemistry Department, Marischal College on 27th April, when a paper was read by the Chairman, Mr. W. Godden, entitled 6L Canned Foods.” Mr. Godden gave a brief sketch of the development of the food canning industry in this country, emphasising the very rapid expansion in the canning of fruits and vegetables in Great Britain. Whereas the output of canned fruits and vegetables was about 3 or 4 million cans in 1924,by 1933 it had risen to 100-120 million cans.In view of the enormous development of the industry and the relatively large amount of food consumed in the preserved form, it ‘was of prime importance that information should be obtained as to the nutritive value of canned foods; and as to the effects, if any, which the processes of canning and storage are likely to have under present-day conditions, on the nutritive value of the foodstuffs. Long-period feeding experiments with rats had been con-ducted at the Rowett Institute, which were designed to compare the nutritive value of canned foods with that of similar foods, shop-purchased or locally grown, and cooked as the housewife cooks them. Two groups of rats had been fed: (I) entirely on canned foods; (2) on similar foods, shop-purchased or locally grown, and cooked as in an ordinary household.For both groups the liquid was drained off the vegetables. The experiment had been carried on through four generations. The rats of the second generation had been allowed to breed steadily, and had borne and successfully reared eight litters. The breeding data as a whole, i.e. litter size, average weight at birth and at weaning, mortality at birth and from birth to weaning, showed no very marked differences between the two groups. What slight differences were shown seemed to favour the canned food group. Growth curves were shown for the rats, males and females separately, of each generation, and again there was no significant difference in the live-weight increase of the two groups.Further checks were being made by analyses of the carcases, bones and teeth of typical rats from each group at various ages. In all, the experiment lasted approximately eighteen months, a period corresponding in the human to about 80 years, and some 2,000 rats had been under examination in the four genera- tions. Of these, approximately one-half never received anything but canned foods. During a period of twelve months they consumed some 8,000 cans of foods (meat, fish, fruits, vegetables, bread, milk and syrup), corresponding to about 3i tons of canned foods. It was pointed out that such an experiment would not give any evidence as to the destruction of vitamin C during canning, as rats are not susceptible to a deficiency of this vitamin.The work of Miss Olliver at Cambridge, however, had shown that the destruction of vitamin C in fruits and vegetables during canning and storage, was not greater than, and probably much less than, the losses likely to occur between the time that fruits and vegetables are gathered, marketed, and finally consumed after cooking in an ordinary household. Brief reference was made to other aspects of canned foods in relation to human nutrition , namely, wholesomeness, possible metallic contamination , keeping quality, and the means adopted for attaining a uniform standard of high quality. The Annual General Meeting was held after the lecture- Mr. W. Godden in the Chair. The Honorary Secretary’s report and Financial Statement were read and approved. Dr.A. B. Stewart was elected Chairman; Mr. Craven was re-elected as Secretary and Treasurer. Mr. M. J. Robb was re-elected Honorary Auditor. The following members of Committee were elected :-Professor Alex. Findlay, Mr. M. J. Robb, Capt. J. S. Allan, Dr. J. A. Lovern, Mr. P. Mitchell and Mr. A. Dargie. Belfast and District.-The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held in Thompson’s Corn Market, Belfast, on 25th March. Mr. R. L. Collett, Assistant Secretary of the Institute, visited the Section and gave an interesting address on current matters 227 concerning the Institute, and answered questions raised by members. The following Officers and Committee were elected for the Session 1938-39:Chairman, Dr.R. H. Common; Hon. Treasurer, Dr. W. Honneyman; Hon. Secretary, Mr. C. S. McDowell; Committee, Messrs. G. R. Perdue, T. C. C. Adam, A. H. 0. Johnson, and J. H. Prentice. Birmingham and Midlands.-At the Annual Meeting of the Section, held at the University, Edmund Street, Birmingham, on 30th March, the following Officers and Committee were elected :-Chairman : Mr. J. R. Johnson ; Vice-chairman : Mr. T. H. Gant; Honorary Treasurer: Dr. W. J. Hickinbottom; Honorary Secretary: Mr. G. Thomas; Committee: FeZZows-Dr. S. R. Carter, Mr. G. Dring, Prof. R. H. Hopkins, Mr. G. King, Dr. D. H. Twiss; Associates-Mr. F. G. Broughall, Dr. W. M. Hampton, Mr. R. H. Hayes, Mr. E.H. Steer; and, ex-oficio, Mr. D. W. Parkes (District Member of Council); Auditors: @Mr. H. A. Caulkin, Mr. W. T. Collis. The following resolution was passed :-“ That the Council of the Institute be asked that, before framing the proposed New Supplemental Charter, it shall notify all local Sections of the Charter alterations which are considered necessary, and shall allow ample opportunity to discuss these.” Cape.-At the Thirteenth Annual General Meeting of the Cape Section, held in the Board Room of the Cape Argus, Cape Town, on 29th April,-Col. J. G. Rose, presiding-the Honorary Secretary submitted a report on the proceedings of the past year, which was adopted. The Section had met on six occasions. At the first meeting, the Chairman (Col.Rose) gave an address on his experiences in using some unusual methods of water treatment; at the second, Dr. P. C. Carman discussed the significance of viscosity and plasticity; at the third, Professor Newbery and Dr. Rapson dealt with the manufacture and uses of carbide; the fourth meeting was held jointly with the Cape Chemical and Techno- logical Society, when Dr. Husserl gave an address on Earth Rays, and at the fifth, Professor James gave an account of recent work on the structure of crystals. The last meeting took the form of a visit of inspection to the United Tobacco Company’s factory in Kloof Street. 228 On the motion of Professor Newbery a vote of thanks was accorded to the Honorary Secretary. The financial statement was adopted, and a vote of thanks was accorded the Honorary Treasurer.The following were elected to the Committee for the ensuing year :-Chairman, Col. J. G. Rose ; Honorary Secretary, Dr. W. Pugh; Honorary Treasurer, Mr. R. J. Kruger; Committee Members, Mr. Leslie and Dr. Donen; Honorary Auditors, Mr. Copenhagen and Mr. Abbott. At the conclusion of the annual business, the Chairman gave an address on ‘6 Lubricants.” He said that lubricants for different purposes, as for example in the motor car engine and the locomotive cylinder, had different conditions to withstand, and it was therefore essential to select lubricants very carefully for the duties they had to perform. Special tests had been devised to determine the suitability of lubricants for particular purposes. The most important of them was the determination of the viscosities, or flowing property, at different temperatures, and the best oil for hot engines was one with a flat viscosity curve.The proper selection of a lubri-cant, however, was a difficult matter, and one that should always be referred to an expert. Col. Rose gave numerous examples, from his own experience, where large sums of money had been saved by changing the specifications for the requirements of oils for certain lubrication purposes. Cardiff and District.-On 11th March, at the University College, Cardiff,-with Mr. S. B. Watkins in the Chair,-a Joint Meeting of the Section with the Local Branch of the Chemical Society, was addressed by Dr.C. W.Davies (Hon. Secretxy, Chemical Society) on “Strong Electrolytes.” After brief references to the work of Arrhenius, Bjerrum, and G. N. Lewis, the Interionic Attraction Theory was described, and it was shown that the theory successfully demonstrated the complete dissociation of salts at great dilutions. The behaviour of more concentrated solutions was then discussed; some electrolytes are completely dissociated up to 229 0-1N, but the majority do not seem to be, and the application to these of the Dilution Law, in modernised form, yields consis- tent results. Dissociation const an ts calculated from conductivity data account for a number of anomalies which the complete dissociation theory does not explain: they give a quantitative explanation of the anomalous transport numbers of potassium sulphate and other salts, they remove discrepancies in the activity and solubility data, and they give a quantitative explanation of the abnormal conductivities of some salt mixtures.Work with buffer solutions was cited as illustrating another field in which the complete dissociation theory is misleading, and an experiment was shown in which the H-ion concentration of a buffer solution was increased tenfold by the addition of an isohydric salt solution. East Ang1ia.-The first Annual Dinner and Dance of the East Anglian Section-attended by over 150 members and their friends-was held at the Great White Horse Hotel, Ipswich, on the 26th March,-Mr. W. Lincolne Sutton in the Chair.The guests included the Mayor and Mayoress of Ipswich, Dr. E. B. Hughes, Chairman of the London and South-Eastern Counties Section, and Mrs. Hughes, and the Registrar of the Institute. Following the loyal toasts, the Mayor of Ipswich (Mr. G. Underwood) proposed that of “The Institute.’’ He referred to the great progress made in the science of chemistry in our time, and the steady growth of the profession. He was glad to learn of the formation of a Section of the Institute in East Anglia, and expressed his appreciation of the services rendered by chemists to the local industries and authorities. He suggested that ,chemists should be especially useful in connexion with Air-Raid Precautions. The Registrar, in replying to the toast, thanked the Mayor and Mayoress for honouring the East Anglian Section at its first Annual Dinner.He conveyed, on behalf of the President and Council, their congratulations on the successful inauguration of the Section, mentioning specially the Chairman, Mr. Lincolne Sutton, the Honorary Secretary, Dr. Corran, and Mr. G. Colman Green, who had rendered very valuable service to the Institute. Nothing contributed more to the value of the Institute than the work of the Sections in fostering that sense of fellowship which was so helpful to the younger members. Their meetings, 230 lectures, visits to works and other outings afforded them oppor- tunities of coming together for their mutual benefit. All at headquarters wished the Section continued success.In acknowledging the references which the Mayor had made to the Institute, the Registrar said that it was one of the great institutions created in the nineteenth century for the public service,-indispensable alike to government, industry and com- merce, and to the needs of modern conditions. It was part of the duty of the Institute to encourage by every means the fullest utilisation of the profession for the good of the State, and he was glad-though not entirely satisfied-to be able. to say that less than one per cent. of its Fellows and Associates were known tobe disengaged. That in itself was a proof of their usefulness. The Mayor had referred to Air-Raid Precautions, saying that chemists should be specially useful in that connexion; he (the Registrar) felt that, while they would undoubtedly be most useful as air wardens and instructors in times of peace, they would probably be required for other duties in times of real crisis.The toast of “The Guests” was proposed by Mr. Whyatt and acknowledged by Dr. E. B. Hughes. East Midlands.-The Third Annual General Meeting of the Section was held at the Bell Hotel, Humberstone Gate, Leicester, on 8th April,-Dr. G. Malcolm Dyson in the Chair. The Officers and Committee for the ensuing year were elected as follows :-Chairman, Dr. L. Hunter ; Committee (Derbyshire), Dr. F. Briers and Messrs. R. Davidson and L. Tomlinson; (Nottinghamshire), Dr. H. Barber and Messrs. G. F. Hall and W. Woodhouse; (Leicestershire), Messrs.E. R. Bullock and J. A. Christian ; (Loughborough), Dr. C. Whitworth; and (Lincolnshire), Mr. D. A. Campbell; (ex ufticio), Dr. G. Malcolm Dyson and Dr. J. B. Firth (Members of Council); Hon. Secretary and Treasurer, Mr. C. W. North; Hon. Auditor, Mr. R. Davidson. The report of the Committee and the Financial Statement were then adopted. A vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Dyson for his services as Chairman since the formation of the Section. Dr. C. Ainsworth Mitchell delivered a lecture on bb Forgers and Forgeries,” illustrated by lantern slides. Dr. Mitchell has kindly supplied the following pr6cis. The main theme of the lecture was the gradual development of scientific methods of detecting forgery. In his historical survey of celebrated forgeries, Dr.Mitchell gave an outline, illustrated by a series of lantern slides, of the trial of Mary Queen of Scots before an English Commission, and demonstrated that the evidence of the Casket Letters, on which she was con- demned, indicated that they were forgeries, and that one of the marriage contracts-the only surviving document of those produced-was probably forged by William Maitland, Mary’s former secretary. William Ireland’s notorious forgeries of Shakespearian documents at the end of the eighteenth century were, for a time, successful, largely because Ireland took pains to secure old papers with the correct Elizabethan watermark and to imitate the appearance of old ink. For this purpose he used a silver prepara- tion which turned brown when heated, and the scorching of the paper thus produced was still to be seen on specimens of the forgeries in the British Museum.In recent years advantage had been taken of this information, published by Ireland in his Confessions, and a very plausible imitation of old writing had been produced in the forgery of signatures on seventeenth-century parchment (Rex v. Rogers, 1930).Owing to the natural reluctance of the Courts to allow any test to be applied to a document that would alter its appearance, optical methods for the detection of forgery had been used to a much greater extent than chemical methods. The first occasion on which the Lovibond tintometer was used to demonstrate in Court differences in inks was at the trial of the poisoner Brinkley in 1907.In that case a forged will was the motive for the murder. In 1910 permission was given by the President of the Probate Court for chemical tests to be applied to ascertain the age of inks upon a will, but only after he had been shown that the tests were likely to afford the desired information. In the result it was proved that the will could not be thirteen years old, as alleged, and the prisoner was convicted of forgery (Rex v. Pilcher). Photography, said Dr. Mitchell, was invaluable in the detec- tion of forgery, for enlarged photographic reproductions of writing enabled abnormalities; such as unusual penlifts, and irregularities in the strokes and their shading, to be shown to a judge and jury.Even the well-known fact that photography 232 misrepresents the visual appearance of colours might afford a means of detecting an addition or alteration in a document. Ifwords were added in ink of a redder hue than that of the original ink, they would appear in a photograph much darker than the rest of the writing, although little difference might be discernible under the microscope. This photographic characteristic enabled the conversion of Ezoo into Ez,ooo to be demonstrated with certainty in the case of Rex v. Cornwallis. In connection with photographic falsification, it was essential always to check the photography of a document by minute comparison with the original, since under certain conditions small flaws in a negative might appear as alterations in the writing and suggest forgery.This had actually occurred in certain cases. Photography also enabled the sequence of crossed strokes in pencil or iron-gall ink to be demonstrated, but it was necessary that there should be a sufficient layer of pigment present. With blotted writing or writing in aniline ink, or with stamping inks it was not possible to ascertain which of two intersecting strokes was uppermost. On more than one occasion suspicion of forgery had been aroused by the fact that when a rubber stamp was used to receipt a bill written in pencil, the pencil pigment invariably appeared to be uppermost. Another point discussed in the lecture was the difference in composition of many of the inks now on the market, as compared with those of a few years ago, and the influence of the change on the possibility of judging the age of ink writing.Finally the lecturer illustrated the various applications of ultra-violet and infra-red photography to the examination of documents such as, for example, distinguishing between the pigments in different kinds of copying ink pencils, typing and printing inks, adhesives and sealing waxes. Huddersfie1d.-On 29th April a party of members paid a visit to the works of the Park Gate Iron and Steel Co., Ltd., Park Gate, nr. Rotherham, and were shewn all the processes involved in the production of steel from iron ore. At the con- clusion of the tour a vote of thanks was accorded to Dr.Gregory and his assistants for their kindness in acting as guides and arrang- ing a most interesting and enjoyable tour, and to the manalement for the special permission granted for the visit. 233 India.-Dr. H. B. Dunnicliff presided at a meeting of the All India Committee of the Section held in Calcutta, on 7th January, in the reception room of the Indian Science Congress, when Dr. G. J. Fowler was elected Chairman, and Mr. K. B. Sen, Secretary of the Committee for the present year, and it was decided that there should be five branches in India, with head- quarters at-Lahore, Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Allahabad. Ireland (Dublin).-On 23rd March, Mr. R. Leslie Collett, the Assistant Secretary of the Institute, visited the Section.A Dinner, attended by members and their guests, was held at the Shelbourne Hotel, Dublin, followed by a short musical programme, which contributed to the enjoyment of the evening. The toast of “Ireland” was proposed by Dr. A. O’Farrelly, the Chairman, and the toast of “The Institute,” to which Mr. Collett replied, was proposed by Prof. T. J. Nolan. Liverpool and North-Western.-A Meeting of the Section was held at the Constitutional Club, India Buildings, Liverpool, on 10th March,-Mr. L. V. Cocks in the Chair. The meeting opened with a short discussion on the question of the proposed Supplemental Charter. At the request of the Chairman, Mr. A. E. Findley, District Member of Council, made some introductory remarks. Messrs. A.A. Harvey, E. H. Shepherd, W. L. Dutton, G. H. Turner, E. Gabriel Jones and Dr. R. L. Edwards participated in the discussion. A lecture was to have been given by Dr. L. J. Burrage on “Adsorption by Porous Solids,” but he was prevented from fulfilling the engagement, and, on very short notice, Mr. G. E. Knowles gave a lecture entitled: “Some Notes on the Dyeing of Leather which had been Tanned with Synthetic Tannins.” Mr. Knowles said that the use of synthetic tanning materials developed rapidly in the years immediately following the war. There was then a great demand for leather, and manufacturers availed themselves of the more rapid procedure which the use of synthetic tannings provided. When such leathers came to be dyed, however, difficulties arose.While dyers who were accustomed to use basic dyestuffs did not find any difficulty, the users of acid dyestuffs (which give good results with vegetable-tanned leather) found that, in some cases, the leather dyed only moderately well, while on occasion it was scarcely tinted. (Mr. Knowles at this stage exhibited some test pieces of leather which were in pairs-one vegetable-tanned and one synthetically- tanned. Each pair had been dyed with the same dye and the contrast in the effects was remarkable in many cases.) The practi- cal difficulty with these acid dyestuffs could be overcome by using the acid dyestuff first and then “topping-up ” to the required shade with a basic dye. Most of the dyes used by the leather trade were well known as regards their methods of manufacture and composition, and it was this which led to an examination of the matter from the standpoint of chemical constitution.The basic colours owed their name to the fact that they easily combined with acids: tannic acid combined with them and formed precipitates; synthetic tans did likewise. Magenta, which was typical of a large class of basic colours, had the following constitution: The amino- groups give these compounds their basic character. Coming to the acid dyes again, it was noticed that many of the dyes which gave good results on synthetic-tanned leather were also related to magenta and contained both basic and acid groups; in fact, a closer inspection showed that basic groups were common to all those acid colours which dyed well, while the dyes having many acid but no basic groups, were not absorbed at all.The experiments also confirmed that the dyeing of leather was really a matter of using a dye which had an affinityfor the tanning material employed, and the question of dyes having affinity for the protein molecule itself did not arise, as, for example, in wool dyeing. Messrs. G. Ikin, H. E. Garrett, E. Gabriel Jones and H. E. Parker took part in the discussion. The Annual General Meeting of the Section was held at the Constitutional Club, India Buildings, Liverpool, on 7th April,- Mr. L. V. Cocks in the Chair. 235 Mr. T. C. Williams, Dr. R. L. Edwards, Mr. R. K. Matthews and Mr. L. W.Beaumont were elected to the Committee. The Hon. Auditors, Messrs. L. V. Cocks and B. D. W. Luff, were re-elected. The Chairman said that it was with great regret he announced that Mr. G. W. Beaumont, Hon. Secretary, and Mr. J. F. Hard-wick, Hon. Assistant Secretary, had decided not to offer them- selves for re-election. Mr. Beaumont had been Hon. Assistant Secretary from 1931to 1934and Hon. Secretary for the last four years, during which period Mr. J. F. Hardwick had been Hon. Assist ant Secretary. The Chairman referred to the excellent work which these officers had performed on behalf of the Local Section, and a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to them for their valuable services. Mr. Beaumont replied, thanking the Chairman and members on behalf of Mr.J. F. Hardwick and himself. Dr. F. J. Smith was appointed Hon. Secretary and Mr. E. Reid Hon. Assistant Secretary. The Officers previously elected by the Committee were: Chairman, Mr. R. R. Butler; Vice-chairman, Mr. L. V. Cocks; and Hon. Treasurer, Prof. W. H. Roberts. At the conclusion of the business, Dr. W. F. Higgins gave a lecture entitled:- (( Ventilation in the Mersey Tunnel.” Dr. Higgins described the method of construction of the tunnel and the means of controlling and directing traffic therein. He explained the safety devices employed to reduce the chance of failure of the ventilating plant, and the method of dealing with petrol fires. The necessary ventilation is provided by thirty large fans, housed in six ventilating stations, three on each side of the river.The system is that known as the “Upward Semi- transverse” in which fresh air is blown into ducts beneath the roadway, passes through suitable slots into an expansion chamber on each side of the roadway and emerges through longitudinal continuous slots beneath the foot-walks. In this way an un-broken stream of fresh air is blown into the tunnel at roadway level along its entire length. Air is exhausted from the tunnel longitudinally (using the whole of the traffic space as an exhaust duct) and is drawn out of the top of the tunnel through openings formed in its roof at each of the six ventilating stations. The maximum traffic capacity is considered to be 4,150 236 vehicles per hour for a given speed and spacing of vehicles and with this figure, together with the known quantity of ventilating air available, it is possible to calculate approximately the maxi- mum probable carbon monoxide concentration; on this basis a calculation was made showing the carbon monoxide production to be about 600 cubic feet per minute. Since over 2 million cubic feet per minute of air can be blown in, the maximum carbon monoxide concentration would be about 3 parts per 10,000 of air.These figures represent the possible carbon monoxide content withmaximum traffic; up to date the maximum traffic has been 1,700 vehicles per hour, on one occasion for an hour only,-against the maximum of 4,150. In any case, 0.03 per cent. of carbon monoxide would be quite harmless to drivers of vehicles who are only exposed to it for some six minutes.Dr. Higgins then referred to the manner in which carbon monoxide is poisonous. He said that, when air is breathed into the lungs, the oxygen diffuses through the cell walls and comes into contact with the haemoglobin or red blood corpuscles. A loose compound is formed which serves to carry the oxygen to those parts of the body where it is required. As the oxygen is given up, the haemoglobin returns to carry out its work afresh. A similar compound, but a much more stable one, is formed by carbon monoxide and haemoglobin, and the affinity of the carbon monoxide for the haemoglobin is about three hundred times as great as that of oxygen.Consequently, if one were to breathe a mixture containing equal volumes of carbon monoxide and oxygen,-when equilibrium was reached , the haemoglobin would be shared by the carbon monoxide and oxygen in the ratio of 300 to I;in other words, the blood would be almost completely saturated with carbon monoxide. In the same way it will be understood that for the blood to be shared equally between carbon monoxide and oxygen-50 per cent. saturation-nly some 0.07 per cent. of carbon monoxide is needed. At 0.02 per cent. carbon monoxide the blood would become about 27 per cent. saturated. The figures given are those which apply only after sufficient time has elapsed for equilibrium to be established. It should be stressed that carbon monoxide is a cumulative poison only above a certain concentration ;once equilibrium is established the carbon monoxide-haemoglobin complex is being broken up at the same rate as it is being formed and, if at this point sufficient haemo- globin remains to carry on the necessary transport of oxygen under conditions of bodily activity then existing, no ill effects will be experienced.Once the source of the carbon monoxide is removed, naturally the equilibrium shifts in the direction of increased oxygen-haemoglobin, until after a certain time all the carbon monoxide complex is broken up and the blood is restored to its full normal ability to carry oxygen. For this reason, unless poisoning has been very severe or protracted-when secondary effects may make themselves felt-poisoning by carbon monoxide leaves no after effects.If the carbon monoxide concentration were very much higher than it is, the 6 or 7 minutes of the trip through the tunnel would be quite insufficient for equilibrium to be established. The means of controlling the ventilation is based upon (a) the carbon monoxide content of the air (the average value of which is under I in 10,000during the periods of greatest traffic flow), and (b) the degree of visibility. Visibility conditions are recorded by the use of standardised beams of light, 50 feet in length, falling on photo-electric cells. The presence of haze or fog between the light source and the cell, by diminishing the amount of light falling on the cell, alters its emission and so provides a means (when suitably amplified) of measuring the loss in light power and consequently the deteriora- tion in visibility. Continuous analyses of the air for carbon monoxide are made by sampling at six points in the traffic space-the bottoms of the exhaust shafts-so that the sample is taken from the air in its worst condition just as it leaves the traffic space.Twelve automatic Cambridge-Katz analysers, in six pairs of duplicates, are used. These consist essentially of two parts: (a) a means of drying and purifying the gas (silica gel being used), and (b) the analyser proper. The method is a catalytic one, a special catalyst “Hopcalite” being used. The name of this catalyst is derived from the John Hopkins University of America where it was originally developed for use in fireman’s gas masks; the present product consists of 60 per cent.manganese dioxide and 40 per cent. cupric oxide, but its method of manufacture is not generally known. The reaction is carried out at rooo C., at which tempera- ture the catalyst is very efficient in its oxidation of carbon monoxide, while its effect on hydrogen is only about I per cent. or less of that on the carbon monoxide. This is of some impor- tance, since hydrogen is generally produced in car exhaust gas in the ratio of 0.4 to I of carbon monoxide, 235 The temperature of IOOOC. is conveniently attained by immersing the whole catalyst chamber, together with a long leading-in tube for the air, in the steam from water kept briskly boiling at atmospheric pressure.Immediately before the catalyst, a similar bulk of pumice serves as an inert medium for surrounding one set of thermo-couple junctions, the other set being in the midst of the ‘‘Hopcalite.” In this way a differential effect is obtained which is increased by the use of the 48 couples in series. The heat produced by the oxidation of the carbon mono- xide by the air on the catalyst according to the equation:- 2CO + 0, = aCO, + 67,960 calories per gram ’ molecule of carbon monoxide, warms up the bulk of the catalyst and the thermo-couples therein. The potential developed is proportional to the temperature attained and so to the carbon monoxide present. The potential is measured on Cambridge automatic indicating and recording potentiometers, scaled directly in parts of carbon monoxide over a range of o to 6 parts per 10,000of air.In order that the heat produced in the reaction shall not be conducted away too quickly, the catalyst is contained in a box within the chamber, the box being air-lagged. Thus a basic temperature of IOO C. is secured without rendering the catalyst insensitive to small changes of carbon monoxide. The temperature attained and therefore the potential deve- loped depends not only on the carbon monoxide concentration but upon the rate of flow; a constant flow device is therefore incorporated in each analyser, allowing the passage of 20 to 30 litres per minute. The catalyst deteriorates in time, and the potential developed by the thermo-couples, for a given concentration of carbon monoxide, falls, until eventually the catalyst has to be renewed.In order that renewals should not be necessary too frequently, a device is incorporated to allow of accurate registration of carbon monoxide values with widely different outputs. Thus, for a concentration of 6 parts of carbon monoxide per 10,000of air with new catalyst, a potential output of nearly 10millivolts will be developed; the recording of the 6 parts of carbon monoxide which gives a full scale reading on the potentiometer, is achieved, however, with 6 millivolts. The calibrated slide wire of the potentiometer, equivalent to a fall of 6 millivolts, is therefore placed in series with a further scaled length of the same wire, equivalent to another 4 millivolts; this is called the range con- troller.By determining the potential output of the catalyst 239 equivalent to 6 parts of carbon monoxide at any time, and applying this potential to the main slide wire plus the appropriate length on the range controller-conveniently done with a pointer moving over a scale from 6 to 10 millivolts-the instruments can be made to indicate correctly for any potential output between 10and 6 millivolts, 6 parts carbon monoxide per 10,000 of air or in that ratio for any other concentration. In order to follow and correct for this fall in potential, tests are made regularly on the analysers. In the method used, each pair of analysers is disconnected from the sample air and both are connected with a common supply of air free from carbon mon- oxide; carbon monoxide is fed into this air stream at a steady rate in such quantity that a high reading is secured near the full scale of the instruments.Since the carbon monoxide-air mixture is common to both analysers, one sees immediately whether any great change has occurred by the agreement or otherwise of the two sets of readings. When the readings on the indicating instruments associated with each analyser have become steady, samples of the mixture actually flowing in the analysers are taken off from suitable taps and analysed. The analysis of these samples, as also of casual samples taken in the tunnel from time to time to check the uniformity of ventilation-to see that no pockets of gas occur-is carried out by a modification of the now more or less familiar iodine pentoxide methods.The apparatus is designed to deal with samples of about 400 c.c.; on such a volume the accuracy of the method for regular work is rather better than 3 parts per million of carbon monoxide, and consistent results can be obtained within this value, even greater accuracy being obtainable with the use of special precautions. The analysis of each sample occupies about three quarters of an hour. Absolute checks on the gas analysis apparatus are made by analysing samples of pure air into which definite amounts of carbon monoxide are introduced by a special measuring device-a sort of micro gas pipette.Blank tests with air free from carbon monoxide are made before and after each batch of samples, since such air is used for sweeping the samples of air through the apparatus. Blanks usually show I part per million or less and are, of course, subtracted from the results obtained. When the output of the catalyst has fallen below 6 millivolts for 6 parts per 10,000of carbon monoxide, it is no longer possible to operate the indicators correctly. This does not mean that the 240 catalyst has to be replaced, for it is possible to regenerate old catalyst without the necessity for removing it from the analyser ; by dropping a C.C. or so of distilled water at the air inlet, and allowing it to vaporise in the leading-in tube, a large proportion of the lost activity can be restored.It seems possible, also, to repeat the treatment up to 3 or 4 times, but the increased life becomes shorter each time. As illustrating the immense value of silica gel as a drying and purifying agent, Dr. Higgins mentioned that he had six of the original catalysts still in use, three of which had not even been regenerated, and they were in good serviceable condition after nearly four years’ continuous use. He added that he understood, that in the Holland Tunnel, in which the air for analysis is dried by sulphuric acid, the catalyst has a life of only about five months; this, presumably, was because of the difficulty of remov- ing the acid spray which was formed and resulted in the poisoning of the catalyst.By the use of silica gel not only was the produc- tion of such spray avoided, but the gel also removed the easily absorbable vapours which acted as catalyst poisons. Dr. Higgins’ exhibits included actual parts of the Cambridge- Katz carbon monoxide analysers, large-scale illustrations of the construction of the Mersey Tunnel and Ventilating Stations, and photographs. The following members took part in the discussion: Messrs. E. Gabriel Jones, G. Thompson, P. N. Williams, J. F. Hardwick, G. Brearley, Prof. T. P. Hilditch, Messrs. T. C. Williams, A. E. Findley, V. Biske and W. F. Bews. Previous to the meeting, a party of members inspected the Mersey Tunnel Control Room and Ventilating Station at Georges Dock.London and South-Eastern Counties.-On 9th March 35 members of the Section visited the Sun Engraving Works at Croxley Green. The members spent about 3 hours obtaining a general impression of the two processes with which the works is concerned, namely the use of photogravure and letterpress methods of reproduction of printed and illustrated matter. In the primary operation of type-setting, an interesting machine was the Monotype apparatus which, controlled by a specially prepared perforated paper record, stamps out the letter- ing direct from liquid metal. 241 The photogravure process involves, as the first operation, the preparation of the cylinders. Iron cylinders are electrolytically coated with a layer of approximately Q inch copper, which as a result of a series of operations, finally acquires a highly polished surface.The bichromated gelatin layer, in which the lettering, illustrations, etc., to be reproduced have been photographically recorded with a suitable screen superimposed, is now set down on to the cylinder and enables the highly skilful operation of controlled etching with a series of ferric chloride solutions to be carried out. The cylinders, washed free of gelatin, may be given a light protective plating of chromium and are then ready for use on the high-speed continuous rotary photogravure machines. On any one of these machines a series of colours can be printed in one operation by the use of a corresponding number of rollers. After use, those cylinders which are not to be permanently stored are finally stripped of the etched-out image by making them the anode in a suitable electrolytic bath; a new copper deposit is subsequently re-formed by using the cylinder as the cathode.The slightly less spectacular but equally effective letter- press process was also seen in some detail. Here the ink transfer in the final machine is from the top surface of the etched image, rather than from the recesses, as in gravure. A thicker ink is employed which does not allow such high- speed machines to be used. The image is chemically etched on flat copper or zinc plates using ferric chloride solutions; an alter- native method is to use an electrolytic etching process, but this does not appear to be in very extensive use.The various other special aspects of the work carried out by the Sun Engraving Co., such as the photographic processes, the finishing of blocks, the proving, the folding, inspection and sorting were all very interesting, the party being particularly impressed by one large machine which collated several pages, fed on at different points, and delivered them as the finished journal, requir- ing only to be stapled and guillotined. The Section is sincerely indebted to the Sun Engraving Co. for the opportunity of seeing its impressive plant and 2,000 or so employees at their very interesting work. At a meeting of the Section held at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, on the 16th March,-Dr. E.B. Hughes in the Chair,-Professor J. B. S. Haldane, F.R.S., gave a lecture on “Air Raids and Air Raid Protection.” 242 The lecturer reviewed the various forms of attack which could be expected from aircraft, viz. :-machine-guns; aerial torpedoes on shipping ; gas bombs ; incendiary bombs ; smoke bombs; and high explosive bombs,-the last, in his opinion, being the chief danger. There was no reason to suppose that any new and unknown explosive would be used, though bombs would probably be larger than in the last war, and contain up to a 500 lbs. charge, which would cause considerable damage. The best protection against these for a householder would be to remain in a cellar (not a basement), if he has one, or else to have a very deep trench covered with planks and loose earth.Gas masks with activated charcoal would only keep out "smokes," if provided, in addition, with special filters. Gases heavier than air would not necessarily penetrate into cellars, as their concentration in the atmosphere would normally be such that they would respond to convection currents. If a house were warmer than the outside air, the gas would be liable to be drawn in through crevices and rise to the upper rooms; if cooler than the outside air, gas would tend to occupy the lower rooms. Professor Haldane also expressed the opinion that small crevices in a room need not be sealed. If drops of mustard gas fell on the skin, little ham would result if washed off at once with soap and water, or even saliva or urine.Blisters, he said, were not fatal, and fatalities from mustard gas are rare. The chief danger from mustard gas was to the eyes,-prolonged exposure possibly causing blindness. Another danger from mustard gas and also from phosgene was cedema of the lungs. Prussic acid or carbon monoxide in con- centration up to 0.01 per cent. were harmless. Describing his experiences of air raids in Spain, Professor Haldane said that bombing of buildings with high explosives drove the people into the street. This was followed by machine- gunning, which drove them into the buildings. There was, however, in Spain, no aerial defence and this technique would probably not be adopted if anti-aircraft defence were in evidence. It had been found that large communual subterranean shelters could be constructed at a cost of fl3 per head.Infection of water supplies with bacteria or the spreading of agricultural pests were unlikely to be employed. 243 On 13th April, members of the Section visited the Southend Waterworks Company. The waterworks are situated at Langford, near Maldon, 14miles from Southend, and comprise reservoirs for collecting and storing river water, treatment plant capable of supplying 7 million gallons per day, and pumping station. The raw water is collected from the rivers Chelmer, Ter and Blackwater at intakes situated above the points of discharge of sewage effluents from the towns of Chelmsford and Witham, and is stored in two concrete reservoirs each holding 30 million gallons.After nine days' sedimentation the water gravitates to the pumping station from which it is pumped to the treatment plant, where it is softened and at the same time sterilised by the "excess-lime'' process. This process originated from sug- gestions made by Sir Alexander Houston, and, prior to the adoption of the process on a large scale, was exhaustively tested by Drs. Thresh and Beale in an experimental plant dealing with 1000 gallons per hour. The main stages of treatment are as follows:- Storage in open reservoirs. Treatment with lime and a small amount of aluminium sulphate (or sodium aluminate), the essential feature of the process being that the lime is applied in slight excess of that required to soften the water.Removal of the calcium carbonate sludge by settling tanks. Storage or "contact " of the water containing excess lime for 24 hours to ensure sterilisation. An excess of 1-2 parts (as CaO) per IOO,OOO of water is used. Neutralisation of the excess lime by carbon dioxide. Filtration through rapid gravity filters. In addition to the above:- (7) Chlorination may be employed as an emergency safe- guard, but is quite unnecessary under normal conditions, as sterilisation is ensured by the use of excess lime. (8) Treatment with finely powdered activated carbon to eliminate any trace of taste or odour. Correct control of excess lime is ensured by the use of brilliant cresyl blue indicator tests as well as by the continuous record of the PH of the water after the addition of lime by means of an electrical recorder with antimony electrodes.In the final neutralisation of the excess lime with carbon dioxide, use is made of the pH 244 recorder combined with a regulator, which automatically adjusts the supply of carbon dioxide so as to produce finally water of any desired $H. The carbon dioxide is made by combustion of metal-lurgical coke in small furnaces. The whole process is operated continuously throughout the 24 hours, the plant being of such capacity that, with 7 million gallons flow, the water receives 24 hours "contact " with excess lime to ensure effective sterilisation. The efficiency of the process is controlled by daily chemical and bacteriological tests, and can be judged from the fact that in the final treated water the number of bacteria per C.C.develop-ing on nutrient agar in 3 days at 20" C. does not exceed 10;in I day at 37" C. does not exceed I, while Bacillus coli is absent in I00C.C. A point of special interest is that the chalk sludge is collected, "de-watered" on a rotary vacuum filter and recovered as quick- lime by burning in a rotary continuous kiln fired by pulverised coal. The recovered lime is used repeatedly in water treatment ;the surplus lime is hydrated and sold for building and agricultural use. The company is under statutory obligation to supply water of less than 15 parts per IOO,OOO total hardness; in the winter the total hardness of the raw water sometimes reaches 35 parts, of which 20 parts may be due to permanent hardness (chiefly calcium sulphate), and at such times soda must be used in addition to lime softening.In the boiler house, all condensed water is de-oiled by electrical treatment and filtration before being returned to the boilers, make-up water is softened by a base-exchange softener, and all water fed to boilers is de-aerated under vacuum and conditioned with caustic soda and phosphate. The party was received and conducted over the plant by the chief chemist, Mr. R. G. Pelly, Fellow, and by the resident engineer, Mr. W. Goulding, to both of whom a hearty vote of thanks was accorded. The party was kindly entertained to tea after the visit. On 11th May, a golf meeting of the Section was held at the course of the Addington Palace Country Club, near Croydon.The staff of the Government Laboratory had offered a silver cup to be played for annually, in the singles competition, and Dr. E. B. Hughes, Chairman of the Section, presented additional prizes, The first winner of the cup was Mr. J. A. Heald (IZ),a 245 member of the staff of the Government Laboratory, who returned a score of 71,-the scratch score for the course being 75. Dr. R. H. Marriott was the runner-up, with a score of 74. Dr. R. H. Marriott (24)and Mr. E. T. Bug@ were the winners in the after- noon competition. Manchester and District.-At a joint meeting of the Manchester Section of the Institute with the Chemical Society and the Manchester University Chemical Society held on 8th February, Professor E.C. Dodds, M.V.O., gave a lecture on bb The Significance of Synthetic Oestrogenic Agents.” Pharmacologists have always been interested in the chemical structure of substances having an effect on the animal body, and a great many researches have been conducted into the relation- ship between structure and function. This work finds its most important application perhaps in chemotherapeutics, and drugs of the type of salvarsan and prontosil are the direct result of these investigations. Until comparatively recently, however, the chemist and pharmacologist have regarded the hormones as being a “law unto themselves ”with regard to specificity. Thus it was assumed that only thyroxine is produced by the thyroid for the purposes of controlling metabolism, and that insulin is alone secreted by the pancreas for the purpose of carbohydrate meta- bolism.This conception of specificity has hampered experi- mental work, the aim of which was to find synthetic substitutes for hormones. The following is a very brief account of some experiments conducted to show that the specificity of the hormones is by no means so great as was supposed, and it is possible to obtain substances with structure entirely different from the hormones but with an action even stronger than the natural substance. In. 1931, Cook, Dodds, Hewett & Lawson described the oestrogenic activity of a series of phenanthrene and dibenz- anthracene compounds (I), (2). It was shown that these (2)Maximum activitywhen R.is C,.246 substances can replace oestrone in every way and that they only differ from oestrone in quantitative behaviour and not in their qualitative behaviour. The greatest care was taken that each new series should be tested to ensure that in addition to giving the vaginal cornification reaction, all the other reactions of oestrone were displayed. Thus the compounds, as well as giving the ordinary oestrus response, were all capable of causing mating in the ovariectomised animal, of producing a feminising change in capon feathers and of abolishing the castration cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary. At this time it appeared that the phenanthrene nucleus was essential for oestrogenic activity, but for various theoretical reasons a number of substances with the rings arranged in a manner other than the phenanthrene system were investigated (Dodds & Lawson, 1936) (formula 3) and found to be active.It is with this group of substances that the present communica- tion is concerned. The most interesting series of compounds were derivatives of diphenylethane (formula 4) and diphenylethylene (formula (4) 5). It has been shown that 4: 4’-dihydroxydiphenyl possesses (5) definite oestrogenic activity, but that it is a hundred thousand times weaker than oestrone. 4 : 4’-dihydroxy-diphenyl methane was also found to possess potency of a similar order, while 4 : 4’-dihydroxy-diphenylethanehad the same properties.It 247 was found that if an ethylenic linkage be introduced, in the corresponding compound, 4 : 4’-dihydroxydiphenylethylene (4 : 4’-dihydroxystilbene) the activity is increased tenfold. The next step was to investigate the possible activity of compounds with only one benzene ring. Thus 9-hydroxy propylbenzene (formula 6) was found to be oestrogenic and OH<>CH,--CH2-CH, (6) by analogy with the stilbene observation, 9-hydroxy propenylbenzene was tested (formula 7). On this compound OHe=CH.CH3 (7) the most interesting observation was made (Dodds and Lawson, 1937, i) . The +-hydroxy propenylbenzene or anol, was prepared by heating anethole under pressure with alcohol and potassium hydroxide.The phenol was prepared by first evaporating off the alcohol and then precipitating with hydrochloric acid. It was obtained in a crystalline form from chloroform. The melting point of the anol was 92OC. and the analyses were satisfactory. An investigation of the activity of this substance showed in the first instance that it possessed a very high degree of oestrogenic activity, in fact equal to that of oestrone. After the publication of this result (Dodds and Lawson, 1937, ii) their attention was called to the fact that not all batches of anol possessed the high activity found by them. An immediate re-investigation of the problem was made and only very few batches were found to have the very high potency originally described, but activity was always found in the mother liquor.The fact that anol is well known to polymerise, suggested that the results might be due to the formation of a highly active polymeride, possibly a dimeride, and in the case of the active batches a small quantity of this had become adsorbed or associated with the anol. The possible dimerides of anol were reviewed and a synthetic approach was attempted to a number of them, Thus di-anol (formula 8) prepared by the demethylation of di-anethole OE~H-F=CH C2H5 CH3 (8) 248 possesses an activity of about one-hundredth that of oestrone (Dodds and Lawson, 1938). “In the meantime an investigation had been initiated at Oxford, the object of which was to prepare possible oestrogenic agents bearing a close structural resemblance to oestrone (or oestradiol) but which should be capable of ready synthesis.In certain directions, especially in the diphenyl-ethane and stilbene groups, it was found convenient to join forces in order to avoid duplication of work” (Dodds, Golberg, Lawson and Robinson , 1938). The first compounds investigated were substituted derivatives from 4-hydroxy alkyl phenones (9). C2H5 C2H5 OHa--(/ O H OH OH (9) In view of the high activity attendent upon the introduction of an ethylenic linkage it was decided to investigate the properties of the a/3-alkyl substituent of 4: 4’-dihydroxy stilbene. The most potent of this series up to the present is the diethyl derivative. If the formula of this compound be written in the following manner (10)the similarity to the oestrone molecule can readily ( 10) be seen.If however, rings 2 and 3 be closed and the hexahydro chrysene compound be obtained then there is an immediate fall in the activity. The substituted dihydroxy stilbenes form an entirely new class of oestrogenic substances of which the most potent so far has an activity three times as great as oestrone. The substance 249 is active by mouth and would appear to have interesting future possibilities. One of the most important deductions to be made from this observation is that the body does not demand absolute specificity, certainly for its oestrogenic reactions, and if it is possible to obtain substances with a high degree of activity which bear little or no relationship to the oestrone molecule it is a fair deduction to make that other hormone processes may yield to the application of a similar type of investigation.REFERENCES. COOK,J. W., DODDS,E. C., HEWETT, W.; PTOC.C. L., and LAWSON, Roy.SOC.,B. 1934, 114, 272. COOK,J. W., DODDS,E. C. and GREENWOOD,A. W.: Ibid., 1934,114, 286. COOK,J. W., DODDS,E. C. and LAWSON, W.: Ibid., 1936, 121, 133. DODDS,E. C., and LAWSON, W.: Nature, 1937, 139, 627. DODDS,E. C., and LAWSON, W.: Ibid., 1937, 139, 1068. DODDS,E. C., and LAWSON, W.: Ibid., 1938, 141, 78. DODDS,E. C., GOLBERG, W. and ROBINSON, L., LAWSON, R.: Ibid., 1938, 141, 247. The Twentieth Annual General Meeting of the Manchester and District Section was held on 17th March at the Constitutional Club, St.Ann Street, Manchester,-Mr. C. J. T. Cronshaw in the Chair. Messrs. J. H. Lester, F. Scholefield, J. R. Maddocks, and A. B. Bell were elected to the Committee. Dr. A. Coulthard was re-elected as Honorary Secretary and Treasurer, and Dr. H. Thomas, Assistant Secretary. The Honorary Auditors, Messrs. L. Thompson and H. H. Stocks, were accorded a vote of thanks and re-elected. Dr. C. G. Douglas, F.R.S., delivered a lecture on ‘6 The Influence of High Environmental Temperatures on the Health and Efficiency of the Industrial Worker,” of which he has kindly supplied the following summary:- In industry there are many operations in which the workman may have to face unduly high environmental temperatures, due either to intense radiant heat or to a general high air temper- ature accompanied, perhaps, by great humidity.Attention will be confined to the latter of these two conditions since it is the more difficult to deal with in practice. Under ordinary circumstances the heat production of the body is balanced by the heat loss, and the body temperature varies within but narrow limits. Muscular activity is the main factor that increases heat production, while heat may be lost (i) by radiation and convection, which will be to some degree controlled 250 by the rate at which blood is allowed to circulate through the skin, and (ii) by the evaporation of water in the form of sweat. It is obvious that as the external temperature approaches body temperature loss of heat by radiation and convection must be progressively diminished, and that evaporation of moisture must play a larger and larger part in maintaining the body temperature constant.Finally, when the external temperature is equal to, or exceeds, the body temperature, the only means by which the body temperature can be prevented from rising is a sufficiently rapid rate of evaporation from the skin surface. In dealing there- fore with high environmental temperatures we have to consider the conditions under which it is no longer possible to secure an adequate rate of evaporation. As long ago as 1775 Blagden showed that, if precautions were taken to guard against intense radiant heat, a man could with- stand for ten minutes or more an air temperature above the boiling point of water provided that the air was dry.Since the wet bulb temperature in comparison with the dry bulb temper- ature indicates the degree to which an object can be cooled under the existing circumstances by the simple evaporation of water, it is evident that the wet bulb temperature, and not the dry bulb temperature, ought to afford an indication of the limiting temperature that can be tolerated by man. Experi-mental observations made by the late Professor J. S. Haldane have shown that this is so. In still air, having a wet bulb temperature of about 88"Fahr., a person at rest, wearing a minimum of clothing, can just maintain his body temperature constant, and this is true no matter whether the dry bulb temper- ature is the same, i.e.air saturated with moisture, or very much higher, the relative humidity being proportionally lower. If the wet bulb temperature exceeds 88" Fahr. the body temperature will begin to rise steadily until the subject is incapacitated from this cause. A wet bulb temperature as high as 93-94"Fahr. can be tolerated by the resting subject if he is exposed to a moving air current since this will facilitate the evaporation of sweat. On the other hand, if the heat production of the subject is increased by muscular exercise he will only be able to tolerate a lower wet bulb temperature than 88"Fahr., and in still air a wet bulb temperature in excess of 79" Fahr. may cause a rise of body temperature; but here again an air current of sufficient velocity may have a markedly beneficial influence and enable higher wet bulb temperatures to be faced with impunity.251 In coal mines in this country, deeper and deeper seams are being opened up, and at depths approaching 4,000 feet below the surface the natural rock temperature may be in excess of 100' Fahr. Recent observations by Lawton have shown that wet bulb temperatures at the working face at these depths may even exceed 85" Fahr. In this case therefore, we are faced with a formidable problem, since, if useful work is to be done, steps must be taken to ensure that the air in the working places has an adequate cooling power. One way to overcome the difficulty is to maintain a sufficient air velocity at the face, if necessary by rearranging the general ventilation of the pit and by taking steps locally to ensure that the ventilating current is used to the best advantage.Recent observations show that much can be done in this way, but as soon as the air velocity is increased to over 400-500 linear feet per minute, we find ourselves in a dilemma, since with air currents of this high velocity the raising of clouds of dust becomes a serious matter. The control of temperature conditions in deep mines is therefore intimately bound up with the question of the suppression of dust. A man who has to do muscular work in these extremely high wet bulb temperatures produces an astonishing amount of sweat, e.g., 3 lbs.or more per hour, and during the shift, dilute though the sweat may be, as compared with the blood from which it is derived, the loss of sodium chloride from the body may be substantial. If too much water is drunk during the shift the ratio of water to salt within the body may be seriously disturbed and this will cause undue exhaustion, and in extreme cases the onset of violent and prolonged muscular cramp,-symptoms that can be prevented either by restricting the amount of water drunk or by adding a small mount of common salt to the water drunk. This condition is encountered not only amongst miners but also in other circumstances when men are exposed to ex- cessively high temperatures for long periods, e.g., in the stoke- hold of ships in the tropics.Acclimatisation to high environmental temperatures is a factor which is well recognised in deep and hot mines. A man who is unaccustomed to high temperatures may, when first encountering such temperatures, soon become exhausted and have to cease work, but after some days' further experience he will acquire the capacity for working throughout the shift without undue exhaustion and discomfort. In part at least, this phenomenon of acclimatisation depends on the training of the sweat glands by repeated use, to secrete continuously an adequate amount of sweat. From the evidence that has become available in recent years it looks as though we shall be able for some time to come to cope with the temperature conditions prevailing in the deep mines of this country by relatively simple means, without having recourse to elaborate methods of air conditioning, of perhaps prohibitive cost, which have been found necessary in countries with much warmer climatic conditions than those that prevail in England. At the Morro Velho gold mine in Brazil, for in- stance, the moisture content of the whole of the intake air is reduced by refrigeration in order to allow ore to be mined at a depth of over 6,000 feet from the surface, and local air condition- ing has been successfully tested in some of the deepest workings in the gold mines on the Rand.In this country the condition of true heat stroke is practically unknown, but the possibility of its occurrence must be borne in mind as workings get deeper, and air temperatures consequently higher.Heat stroke does, however, occur in tropical or sub- tropical regions where high air temperatures may be accompanied by high relative humidity, and the adverse conditions may be accentuated locally either in mines or in industrial plant. Here again it is the wet bulb temperature which is the essential factor, for if this exceeds the tolerable limit, the body temperature begins to rise and continues to do so, since when once the body temperature rises materially beyond the normal limits the oxida- tion processes in the tissues, and consequently the heat produc- tion, are accelerated, and this increase of heat production is further accentuated by the mental irritability and restlessness which soon make their appearance and are accompanied by a diminution or cessation of sweating.It is no wonder that the condition of the subject proceeds from bad to worse with dramatic swiftness. Unconsciousness supervenes, and the body temper- ature may rise to 108-110' Fahr., or even higher, and drastic measures may be required to reduce the body temperature if life is to be saved. The lecture, which was illustrated by numerous lantern slides, provoked a good discussion, in which the Chairman and the following took part:-Mr. G. A. Blakey, Mr. A. B. Bell, Mr. Mouat Jones, Mr. C. R. Bond, Mr. Percy Gaunt, Dr. A. M. Maiden, Mr. E. L. Rhead and Mr. H. Stevenson. 253 Newcastle upon Tyne and North-East Coast.-On 10th March, at a meeting of the Newcastle upon Tyne and North- East Coast Section, held at Sunderland Technical College, Dr.W. H. J. Vernon gave a lecture on “Some Recent Developments in Corrosion Research.” In introducing the subject, the lecturer pointed out that classification of corrosion phenomena on the basis of environment was justified on grounds other than those of convenience. Al-though the primary mechanism of “immersed corrosion,” which was generally accepted to be electrochemical in character, applied also to many cases of atmospheric and soil corrosion, the controlling factors in which were usually quite different. Atmospheric corrosion also included the phenomena of tarnishing and direct oxidation which were essentially metal-gas reactions.The protective effects of thin (invisible) oxide films produced by heat-treatment were discussed. Recent work at the Chemical Research Laboratory had included the study of thin oxide films on iron; marked changes at a critical temperature of zooo--e.g., appearance of interference colours above and their suppression below this temperature even at considerably greater film thick- nesses-had been confirmed by the results of electron diffraction examination. The “fogging” of nickel by the catalytic oxidation of traces of sulphur dioxide and the breakdown of invisible films on iron by disperse particles in the atmosphere were discussed in relation to the phenomenon of “critical humidity.” Particles which had the greatest activity in adsorbing traces of sulphur dioxide were shown to be most effective in promoting the atmospheric rusting of iron.Atmospheric carbon dioxide, contrary to the general belief, had a repressive influence. The production of protective coatings of corrosion product on exposure to the open air was illustrated by the green patina of basic sulphate on copper; a recent development in the arti- ficial stimulation of this patina involved treatment of the struc- ture with a chlorine derivative of sulphuric acid. Protective coatings of selenium on magnesium were illustrated, together with the protection by quinoline inhibitor of magnesium alloys against corrosion by leaded petrol fuels. In immersed corrosion emphasis was placed on the in-fluence of films produced by the action of cathodically-formed alkali, the distribution of such films having a predominant influence in determining the subsequent distribution of corrosion.254 Greatly increased rates of attack in stagnant salt solutions had been obtained by carrying out the experiments under increased pressures of oxygen, up to 25 atmospheres, the corrosion/time curves being similar in form to those obtained in slowly moving solutions at atmospheric pressure. Preliminary work on water- movement, using rotating specimens under controlled conditions, was referred to, and the influence of this factor in the case of natural waters was shown to depend markedly on the composition of the water. Recent work on soil corrosion, also carried out at Teddington, had confirmed that cathodic depolarisation in neutral, sulphate- containing media could be effected in the absence of oxygen through the agency of sulphate-reducing bacteria which had the peculiar faculty of enabling mineral sulphates to act as hydrogen acceptors.The bearing of this mechanism on the corrosion of cast-iron mains in impervious clay soils was pointed out. The Annual North-East Coast Chemical Dinner, in which members of the Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry and the Institute participated, was held on aznd April, in the University Union, King’s College, Newcastle upon Tyne,- Mr. J. W. Craggs in the Chair. The guests included the Lord Mayor, the Lady Mayoress, and the Sheriff of Newcastle upon Tyne, the Right Hon.Lord Eustace Percy, Professor F. G. Donnan, Dr. A. Fleck, and Mr. G. H. J. Daysh. The loyal toasts having been honoured, it was agreed, on the proposal of the Chairman, that a message of good wishes be sent to Dr. J. T. Dunn for a speedy recovery from his recent illness. Lord Eustace Percy, Rector of King’s College, in proposing the toast of “The Profession of Chemistry, ”referred to the manner in which chemistry had developed into a highly skilled profession, -a profession requiring specialised training. He deplored the present system of grants to prospective teachers, as tending to stifle any talent that they might develop while at the University. Professor Donnan, President of the Chemical Society, replying to the toast, congratulated King’s College on having Lord Eustace as its Rector, and spoke of the benefits which might be expected from the co-operation of the three Societies repre- sented at the dinner.The toast of “The City and County of Newcastle upon Tyne” was proposed by Professor H. L. Riley, who emphasised the importance of an academic centre, such as the University, to the industrial development of the city. The Lord Mayor of Newcastle upon Tyne, in reply, discussed the health and education facilities of the city and showed how great progress was being made in each field. The final toast of “The Industries of the North-East Coast’’ was proposed by Mr. G. H. J. Daysh, who dealt with the develop- ment of the chemical industries in the district during the last 25 years.Dr. Fleck, in acknowledging the toast, paid a tribute to the courage and initiative of the little-known people who were responsible for this industrial development. He maintained that although the region might be classed as a “Depressed Area,” the North-East still had a large number of sound and flourishing industries. New Zealand.-A combined meeting of the New Zealand Section of the Institute with the Wellington branch of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry, was held at the Victoria Univer- sity, on 26th April. Mr. R. L. Andrew, Chairman, welcomed Mr. H. Jephcott, Managing Director of Glaxo Laboratories, who conveyed greetings from the President and the headquarters Council, and gave an informal address on “A Modern Conception of Diet and Public Health.” The importance of a balanced food was traced from the previous conception of food as consisting of calories, proteins and fats.The work of important investigators was briefly outlined, and the various deficiencies in foods were discussed in their relation to health. The place of the chemist in the endeavours made to improve health was described. The improvements in the supply of vitamin A, and the synthesis of vitamins B, C and D were the result of patient research and of very great benefit to the human race. In reply to questions, Mr. Jephcott said that synthetic vitamins had no known toxic effects within reasonable limits. To support this statement, he mentioned known exampleg of over-doses of vitamins. The importance of balanced food in pre-natal life and early childhood was emphasised.256 Mr. T. A. Glendinning, the senior Fellow of the Institute present, presented Mr. Jephcott with a Greenstone Maori Tiki (a small figure,--a “charm”) as a token of remembrance. Mr. Jephcott was asked to convey to the Council of the Institute, on his return, greetings and good wishes from the New Zealand Section. South Yorkshire.-On 15th March, at a meeting of the South Yorkshire Section held at the County Technical College, Worksop, Dr. A. R. Bowen gave a lecture on bb Present and Future Sources of Petroleum,” illustrated by lantern slides. Dr. Bowen mentioned the conditions essential for the natural storage of petroleum in the earth, and described briefly the geophysical methods by which the modern prospector searched for oil.Slides were shown illustrating the torsion balance and the seismic methods of determining underground formations. Then followed an account of the way borings are made. Slides of typical oilfields were shown illustrating the overcrowding of wells in some American fields, after which Dr. Bowen discussed the advantage of unit operation of an oilfield. Every important country had been taking stock of its possible petroleum resources recently and the prospects in this country were reviewed. The similarity of shale oil to petroleum was discussed. A Scotch shale retort was then described. As substitutes for petroleum Dr.Bowen mentioned the use of charcoal in a portable gas producer and that of cylinders of compressed coal gas (instead of the familiar “balloons” of the last war) for driving cars and lorries. With regard to future sources, the lecturer explained the importance of oil to all nations, and this had led to many experi- ments on the conversion of coal and tar to oil. The hydrogena- tion of “brown coal tar ” had been successfully accomplished in Germapy. In England the I.C.I. had erected and success-fully worked a plant at Billingham for the hydrogenation of bituminous coal. This process was then discussed in the light of the findings of the recent Falmouth Report on Oil from Coal. The cost of the plant and its output was compared with that of oil tankers.The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of oil from water gas was also outlined. 257 April Examinations, 1938. Abstract of the Report of the Board of Examiners. Examinations for the Associateship and Fellowship were held as under:-NO. No. For the Associateship-Examined. Passed. General Chemistry: at the Institute, the Uni-versity of Manchester, and in the laboratories of the University of London, South Kensington, (some candidates taking their theory papers at other centres),-28th March-2nd. April .. .. 69 31* For the Fellowship- Branch A. Inorganic Chemistry : At the InstituteY4th-9th April .. .. 1 otWith special reference to metallurgicalanalysis, ferrous and non-ferrous: at the Institute and at the Royal School of MinesY4th-9thApril .... .. 1 0 Branch B. Physical Chemistry: In the Department of Colloid Science: at the University of Cambridge,-1 8th-23rd April ,. .. I .. .. .* 1 1 Branch C. Organic Chemistry : With special reference to Oils, Fats and Waxes : At the Institute,4th-Sth April . . .. 2 1$With special reference to Paints and Varnishes (Theory only) : at the Institute,-4th-.I9th April .. .. .. .. 1 0 Branch D. Biochemistry:With special reference to PathologicalChemistry: at the Institute, and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,-28th March-2nd April . . 1 0 Branch E. The Chemistry, including Microscopy, of Food and Drugs, and of Water: at the InstituteY-4th-9th April .... .. 10 4 Branch a. Industrial Chemistry : With special reference to Cocoa, Chocolate and confectionery : at the Institute and in the laboratories of the British Associa- tion of Research for the Cocoa etc. trades, 4th-9th April . . .. .. .. 1 1 Branch a. Industrial Chemistry : With special reference to Coal Tar and Ammonia: at the Institute and in the laboratory of the Gas Light & Coke Co. Beckton,-4th-Qth April .. .. .. 1 1 With special reference to Oils, Fats andWaxes: at the Institute,-4th-Qth April .. .. 1 O§With special reference to Paper Manufacture : at the Institute, and in the laboratories of Mr. Wm. Bacon, F.I.C.,4thrSth April 1 1 With special reference to Cement: in the Dept. of Applied Science, Sheffield University,- 4th-9th April .. .. .. .. 1 1 With special reference to explosives : in Melbourne, Australia .. .. .. 1 -O§-92 41 * Four candidates completed their examination by satisfying the Examiners in those parts of the examination in which they had previously failed. Eight candidates failed to satisfy the Examiners only in parts of the Examination. t The candidate satisfied the Examiners in the practical work, but did not do so in the theory papers. 1One candidate failed in the paper in General Organic Chemistry. 4 Candidate failed in the practical work only. The following papers and exercises were given :-Examination for the Associateship in Gener‘al Chemistry. MONDAY, 28th MARCH, 10 a.m. to 1p.m. (Attempt FIVE questions only.Answer concisely and to the point. Cive fomnulae and equations where possible.) 1. Explain what is meant by the term “the osmotic pressure of a solution” and indicate how it may be measured. What important laws have been deduced from measurements of osmotic pressures at different temperatures and concentration8 ? 2. Write a comparative essay on the physical and chemical properties 3. Explain the origin of the potential difference at the junction of of carbon and silicon and their respective compounds. two solutions of an electrolyte of different concentrations. Discuss how the potential difference may be (a)measured, (b) calculated, (c) eliminated. 4. Explain how the following substances may be prepared, and briefly describe their more important properties :-(a) chromyl chloride, (b)sodiumperborate, (c) sodium azide, (d)sulphur monochloride, (e)ammonium persulphrtte.5. Give a brief account of the theory and origin of molecular spectra and indicate the importance of molecular spectra in determining the structure of simple molecules. 259 6. Write short essays on TWO of the following subjects:- (a) the nature of flames; (b) the additive properties of carbon monoxide; (c) solid solutions; (d) the use of deuterium in elucidating the mechanism of chemical reactions. 7. What developments in chemistry do you associate with the names of Rayleigh, Aston and Moseley ? 2 to 5 p.m. (Attempt FIVE questions only. Answer concisely and to the point.Cfive formulae and equations where possible.) 1. Write explanatory notes on THREE of the following:-(a) Henry’s law, (b) energy of activation, (c) limiting densities, (d) buffer solutions. 2. Critically examine the views which are held nowadays as to the interpretation of the “valency of an element.” 3. Give a concise statement of Nernst’s heat theorem and indicate the types of problem in which it is of value. 4. Select ONE of the following topics for discussion:- (a) the carbides and nitrosyls of the metals; (b) isomerism amongst inorganic compounds ; (c) the use of catalysts in industrial processes. 5. Describe ONE method for measuring the surface tension of a liquid. Discuss critically the applications of such measurements to chemical problems. 6.Discuss the use of organic compounds in the separation and estimation of metals. Illustrate your answer by describing at least TEIREE cases. 7. Write an account of EITHER (a)reactions in non-aqueous solvents; OR (b) the colloidal state; OR (c)Lavoisier’s work on combustion. TUESDAY, 29th MARCH, 10 a.m. to 1p.m. (Attempt FIVE questions only. Answer cmhely and to the point. Give formulae and equations where possible.) 1. By means of equations and short notes illustrate the characteristic 2. Give an account of the uses of acetoacetic and malonic esters reactions of (a)urea, (b) glycerol, (c) oxalic acid, (d) chloroform. for synthetical purposes. 3. Describe the various processes and products of reduction of a typical aromatic nitro- compound.4. Describe briefly how the following are usually manufactured:- (a) a-naphthol, (b) 8-naphthylamine, (c) naphthionic acid, (d) phthalicanhydride. 5. Write short notes on TWO of the following:- (a) the Reimer-Tiemann reaction; (b) the aldol condensation; (c) the benzidine change. 6. Outline the principal evidence in support of the usually accepted7. Describe the methods available for the synthesis of a-amino-StI’UCtureOf EITHER (a)E-terpineOl, OR (b) indigo. acids; explain the importance of these compounds. 8. Write a short account of optical activity due to restricted rotation. 2 to 3.30 p.m. Translation from French and German Technical Literature.WEDNESDAY, 30th MARCH, 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. Identify compounds (A) and (B) as completely as time permits and prepare from them characteristic derivatives. (A) = n-butyl salicylate or p-bromoacetanilide; (B) = anthranilic acid or phthalimide. This exercise may be completed by to-mowow. THURSDAY, 31st MARCH, 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. 1. Complete yesterday's exercise. 2. Identify compound (C) and from it prepare (a) an acidic, (b) a basic, and (c) a neutral derivative. (C) = o-or p-nitrotoluene. FRIDAY, 1st APRIL, 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. 1. Identify the substances (D) and (E). (D = sodium periodate; E = manganese chromate.) (This result must be handed in by 1 p.m. in a separate notebook.) 2. Determine the percentage of available chlorine in a sample of bleaching powder (F)provided.(This result must be handed in by 4.30 p.m. in a separate notebook.) 3. The given sample (G) is an aluminium bronze. Detemine-the percentage of copper volumetrically and that of aluminium gravimetrically by means of 8-hydroxyquinoline. This exercise may be completed to-mrrrow. SATURDAY, 2nd APRIL, 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. 1. Report on the nature af the substance (H). (H = aluminium containing small proportions of iron, zinc, lead, copper, nickel and magnesium.) (This resuZt must be hclnded in by 1 p.m. in a separate notebook.) 2. Complete yesterday's exercise. Examinations €or the Fellowship. Branch A : Inorganic Chemistry. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (FOUR questions only to be answered.) 1.Give an account of the physical methods which are available for the determination of atomic weights. Discuss the statement that the atomic weight of many common elements as determined by known chemical methods are not fundamental constants of Nature to more than a limited precision. 2. What do you understand by allotropy? Discuss this phenomenon 3. Select ONE of the following topics for discussion:-(a) the rare-earths, with special reference to recent investigations; (b) the mineral silicates and their structures; (c) induced radioactivity. 4. Give an account of modern views on the structure of matter. 5. Discuss the stereo-chemistry of inorganic compounds exhibiting by reference to carbon, sulphur and phosphorua.261 covalencies of four and six. 6. Give concise accounts of any TWO of the following:-(a) interhalogen compounds; (b) isomorphism; (c) the reactions of hydrogen with metals; (d) the hydrides of boron and silicon. 2 to 5 p.m. (FOUR questions only to be answered.) 1. Give some account of the preparation, properties and probable structures of the metallic carbonyl and nitrosyl compounds. 2. Discuss the concept of resonance as applied to inorganic compounds and indicate some of the experimental methods which have been employed in its investigation. 3. Write an essay on the chemistry and reactions of deuterium oxide. 4. Write an account of some new indicators and other new reagents employed in volumetric analysis during recent years.5. What are the salient points of resemblance and difference between the elements (a) titanium, zirconium, hafnium and thorium, and (b)chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and uranium ? 6. Write an account of some original work in inorganic chemistry (not otherwise dealt with in your answers) in which you are specially interested. TUESDAY, 5th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Identify the metal (A) and determine its purity quantitatively. (A = molybdenum.) 2. Determine by the gravimetric molybdate method the amount of lead present in the given solution (B). Express your results on grams of lead contained in a litre of the solution (B). 3. Report on the nature of the substances (C)and (D). (C = lithopone; D = silicon.) WEDNESDAY and THURSDAY, 6th and 7th APRIL, 10 a.m.to 5 p.m. 1. Determine the composition of the limestone (E). Express yourresults as:-per cent. moisture; per cent. siliceous matter; per cent. CaCO,; per cent. MgCO,; per cent. FeaO, + A120,. 2. Determine the available oxygen and the manganese in the sample (F) of pyrolusite. The exercises my be completed to-morrow. FRIDAY, 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Estimate the percentage of cobalt and the percentage of ammonia 2. Report on the substances (H)and (J).(H = vomenite, a complex in the given compound (G). (G = dinitritotetrammino-cobalticchloride.) ferrous ferric magnesium borate; J = titanium dioxide.) Branch A: Inorganic Chemistry, with special reference to Metallurgical Analysis, etc.MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Not more than SIX questions to be attempted.) 1. Discuss some methods which have been employed for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and describe in detail any ONE of the more success- ful processes. 2. What is the present-day significance of the expression “chemical element” ? How has the older conception of element been modified by the discovery of radio-activity, the inert gases, and isotopes ? 3. What compounds of carbon are produced in the electric furnace ? Outline their preparation and describe their properties and industrial applications. 4. Write an essay on ONE of the following subjects:- (a) deuterium and its compounds;(b) the mineral silicates; (c) isomerism amongst inorganic compounds.5. What types of valency are recognised in modern chemical theory ? Give TWO examples of compounds which illustrate each type and write their detailed electronic formulas. 6. Indicate in tabular form the relationship of the alkali metals &S exemplified by the characteristics of these elements and by the properties of their typical compounds. 7. Outline a method of manufacture of (a)oleum, (b) sodium hydro- sulphite (Na,S,O,), (c) ammonium persulphate. Discuss the specialproperties of these substances which make them of technical importance. 8. Give an account of ONE of the following topics:- (a) the metallic carbonyl and nitrosyl compounds; (b) intermetallic compounds; (c) the interhalogen compounds.2 to 5 p.m. (Only FIVE questions to be attempted. Answer briefly and to the point.) 1. Give a short account of the separation and determination of aluminium and beryllium. 2. Outline a scheme suitable for the complete analysis of blister copper. 3. How would you carry out the following determinations? (a) antimony in hard lead; (b) antimony and tin in a white bearing metal; (c) phosphorus and tin in phosphor-tin. 4. Discuss, critically, the various methods available for the determina- 5. Give a brief description of the methods available for the determina- tion of phosphorus in alloy and plain carbon steels. tion of chromium, vanadium and aluminium in steels.6. Outline methods suitable for the complete analysis of:-(a) aluminium metal; (b) durdumin. 7. Write short essay on the application of ONE of the following to 263 metallurgical analysis :-(a) organic reagents (excluding indicators) ;(b) the spectrograph; (c) microchemical methods. 8. Outline schemes suitable for the complete analysis of :-(a) uranium ores, such as pitchblende ;(b) kaolin ; (c) pyrolusite. TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 5th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. As far astime permits, make complete analyses of the given samples :-(a)alloy steel; (b) Broken Hill Ore; (c) white metal. Notebooks and samples will be collected at the end of each day’s work.Branch A: Inorganic Chemistry, with special reference to Metallurgy (held in Johannesburg). (See ht paper on pp. 260-261.) Second paper: Three hours allowed. (Only FIVE questions to be attempted. Answer brieJy and to the point.) 1. Give a short account of the effect of base-metal impurities on the cupellation of gold prills in the assay of ores and bullion. 2. Outline a scheme suitable for the complete analysis of a “white precipitate” formed in a zinc box. 3. Write a short essay on the possible advantages of the use of potentiometric titration for the determination of protective alkali in cyanide solutions. 4. Discuss, critically, the various methods available for the determina- tion of phosphorus in alloy and plain carbon steels.5. Give a brief description of the methods available for the deter&- tion of chromium, vanadium and aluminium in steels. 6. Outline methods suitable for the complete analysis of:- (a) aluminium metal; (b) duralumin. 7. Write a short essay on the application of om of the followingto metallurgical analysis :-(a) organic reagents (excluding indicators) ;(b) the spectrograph ; (c) microchemical methods. 8. Outline schemes suitable for the complete analysis of :-(a) uranium ores, such as pitchblende : (b) kaolin; (c) pyrolusite. Practical Examination: Four days; Seven hours each day. 1. Sample (A) is a gold ore. Examine this sample, as far as time permits, and submit a report giving the method of treatment you would advise for the extraction of the values.Indicate the nature and purpose of any further tests you are, for any reason, unable to make, and state what variations might be necessitated in your process as the result of these tests. 2. Make a complete analysis of the plain carbon steel (B). Notebooks and samples will be collected at the end of each day’swork. 264 Branch B : Physical Chemistry. MONDAY, 18th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (FIVE questions must be attempted, but shorter answers to more questions Will be allowed.) 1. What mechanisms have been advanced to explain the com-bination of hydrogen with chlorine ? 2. How do you distinguish between ortho- and para-hydrogen? By what methods can they be interconverted? 3.Give an account of the kinetics of the hydrolysis of cane sugar. 4. What are solid solutions? To what extent can such systems be regarded as ordered? 5. How would you prepare atomic hydrogen? How does it react with (a) metals; (b) hydrocarbons? 6. Discuss the mechanism of the reduction of metallic oxides by carbon. Shenck found the following values for the reaction:- FeO + C +Fe + CO. Pressure Temp O Absolute. CO in mm. 556 73-2 596 164.2 666 386.2 What is the change in free energy of this reaction at 1000” absolute? 7. What information can be obtained from the Raman spectrum? 8. Give a brief account of the uses of isotopic elements in investigating the mechanism of chemical change.2 to 5 p.m. (Not more than FIVE questions to be attempted.) 1. What views are held as to the process of oxidation in solution? 2. Discuss the thermal and photochemical decompositions of an How do you account for induced oxidation ? aldehyde. 3. How do you define (a) electrode potential; (b) electrokinetic 4. Derive the Donnan membrane distribution law and give instances 5. How is the term “resonance” used in chemistry? In what ways potential, and how are they measured? of its application. can you identify the presence of resonant systems ? 6. The dipole moment of brombenzene is 1-50, of benzyl chloride 1-85 and of p-brombenzyl chloride 1-72 Debye units. Calculate the approximate angle of C-C1 bond to the axis of the benzene residue.What significant information can you obtain from valency angles ? 7. What is polymerisation? Give two examples of polymerisation reactions and explain how you would investigate the kinetics of such reactions. 8. What is the activity coefficient of an electrolyte and how is it determined ? 265 TUESDAY to PRIDAY, 19th to 22nd APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Compare and contrast the rates of decomposition of hydrogen by platinum foil and colloidal platinum respectively. Investigate the effects of temperature and of poisons on these reactions. 2. Utilising the Langmuir trough, examine the effects of calcium ions and the polyphosphate calgon on films of myristic and stearic acid.3. Determine by electrometric methods the variation in the con- centration of copper ions in the solution of copper sulphate on the pro- gressive addition of ammonia. Branch C: Organic Chemistry. Paper taken by all Candidates in this Branch. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (FOUR questions to be attempted: TWO from each Part.) PART I. 1. By means of short notes and equations describe how the following compounds are usually prepared : (a)a-naphthol, (b) a-chloronaphthalene, (c) fl-naphthylamine, (d) naphthionic acid, (e) phthalic anhydride,(f) anthranilic acid, (9) decalin, (h) fl-nitronaphthalene. 2. Give an account of the oxidising agents more commonly employed in organic chemistry. 3. Describe the more important methods of preparation and the principal reactions of aldehydes and ketones.4. Describe typical examples of the uses of the following reagents in organic chemistry:-(a) metallic nickel, (b) ozone, (c) “sodium hydro- sulphite,” (d)phenylcarbimide. 5. Discuss fully the evidence on which the usually accepted structure of ONE of the following compounds is based:- (a) glycerol, OR (b) tartaric acid. PART 11. ’ 6. Write a short essay on ONE of the topics:- (a) conjugated double bonds; (b) the structure of benzene. 7. Write a short account of the polymethylenes. 8. Outline the chemistry of either (a) glucose, or (b) quinoline and 9. Discuss the properties and reactions of compounds which contain isoquinoline.the keto -me th ylene group. 10. Discuss the evidence for the structures usually assigned to:- (a) aromatic diazo-compounds, OR (b) a-pinene. Branch C: Organic Chemistry, with special reference to Coal Tar and Coal Tar Technology. (~VEquestions to be answered.) 1. Give the method employed for two of the following determinations. State the details that require close attention and give any limiting factors :-(a) metacresol in commercial cresylic acid; (b) thiophene in benzole ; (c) paraEins in crude anthracene. 266 2. What are the principal commercial sources of phenol ? Describe briefly the method of production in each case. 3. Give a method for the recovery of motor benzole from towns and coke oven gas.Refer particularly to the precautions necessary to yield a product of correct (a) total sulphur content; (b)potential gum content; (c) colour stability. 4. Large storage tanks which have contained (a) crude benzole, (b) ammoniacal liquor, (c) crude tar, are to be prepared for entry to effect repairs, involving welding. How would you proceed, and what tests would you apply? 5. Write a short essay on ONE of the following subjects:- (a) recent advances in the tar distillation industry; (b) coal as a source of fuel for spark and compression ignition engines. 6. Outline the principal methods employed for the impregnation of wood with creosote oil. Express your views on the relative value for impregnation of the creosote oil fractions.. 7. Write short notes on the following:- (a) durability and adhesion as properties of road tars; (b) Nellensteyn’s Micron Number; (c) the analysis of tars by solvent methods. TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 5th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Report upon the sample of 60’s carbolic acid (A). 2. Examine the sample of crude pyridine (B) offered to a tar by-products plant. 3. Report upon the sample of pitch (C). If time permits, write a short note on the connexion between the brittle point, softening or melting-point, and equi-viscous temperature of medium soft pitch. 4. Report upon the sample of fluid creosote (D), which is to be used as a raw material for the mdnufacture of a disinfecting fluid.Where the time factor prevents your performing all the proposed tests, refer in your report to those not completed. Branch C: Organic Chemistry, with special reference to Oils, Fats and Waxes. 2 to 5p.m. (FIVE questions only to be attempted.) 1. State what you know of the composition of the unsaponifiable matter in oils and fats. How is the unsaponifiable matter of importance technically, and as a means of detecting adulteration ? 2. What are the characteristic fatty acids of the following:-rape oil, ground nut oil, Japan wax, coconut oil, parsley seed oil, tung oil, castor oil? Give the constitutional formulae of the acids, and describe their properties. 3. How may (a)acetic anhydride, (b) bromine, (c) thiocyanogen, and (d) maleic anhydride be used in determining the constitution of an oil? Give an example in each case.4. Describe methods for the conversion of fatty alcohols into fatty acids, and of fatty acids into fatty alcohols. What use do the fatty alcohols find in industry? 267 5. Describe fully the conversion of crude cottonseed oil into (a)a soap-making oil, and (b) an edible oil. What by-products are obtained, and how are they utilised ? 6. Give an account of the various theories of saponification. 7. What is the constitution of lecithin, and what are its properties and commercial uses? How may vegetable lecithin be prepared? 8. How is crude wool grease obtained? What do you know of its chemical composition ? What commercial products are obtained from it, and how are they prepared? TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 5th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m.to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Determine the amount of glycerin in the sample of recovered salt (A). 2. Prepare the crystalline bromine derivative from the sample of linseed oil (B) and report upon the quality of the oil. 3. Determine the amount of castor oil in admixture with another vegetable oil (C). 4. Examine the given sample of soap fatty acids (D) and suggest a fat charge for the preparation of a similar soap. 5. Analyse the sample of confectionery fat (E) and also test it for rancidity. Branch C: Organic Chemistry, with special reference to Paints and Varnishes (Theory only). 2 to 5 pm. (Answer Question 1 and FOUR othera.) 1. Write an essay on ONE of the following subjects:- (a)the surface chemistry of pigments; (b) cellulose esters and ethers as lacquers; (c) film defects and their connexion with methods of application.2. What do you understand by “monoglycerides,” and of what use are they in paint and varnish technology ? 3. Decide upon two physical attributes of varnish films and say 4. Discuss the terms ‘‘visco~ity,~~ how they could be measured. “consistency ” and “thixotropy ” by reference to paint materials. 5. 10 g. of a pigment are introduced into 50 C.C. of a white spirit solution of palmitic acid (C,,H,,COOH) containing 5 g. per litre. On shaking, the concentration drops to an equilibrium value of 3.3 g. perlitre. Assuming a monomolecular layer, each molecule of acid adsorbed occupying an area of 21 x 10-l6 sq.cm., calculate the mean particle size of the pigment, assuming it to consist of smooth spheres. What com- ment would you make upon the value of this figure when obtained? Avogadro’s No., i.e., the number of mols. per g. mol. = 6-06 x lozs. Density of pigment = 4.3. 6. W’hat are your views about the “ideal” coloured pigment for use in paint? Illustrate your answer on the basis of a coloured pigment of your own selection. Branch D : Biochemistry, with special reference to Pathological Chemistry. MONDAY, 28th MARCH, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (FOUR questions only to be attempted.) 1. How would you make a quantitative examination of urine for its chief nitrogenous constituents ? 2.Give a description of the principles underlying the construction and use of the polarimeter. 3. Give the essential details for the preparation of two of the following :-(a) tryptophane from casein; (b) glycine from gelatin; (c) cystine from hair. 4. Write an essay on vitamin D, dealing with the subject both from the biological and chemical points of view. 5. What steps would you take to identify a pure culture of a bacterium ? 6. Discuss the scientific basis of the case for and against the pasteuri- sation of milk. 2 to 5 p.m. (FOUR questions only to be attempted.) 1. Give an account of the changes brought about in proteins by the action of putrefactive bacteria. 2. What factors play a part in regulating (a)the reaction of the blood; (b) the concentration of sugar in the blood? 3.Write a short essay on the theme that micro-organisms may become acclimatized to a changing environment. 4. Describe the methods in use for the estimation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. 5. Give a description of methods in use for the investigation of the molecular constitution of polysaccharides. 6. Write a short essay on biological standardisation, illustrating your answer by suitable examples. TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 29th MARCH to 1st APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.each day. 1. Identify the substances (A), (B)and (C),which are of physiologicalimportance. (A = lithium acetylsalicylate; B = glutamic acid hydro-chloride; C = calcium lactate.) 2.Carry out a complete analysis of the sample of pathological urine 3. From the sample of meat provided, prepare a pure specimen of provided. creatine, and from the sample of hemp seed provided prepare a specimen of edestin. 4. Specimen (D) is an aqueous solution containing mannose and galactose. Demonstrate the presence of these two sugars by the isolation of at least one crystalline derivative of each of them. 269 Branch E: The Chemistry (including Microscopy) of Food and Drugs, and of Water. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 11.30 a.m. 1. What is glucose syrup ? Give an outline of the process of manu- facture, its composition, and the method of its determination when present in confectionery. 2. Suggest a scheme for the separation of small quantities of copper, tin, lead and zinc, when present together in foodstdfs. 3.What amendments do you consider are desirable to the Food and Drugs Adulteration) Act, 1928? 11.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. (Only THREE questions to be attempted.) 1. Describe the pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses of morphine. Mention some synthetic derivatives of this alkaloid and indicate how their actions and uses differ from those of morphine. 2. Describe the diagnostic microscopical structures of the following powders:-(a) digitalis. leaf; (b) ergot; (c) ginger; (d) squill. 3. State the purposes for which the following drugs are used, and mention any special features relating to standards, preparation of the solution, or mode of administration:- (a) insulin; (b) neoarsphenamine; (c) strophanthin; (d) calcium gluconate.4. Write a short essay on the therapeutic uses of the essential oils and substances obtained from them. 2 to 5 p.m. 1. A sample of mud taken from the sea-shore within a mile of a sewage outfall is submitted for you to determine whether it is largely or solely of sewage origin. To what tests would you submit it ? Give reasons for your answers and state what, if any, further information you would require before giving a final opinion. 2. A lemonade powder is stated to contain tartaric and citric acids and is suspected of containing oxalic acid. Suggest methods for the detection and determination of all three acids.3. Give an account of the method of determination and of the value of the thiocyanogen number of oils. 4. Give a short account of the methods which have been suggested 6. Give a short account of the uses of ultra-violet light in the for the detection of heated milk. examination of food. 270 TUESDAY, 5th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 pm. Examine the sample of cream (A) as if it were submitted under the Food and Drugs (Adulteration) Act, 1928. Use the blank certificate provided for your report. (A = genuine cream diluted with water and containing formaldehyde.) WEDNESDAY, 6th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Examine and report upon the sample of zinc ointment (B). 2. Examine as far as time mill permit the sample of sulphur lozenges (C).THURSDAY, 7th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Examine the edible fat (D) and from your results indicate, as far as possible, the constituents present. (D = Various mixtures of coconut oil, palm kernel oil, lard and hardened whale oil.) FRIDAY, 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. 1. Examine and report upon the sample of honey (E). (E = Honey containing golden syrup and glucose syrup.) 2. Identify the two substances (F)and (G). (F = dextrose, lactose or maltose; (G = basic bismuth carbonate, or basic bismuth nitrate.) SATURDAY, 9th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Reports of microscopical examinations must be accompanied by annotated sketches . 1. Identify by microscopical examination the vegetable ingredients of the “asthma powder” (H).(H = stramonium, lobelia, anise, tea.) 2. Determine the reducing sugars and the urea in the Urine (J). 3. Identify the poison (K). (K = powdered Indian hemp.) Branch G : Industrial Chemistry. Paper taken by all Candidah in this Branch. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. (FIVE questions only to be attempted.) 1. Give a brief account of the various ways in which coal may be utilised as a source of liquid fuels. Indicate in your answer any general advantages liquid fuels possess over solid fuels. 2. Describe any methods with which you are familiar for the auto- 3. In what directions in your own industry does “col1oid”or 4. Describe (a) plant for achieving the separation of liquids by matic measurement and regulation of temperature.“surface chemistry” play an important part 1 fractional distillation, paying special attention to reflux ratio ;(b) plantfor the extraction of a particular compound from a complex mixture by means of solvent extraction. 5. In your own industry indicate how the location of a works is determined by (a)the availability of your raw material; (b) any necessary subsidiary materials; (c) transport of substances under the heading of (a)or (b);and (d) markets. 27 1 6. There are in chemical industry to-day a number of substances referred to as “inhibitors.“ Discuss generally the behaviour of these materials in some specific case with which you are familiar. 7. You are asked to report on the suitability of a rail consignment of coal for steam-raising purposes.How would you proceed to obtain the necessary information ? 8. Describe any form of CO, recorder with which you are familiar. Discuss its value in controlling the combustion of fuels. What degree of accuracy would you expect to obtain from its use? Branch G: Industrial Chemistry, with special reference to the Manufacture of Cement. 2 to 5 p.m. 1. Discuss the chemical and physical characteristics of the raw materials which may be used in the manufacture of Portland cement, their proportioning in the raw mix, and the control of slurry composition. 2. Discuss the thermo-chemistry of cement formation, and the constitution of :-(a) Portland cement ; (b) aluminous cement. 3.Give a general account of the factors which control the hydration, setting and hardening of Portland cement. 4. Discuss the selection and preparation of aggregates, and the proportioning and testing of concrete mixtures. 5. Give an outline of the characteristics and applications of:- (a) oxychloride cements ; (b) blast furnace slag cements; (c) gypsum cements. TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 5th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each day. 1. Examine the samples of cement, sand and crushed stone, and report on their suitability for use in a concrete. 2. Examine the sample of water and report on its suitability for gaugmg. 3. Examine the samples of (a)clay; (b) limestone; (c) chalk, and report as to their suitability for the manufacture of Portland cement.Calculate proportions for a raw mix if you consider the materials suitable for use. 4. You are supplied with a sample of concrete, and samples of the aggregate used in making it. Identify the cement and determine the mix. Branch G: Industrial Chemistry, with special reference to the Chocolate, Cocoa and Confectionery Industry. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 2 to 5 p.m. 1. Discuss the “viscosity” of chocolate, with particular reference to the effects of the various operations of manufacture on this property. By what means can it be modified ? Describe methods for its determination. 2. State what you know about the tannin substances of cocoa. How are these affected by fermentation of the beans and by the subsequent process of manufacture? 272 3.Describe, with practical illustrat,ions, the directions in which the pH value is of importance in the manufacture of confectionery. 4. Several grades of sugar (cane or beet) are used in the confectionery industry. Discuss their uses for various specific purposes. In selecting a white sugar for a specific purpose, are there any special features for which you would particularly examine samples ? Give explanations. 5. Mention the various confectionery products to the description of which local authorities have taken exception under the Food and Drugs (Adulteration) Act, 1928. Mention your own opinion of these cases. 6. Discuss the physical properties of gelatin gels in so far theyconcern the confectionery industry.TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 5th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. each dag. 1. Determine the composition of the sample of boiled sweets. 2. Examine the two samples of liquorice, and state which you would recommend for the manufacture of liquorice goods. Give reasons for yourselection. 3. Report on the sample of condensed milk. 4. Examine the sample of chocolate for preservatives. Branch G: Industrial Chemistry, with special reference to Oils, Fats and Waxes. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 2 to 5 p.m., and TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 6th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Papers as for Branch C. Organic Chemistry (pp. 266-267.) Branch G: Industrial Chemistry, with special reference to Coal Tar and Ammonia Technology. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 2 to 5 p.m., and TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 5th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m.to 5 p.m. Papers asfor Branch C. Organic Chemistry (pp. 265-266). Branch G : Industrial Chemistry, with special reference to Paper Manufacture. MONDAY, 4th APRIL, 2 to 5 p.m. (ALL questions to be answered.) 1. U7hatis the usual fibrous composition of a condenser tissue, and what precautions would you take during manufacture? State the teat in detail that you would employ in order to determine whether the paper would fulfil the required functions. 2. State, in your opinion, the amount of water required per ton of paper for:- (u) pure rag writings; (b) Esparto book papers; (c) wood papers. On the assumption that a mill is dependent on river and surface springs for its water supply, state the general types of vegetable and other forms of growths usually found therein.What purification system would you employ ? State the importance of hydrogen ion concentration in such treatment. 273 3. Describe in detail the system employed in a modern Esparto mill. What system of washing would you recommend for removal of the water soluble constituents ? State the proportion of alkali you recommend per ton of grass. What recent improvements have been claimed in the ‘‘Rinman Process” for the treatment and recovery of the caustic liquors? Give a short account of the by-products obtained. 4. What is meant by “net calorific value” of a fuel? You are asked by the engineer to test the efficiency of his boiler plant, using tw’o qualities of coal.Describe in detail the tests you would make and the alterations based on these tests to be made in practice to attain maximum efficiency. TUESDAY to FRIDAY, 5th to 8th APRIL, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. each day. 1. Identify and determine quantitatively the sizing constituents in the sample of paper marked “A.” 2. Make a microscopical examination of the following:- (a) Paper marked “ B. ’’ (b) Samples of fabric marked ‘‘1’’ and “2” respectively. State your opinion of the compositions, and their application for paper-mking purposes. 3. Make a chemical examination of the chemical wood pulps marked “A” and “B” respectively. Which sample would you select as a basis for papers of reasonable permanence ? Give your reasons.4. Determine quantitatively the amount of the adhesive, anh make an analysis of the inorganic pigment in the coating surface of the board marked “L.” EXAMINATION THE ASSOCIATESHIPFOR IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. INORGANIC AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.-h the first paper, most of the candidates were able to attempt the required five questions, but the answers were in many cases rather weak and did not exhibit the standard of knowledge required for this examination. It was gratifying to note that a good many candidates dealt successfully with the question on the theory and origin of molecular spectra. This indicates that they were keeping in touch with modern developments. In the second paper it may be mentioned that the answers to Question 6 consisted in many cases of a catalogue of experimental details without any discussion of “the use of organic compounds in the separation and estimation of metals.” Excellent answers were returned to the question dealing with valency, but the answers to the question on Nernst’s heat theory were disappointing.The practical work was very satisfactory, the quantitative work being exceptionally well done. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.-There were many disappointing answers suggesting a very limited acquaintance with the reactions of important compounds. Some candidates sought to mask 274 their ignorance of fundamental knowledge by a display of their ability to write out detailed stages of syntheses. Many of the answers to the question dealing with the reduction of a typical aromatic nitro-compound were inadequate or inaccurate.The question asking for a short account of optical activity due to restricted rotation was attempted by only a few candidates, and their answers were of rather poor quality. Except in the case of a few candidates, the practical organic work was well done. Translation.-An improvement was shown in the general standard. EXAMINATIONSTHE FELLOWSHIP.FOR BRANCHE. The Chemistry (including Microscopy) of Food and Drugs, and of Water. The purely analytical work was well done, but several candidates apparently carried out the determinations without clear ideas as to their purport. Candidates should again be warned that manipulative skill is not sufficient, that a good general knowledge concerning the composition of foods and the interpretation of results is essential, and that they are expected to be reasonably familiar with the methods of making official and other reports.In therapeutics and pharmacology there appears to bea tendency on the part of some candidates to be satisfied with a very superficial knowledge of the principal facts relating to a limited number of drugs. The microscopical work was, on the whole, good. BRANCHG. Industrial Chemistry. The knowledge of general chemical technology shown was not as good as in former years. PASS LIST. Examination in General Chemistry for the Associateship. Archer, Frederick Stanley, City Technical College, Liverpool. Billingham, Albert, Central Technical College, Birmingham.Brownlee, George White, Ph.C., Royal Technical College, Glasgow ; and City Technical College, Liverpool. Carter, Horace George Charles, University College, London. Cunliffe, William, B.Sc. (Lond.), Wigan and District Mining and Technical College.Edmondson, Albert Norman, Harris Institute, Preston. Ford, Harold, City Technical College, Liverpool. Forrester, Robert Eric, City Technical College, Liverpool. Goodrick, Cecil Edward Maurice, B.Sc. (Lond.), Birkbeck College, London. 275 Greig, Edwin Ian, Ph.C., Royal Technical College, Glaegow; and CityTechnical College, Liverpool. Hunter, William, B.Sc. (Lond.), Rutherford Technical College, Newcastle upon Tyne. Jacobs, John Martin, The Polytechnic, Regent Street, London.Jacobs, Stanley, BSc. (Lond.), Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London. Jones, Hilary Arthur, City Technical College, Liverpool. Jonee, Robert Andrew, B.Sc. (Lond.), Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London. Lambert, Ernest William, M.A. (Cantab.), M.Sc. (Lond.), The University, Cambridge.Lowe, Robert Cecil Holgate, BSc. (Lond.), A.M.C.T., College of Technology Manchester. Marshall, Alan Thompson, B.Sc. (Lond.), West Ham Municipal College; and Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London. Matthews, Charles William, City Technical College, Liverpool. Morris, George Oswald, City Technical College, Liverpool. Pallister, Miss Sylvia, B.Sc. (Lond.), University College, Hull. Porter, Geoffrey Veale, B.Sc. (Lond.), Birkbeck College, London.Read, Dennis Rouse, The Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. Reeson, William Bateman, A.M.C.T., College of Technology, Manchester and Municipal College, Portsmouth. Roberts, Douglas Keir, City Technical College, Liverpool. Roberts, Frank Wilson, City Technical College, Liverpool. Rumens, Murray James, Sir John Cass Technical Institute; and Chelsea Polytechnic, London. Wilkinson, Peter Alfred, The Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. Williams, Edmund Gardner, B.A. (Cantab.), The University, Cambridge; and City Technical College, Liverpool. Wood, Frank, Municipal Technical College, Hull. Young, William Hamilton, King’s College; and Battersea Polytechnic, London. Examinations for the Pellowship. In Branch B; Physical Chemistry: Cuthill, Ronald, Ph.D.(Leeds). In Branch C: Organic Chemistry, with special reference to Oils, Fata and Waxes: Emlyn, James Alan. In Branch E: The Chemistry, including M~CTOSCO~~, of Food and Drugs, and of Water: Cavell, Alan James, M.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., D.I.C. Perry, Miss Hilda Mary, M.Sc. (Lond.). Read, Frederick Edward, B.Sc. (Lond.), B. Pharm., Ph.C. Vale, Alan Leslie, B.Sc. (Lond.). In Branch Q: Industrial Chemistry, (i) with special reference to Chocokcte, Cocoa and Confectionery: Morris, Richard William, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.C.G.F.C., D.I.C. (ii) with special reference to Coal Tar and Ammonia Technology: Perkins, George, B.Sc. (Lond.). (iii) with special reference to Paper: Currie, Henry Thomas. (iv) with special reference to Cement: Colegrave, Edward Barnard, B.Sc.(Lond.). 276 Notes. The British Association for the Advancement of Science,-( Cambridge :17thto 24thAugust) .-The President of the Chemistry Section-Professor C. S. Gibson, F.RS.,-proposes to review the recent advances that have been made in the chemistry of gold. This will be followed by a discussion on recent advances in the organic chemistry of the metals, with special reference to the noble metals. Attention will be directed mainly to the electronic and stereochemical aspects of the subject. Professor Gibson, with the co-operation of Dr. F. G. Mann, Mr. H. V. Thompson and Dr. F. H. Brain, will give a demonstra-tion on the production and application of gold films by ancient and modem methods. The processes employed in the ceramic industry and methods depending on the decomposition of organic compounds of gold will be demonstrated.Dr. J. J. Fox, Chief Government Chemist, will open a discus- sion on modern methods of chemical analysis, including physical and microchemical methods. Professor W. L. Bragg will open a discussion on “Clays,” dealing with the atomic architecture of clay and clay-like minerals, with base exchange, the absorption and yielding up of water, and the behaviour of clays in soils. Professor E. C. Dodds and Professor J. W. Cook are arranging a symposium entitled “Repercussions of synthetic organic chemistry on biology and medicine.” Recent work on the production of new compounds having the biological action of the sex hormones, will be described, and Dr.A. S. Parkes will deal with some of their biological inter-relationships. Professor Cook will describe synthetic compounds which are able to induce cancer; Professor Reichstein, new compounds having the physio- logical action of the life-maintenance hormone of the adrenal cortex; and Dr. A. R. Todd, the synthesis of vitamin B, and analogous compounds. By the courtesy of Professor Sir William Pope, a visit will be paid to the University Chemical Laboratories, and by the courtesy of Professor Sir F. Gowland Hopkins, to the Depart- ments of Biochemistry and Biology, and to the Molten0 Institute. Visits will also be made to the Cambridge Instrument Co., and to Stewarts’ and Lloyds’ Steel Works, at Corby. The sectional dinner will be held in Sidney Sussex College, by kind permission of the Master and Fellows.The 7th International Management Congress.-Con-siderable progress has been made in the arrangements for the 7th International Management Congress which will be held at Washington, D.C., from 19th to 23rd September next. The Congress is held to discuss the latest advances in In- dustrial Management :-the organisation of men, machinery, materials and money, and the social and economical significance of management practice. The importance of the subject is realised by those who feel that there is an insufficient supply of trained men and women fitted to assume positions of responsibility, and that the question of education and training for the higher posts in business and industry is practically ignored from the time the student begins his vocational training to the day when he succeeds to a position of responsibility.The Development Committee of the British Management Council-on which the Institute is represented by Mr. W. A. S. Calder, Vice-president ,-is giving serious consideration to these problems, in the solution of which they look for the co-operation of the Constituent Bodies. Fellows and Associates who are concerned with, or aspire to administrative management, may find it advantageous to have regard to the proceedings of the forthcoming Cong-ess which will include not only sessions dealing with‘ administration, production, distribution, personnel, etc., but also social functions, tours and visits.Already nearly IOO representatives have notified their intention of participating. The Council will be glad if any Fellow or Associate of the Institute who intends to participate in the Congress will notify the Registrar. The minimum all-inclusive cost of attending the Congress varies between LIOO and E150 according to the number of tours made, and the accommodation taken for the Atlantic crossing. Further information can be obtained from Mr. U. Baliol Scott, British Management Council, Room 68, Armour House, St. Martins-le-Grand, London, E.C.I. 278 National Defence Contribution.-A number of enquiries have been received regarding the liability of professional chemical consultants to the National Defence Contribution under the terms of Section 19(3) of the Finance Act, 1937. The clause provides as follows:- “The carrying on of a profession by an individual or by individuals in partnership shall not be deemed to be the carrying on of a trade or business to which this section applies if the profits of the profession are dependent, wholly or mainly, on his or their personal qualifications.Provided that for the purpose of this subsection the expression “profession” does not include any business consisting wholly or mainly in the making of contracts on behalf of other persons or the giving to other persons of advice of a commercial nature in connection with the making of contracts.” Information has been obtained from the Board of Inland Revenue “that the question whether the profits of a business carried on by Fellows of your Institute in practice as public analysts and consulting chemists, metallurgists and assayers are chargeable to the National Defence Contribution is one which can be determined only by reference to the facts of the particular case, and after consideration of the applicability to that case of the terms of 19 (3) of the Finance Act, and of the proviso thereto.” Subject to this, the Board apprehend that such businesses will not in general be found to be liable to be assessed to the Contribution.An appeal against an assessment to National Defence Contri- bution may be made either to the General Commissioners or to the Special Commissioners of Inland Revenue.Under clause 4 of the regulations made by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue (5th August, 1g37), notice of appeal must be given within thirty days of the date of service of the notice of assessment or within such further time as the Commissioners of Inland Revenue may allow. On giving notice of such appeal, the grounds on which it is made should be specified, and it should be stated whether it is desired that the appeal be heard by the General Com- missioners or the Special Commissioners. SCIENCE IN PARLIAMENT. Smoke PoZZution.-On the 1st March, in the House of Com- mons, a question was asked whether it was proposed to take any steps to enable the localities affected to benefit from the report or observations contained in the zand report of the 279 Department of Scientific and Industrial Research on the investi- gation of atmospheric pollution, and what was the policy of the Ministry of Health on the problem.The Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry stated that copies of the report had been sent to the local authorities of the areas concerned and other bodies co-operating in obtaining the records included in the report. The policy of the Ministry was to encourage local authorities to exercise their statutory functions under the smoke prevention provisions of the Public Health Act, 1936. The main difficulty in the way of effective action was lack of knowledge of practicable means of prevention, and investigations into various aspects of the problem were being carried out by the Government, by local authorities, and by industry.The Ministry was always prepared to assist local authorities and industrialists in particular difficulties. Water SzcpPZy (Tests).-On 10th March, Mr. Alan E. L. Chorlton asked the Minister of Health whether he was able to give an indication of what he proposed to do with regard to standardising the tests necessary for public water supply, whether by company or local authority. The Minister replied that he hoped shortly to issue a circular to local authorities on the question of safeguarding water supplies. Mr. Chorlton then asked the Minister whether, in the development of the scheme of regional committees for water supply, he would bear in mind that they might be able to provide from their collective organisation the necessary testing inspectors for dealing with the supply for the whole country, and make provision accordingly.The Minister stated that it was his policy to encourage the making of joint arrangements between water undertakings for the analytical examination of water supplies, and he would bear Mr. Chorlton’s suggestion in mind. Food and Drzgs BiZL-On the 17th March, in the House of Lords, the Government Bill to consolidate, with amendments, certain enactments with regard to food, drugs, markets, slaughter- houses, and knackers’ yards, was read for the first time, and on the 24th March, passed the second reading. It was sent to a Joint Committee of both Houses.On 5th April, in the House of Lords, the Earl of Onslow, the Earl of Birkenhead, Lord Teynham, the Earl of Listowel, Lord O’Hagan, Lord Addington and Lord Doverdale were appointed, 280 with a Committee of the House of Commons, to consider the Bill; and on 12th April, in the House of Commons, Messrs. R. H. Bernays and J. A. L. Duncan, Sir Francis Fremantle, Major G. Owen, Messrs. R. Richards, G. Ridley and H. G. Williams were appointed to the Committee. The Committee received evidence from members of the Institute and other persons, and made various alterations. It completed its work, and on 18th May the Bill was ordered to be reported, with the amendments, to the House of Lords and to the House of Commons.Air-Riaid Preca.utiouts.-On the 24th March, questions were raised on precautions against incendiary attacks from the air, and also on the subject of the clothing prescribed for decon- tamination squads. Lieut .-Col. Moore-Brabazon asked the Home Secretary whether he was aware that the approved pattern was in seven pieces instead of one, as in the French pattern, leaving the most vital parts of the body liable to attack, because there were ventilators under the arms, and the upper part was intended to be tucked into the breeches. Following contamina- tion, a man could not remove one of these suits without extran- eous assistance, because of its many buttons and hooks. The Under Secretary said that the approved decontamination clothing for Air Raid Precautions Fire Services consisted of jacket, trousers, hood and gloves, in addition to boots and respirator.According to his information, the French outfit was similar except that the hood was attached to the jacket, and in one model sabots were attached to the trousers. The jacket, which was of a pattern used for other purposes in time of peace, had ventilation hoods under the arms, but these could be closed with gas-proof patching in time of war. It could be worn alternatively inside or outside the trousers to meet the risks of vapour or splashing. Assist-ance was necessary in removing the suit, and that was a normal part of the routine, The total number of buttons was 10. There were no hooks. Additional designs of protective clothing were under consideration. Headmistresses' Employment Committee, Ministry of Labour.-The Headmistresses' Employment Committee of the Ministry of Labour has recently conducted an enquiry into laboratory employment for women.A questionnaire was sent to girls who, having left secondary 281 schools, had been placed in laboratory work by the Committee during the last few years; to a number of firms known to employ women on their laboratory staffs, and to all women Fellows and Associates of the Institute-numbering about zoo. Details are given in the Report which show salaries and prospects of the qualified and unqualified women chemists, and the opinions of the employers. A limited number of copies of the full Report is available at the Institute, and the conclusions reached as the result of the enquiry are stated as follows:- The salary prospects of unqualified girls are poor.Candidates who do not obtain a degree or similar quali- fications are limited to junior and routine work. A degree is an essential qualification for a responsible post. The majority of matriculants in commercial firms find great difficulty in obtaining a degree by means of evening study. Candidates at the Inter BSc. stage, experience less difficulty, and most of them are able to qualify. Candidates who are employed in school laboratories find their conditions of employment permit them to study for a degree with good prospects of success. Employers express some preference for men for research work and positions of responsibility, but many prefer women for junior and routine work.The salary of qualified women (excluding teachers) is not generous, having regard to their length of training and type of qualifications. In considering the suitability of laboratory work for secondary schoolgirls in the light of the points summarised above, the general conclusion has been reached that this employment only offers prospects to girls whose physical stamina and powers of mental application are sufficiently good to enable them to obtain a degree by means of evening study. Such girls have fair prospects of obtaining work which affords them interest, but although the work is skilled, it is often of a routine nature.The Committee expresses the hope that the present prejudice against women will decline in the course of years, as it has done in other professions, and the opinion that suitable girls should 282 not be discouraged from training for scientific work because of reluctance to compete for positions hitherto held by men. The suggestion is made that girls who lack physical stamina and good mental ability should be advised to seek other employ- ment where the remuneration is better and prospects of advance- ment are not dependent on intensive evening study. Silicosis.-On the recommendation of the Council of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, the Gold Medal of the Consolidated Gold Fields of South Africa, Ltd.has been awarded to Professor H. V. A. Briscoe, Member of the Council of the Insti- tute, in recognition of his researches on the sampling and properties of industrial dusts; and a premium of forty guineas has been awarded conjointly to Dr. Janet W. Matthews, Fellow, Mr. P. F. Holt, Associate, and Miss Phyllis M. Sanderson, in recognition of their association in the work, which it will be recalled was that undertaken by Mrs. Matthews as Pedler Scholar of the Institute (1933-36) Professor Arthur Smithel1s.-A presentation in the form of a set of silver beakers, suitably inscribed, has been made to Professor Arthur Smithells, C.B.E. , F.R.S., Past President, by the Fellows of the Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry, as a mark of their gratitude and affection and to commemorate his term of office as Director of the Institute from 1923 to 1937.Passports.-The signatures of Fellows and Associates of the Institute are accepted by the Chief Passport Officer in verification of passport applications. 283 Obituary. WILLIAM ARCHIBALD ANDREWSdied at Bristol, on 28th April, in his 48th year. Educated at Rugeley and Stafford Grammar Schools, and Saltley College, he studied science at Stafford Technical School, Saltley Training College, and the University of Birmingham, and graduated B.Sc. in 1914. During the latter part of his training at Birmingham, he was demonstrator for a year in the Physical Department. From 1914 to 1916, he was a teacher of chemistry in Carmarthen Grammar School. From 1916 to 1918 he was attached to the Royal Flying Corps, at first aa despatch rider, but later as wireless operator and observer.In 1917, he and another officer occupied the first aeroplane to cross the German lines carrying wireless. They were congratulated on the field and promoted to the rank of captain. He became second-in-command of an inspection section of the Wireless Experimental Establishment, pursued research on wireless telegraphy and telephony, and invented a mica diaphragmmicrophone for use in aeroplanes, which was generally adopted. In July, 1918, he was in charge of the inspection of Air Force Wireless Apparatus at Woolwich. He was a member of the Institute of Radio Engineers, a keen radio enthusiast, and originated the successful wireless classes in Bristol, where he delivered lectures for several years. In 1919, he held an appointment in the Technical College, Cardif€, and in 1920 was appointed Superintendent of Merchant Venturers’ Technical College and Head of the Department of Chemistry in the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Bristol, which posts he held at the time of his death.He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1919. The Institute was represented at the funeral by Mr. Arthur Marsden. JOHNHARRY HALE-WHITE,who died at Cannes on the 16th April, in his 79th year, was the second son of William Hale-White (Mark Ruther- ford, philosophical writer and novelist) and brother of Sir William Hale- White, physician, author of the well-known textbook on therapeutics.J.H. Hale-White was educated at King’s College School, and having matriculated, proceeded to Guy’s Hospital, with the intention of following medicine. He studied chemistry under Debus and Stevenson for a year, and then having determined to change his career, entered the Royal School of Mines in 1879, where he worked under Edward Frankland and gained the diploma of A.R.S.M. in 1882. Shortly afterwards, he joined the staff at the Blaina Furnaces Co., Ltd., Monmouthshire, and two years later was appointed analyst and Siemens Furnace manager to the New British Iron Co. at Cradley Heath, Stafford- shire. He held that appointment for only a short time, however, and joined the Derwent Iron and Steel Works of Charles Cammell & Co.Ltd., Workington, where he became chief chemist in 1886. He extended his experience in metallurgy and engineering in Russia and Spain, and, in 1912, became General Manager to the Chilian and Argentine Transandine Railways. From 1923 he was managing director of the joint administration of both sections, but, two years later, was obliged to retire owing to ill-health and returned to England. In 1926, he was appointed a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire for his services in connection with the visit of the Prince of Wales to South America in the previous year. He was elected a Fellow of the Institute in 1896. 284 JAGOWILLIAM died at Hove on 28th March, in his 85th year. Born at Marazion, Cornwall, he was educated at Truro School, and, intending to follow the profession of a mining engineer, spent several years with Messrs.Harvey & Co., of Hayle, while studying practical mineralogy and chemistry with Mr. J. H. Collins. In 1875, however, he proceeded to the Royal College of Chemistry, and the Royal School of Mines, where he worked under Edward Frankland and Guthrie, and then obtained an appointment as head science master at the Brighton School of Science and Art. He held a similar position at Brighton College and, later, established a practice as an analytical and consulting chemist, in which he devoted special attention to the chemistry of wheat, flour and bread. He acted as jurorat International Exhibitions held in Paris (1900), Brussels (1910), and Turin (1911).His published works include textbooks on elementaryand advanced Inorganic Chemistry; a comprehensive volume on the Chemistry of Wheat, Flour and Bread, and jointly with his son, William Claude Jago, the Technology of Bread-making. In 1933, notwithstanding his advanced age, he contrimted to the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry a symposium on The Nutritive Value of Bread.” In 1904 he was called to the Bar, and in 1909 published a treatise on Forensic Chemistry and Chemical Evidence. He was a consultative examiner on Bread-making to the City and Guilds of London Institute and scientific and technical director of Clark’s Bread, Ltd. During the War he was chairman of the Hove Food Control Committee and the Municipal Kitchen Committee, and, in 1922, having taken an active part in municipal affairs in Hove for over 24 years, was elected to fill the office of Mayor, which he held until 1925.He was elected a Justice of the Peace in the following year. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1878, and a Fellow in 1884, and was one of the pre-Charter Fellows to whom the Frankland Medal was awarded in 1935. At his funeral the Institute was represented by Dr. D. W. Kent-Jones. ART-PEARSONLUFF died at Essington Priors, Limpsfield, Surrey, at the age of 82. Dr. Luff was an Original Member of the Institute, having been elected an Associate in December, 1877. Educated at Western Grammar School, he studied for two years at the School of the Pharmaceutical Society, and one year at the Royal College of Chemistry, before he became demon- strator in chemistry at St.Mary’s Hospital under Dr. C. R. Alder Wright. He graduated B.Sc. (Lond.), and for a few years he conducted a practice in analytical chemistry in the Marylebone Road, but he, eventually, turned to medicine, taking his professional training at St. Mary’s Hospital, and, in due course, became M.D. (Lond.) and F.R.C.P. He was a Gold Medallist of the Society of Apothecaries and Pereira Medallist of the Pharmaceutical Society. In 1897 he was Goulstonian lecturer in the Royal College of Physicians, and later he was examiner to the University of London, the Conjoint Board of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, and the Victoria University.From 1901 to 1905, he was examiner for the Institute in therapeutics, pharmacology and microscopy. He was for several years one of the official analysts to the Home Office. During the War, he served in the R.A.M.C. (T.F.), was gazetted brevet lieutenant-colonel, mentioned in despatches, and appointed a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.).In his medical practice he was a specialist on gout, rheumatism, and rheumatoid arthritis. In 1923 he was a member of the Departmental Committee on the Use of Preservations and Colouring Matter in Food, appointed by the Minister of Health. He was elected a Fellow of the Institute in 1880. 285 HUGHRAMAGE,who died at Carrow Hill, Norwich, on 18th April,in his 74th year, received his early training in chemistry at the Mechanics Institution and in the laboratory of the London and North Western Railway Company at Crewe, under the late Mr.Joseph Reddrop, Fellow. In 1886, on gaining a Royal -Exhibition, he proceeded to the Royal Colleke of Science, Dublin, where he studied for three years under Professor-later Sir-Walter Noel- Hartley, gaining the Associateship of the College(A.R.C.Sc.1.). He rejoined the staff at Crewe for a short time, during which, in collaboration with Reddrop, he worked out the sodium bismuthate method of estimating manganese in steel and, in 1891, returned to Dublin as chief assistant to Hartley and took up spectroscopic research, which he subsequently continued under Liveing at Cambridge, where he received the degree of M.A.Later, he was appointed Principal of the Norwich Municipal Technical Institute and Director of Technical Education at Norwich, which position he held for 26 years, until his retirement in 1930. He was an active worker for the British Association, served on several committees, and read a number of papers at its annual meetings. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1889, and a Fellow in 1893. At his funeral, the East Anglian Section of the Institute was repre- sented by Mrs. Corran and Mr. A. G. J. Lipscomb. GILESHADDEN died at Golders Green Crescent, London, WELSFORD on the 22nd May, in his 56th year. Educated at Blackheath School, he obtained his scientific training at the Central Technical College, South Kensington, where he gained a ht class certificate.After nine months’ experience as assistant chemist to Henry Faija & Co., Cement Consulting Chemists, Westminster, he was appointed in 1904 to the staff of the Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey, where he remained until 1912. He nest held a position with Messrs. Major & Co., Tar Distillers, Hull, until the outbreak of war, when he was granted a commission with the East Yorkshire Regiment, served in France, was wounded and lost his right arm in 1916. In the following year he was appointed an Assistant Inspector of High Explosives, Woolwich Arsenal. He retired from the army in 1919 with the rank of Major, and became technical assistant to the Ordnance Inspector of Depots under the Director of Armament Supply, Admiralty.In 1921, he was appointed to the staff of the Chemical Defence Research Department, in which he became one of the senior scientific officers, the position which he held at the time of his death. He was elected an Associate of the Institute in 1918. 286 Books and their Contents. The following books have been kindly presented by the authors and publishers and may be seen in the Library of the Institute :-“Agricultural Analysis : a Handbook of Methods excluding those for Soils.” C. Harold Wright. Pp. x + 344. (London: T. Murby & Co.) 15s. net. Preparation of the sample; nitrogenous fertilisers ;phosphatic fertilisers ; phosphate rock ; potassic fertilisers; lime and limestone; organicconstituents of feeding stuffs; mineral constituents of feeding stuffs ; milk; milk products ; insecticides and fungicides; solutions for volumetric analysis.Appendixes: international atomic weights ; gravi-metric factors and their logarithms; volumetric factors and their logarithms. Index of authors and subjects. ‘‘ Chemical Industry, British : Its Rise and Development. ” Sir Gilbert T. Morgan, O.B.E., F.R.S. and David Doig Pratt. Pp. xii + 388. (London: Edward Arnold & Co.). 21s. net. Salt ; sulphur ; sand, clay and limestone ; industrial gases ; selected metallurgical processes ; borax and phosphate; paints and pigments ; oils, fats and waxes; cellulose; coal; oil shale and petroleum; explosives; dyestuffs and intermediates ; plastics and rubber; industrial solvents; fine chemicals; epilogue; index.“Chemistry for Engineering Students.” R. Hum. Foreword by J. W. Mellor. Pp. x + 832. (London: Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd.). 15s. net. Combustion of fuel, the rusting of iron, composition of air, the con- servation of matter; water, steam, ice, solubility, crystals, etc. ;hydrogenand water; coal, graphite, other forms of carbon, carbon dioxide; characteristics of metals-compounds and mixtures ; the expansion and solubility of gases ;the laws of chemistry-atomic theory ;determination of molecular and atomic weights ;formulae and equations-calculations of quantities-reversible reactions; thermochemistry-producer gas-carbon monoxide-analysis of flue gas, etc.; hydrochloric acid-the nature of acids-volumetric analysis-chlorine and its oxy-compounds, etc. ; bromine, iodine and fluorine; oxidation and reduction-ozone and hydrogen peroxide-Le Chatelier’s principle ; sulphur and its com-pounds-catalysis ; nitrogen and its compounds with hydrogen and oxygen; fixation of nitrogen-coal gas-flames-liquefaction and 287 refrigeration-the phase rule ; the ionic theory-osmotic pressure-electric cells; extraction, corrosion and protection of metals---electro-plating-structure of alloys ; manufacture of iron and steel-structure of steel-chemical properties of iron ; copper, silver and gold-the colloidal state ; lead-tin-accumulators ; zinc, cadmium, mercury,magnesium, calcium-hardness of water ; alkali ; sodium: potassium- periodic system-atomic structure ; phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth; silicon compounds-refractories-glass-titanium, etc.-electric furnace products ; organic chemistry, aluminium, boron, beryl- lium-abrasives ;chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, uranium, mangan- ese, nickel, cobalt, platinum ; answers to numerical questions; table of atomic weights; index.The general standard of this work is that of the Chemistry of the Intermediate Examination for the London B.Sc. in Engineer- ing, covering at the same time the requirements of the pure chemistry questions set in the Associate membership examinations of the Institutions of Civil, Mechanical and Electrical Engineers.The requirements of the Civil Service examinations for Customs and Excise, Executive Group and Assistant Examinerships at the Patent Office have also been kept in view, as well as the examinations for London County Council Clerkships. The mode of approach to the subject adopted by the author is necessarily somewhat different from that of the usual type of book written for chemistry students as such, substances being dealt with as a means to an end rather than as a final study in themselves. Chemical theory is by no means neglected, how- ever, but it is interwoven so well with the facts of chemistry that the result is a very readable as well as informative production. The subject matter is so arranged, and the method of treatment such, that the impression gained is one of steady, natural and smooth development, rather than development by a series of disconnected stages, as is too often the case in elementary text books.The emphasis is upon phenomena which the engineer meets with in his every-day life, or which he can readily compre- hend from his general knowledge, the underlying theory then being introduced for a definite purpose which is quite unmistak- able. In this way, what is often regarded by the beginner as artificial and, therefore, burdensome is clearly shown to be the essential part of chemistry which it is. What is so refreshing to find is that the book embraces, almost without one becoming aware of the fact, thoseaspects of the subject which it is customary to place in separate “theory” compartments, such as chemical equilibrium, electrolytic dissociation, the phase rule, etc.At the same time, the treatment of these and other relevant branches of physical chemistry is quite adequate. In the preparation of a work of this kind, one of the chief problems is what to include and what to omit. In this respect, the author has chosen wisely and has achieved a good balance between the practical, theoretical and industrial. In addition to the material obviously essential to such a book, room has been found for sections on gas analysis and volumetric analysis. A brief account of atomic structure is given, but, remembering the persons for whom the book is primarily intended, the author has wisely tempered justice to the subject with mercy to the reader.There is a chapter on organic chemistry which deals, in addition to the hydrocarbons, with industrial alcohols, cellulose products, plastics and soap. Though necessarily somewhat brief, this chapter falls quite naturally into the position assigned to it. Amongst the many other topics of special interest to the engineer, which are included at the appropriate points, are corrosion and protection of metals, electro-plating, structure of alloys, cements, conditioning of boiler feed water, refractories, electric furnaces and their products, and abrasives. The book contains 171illustrations, which are chiefly diagram- matic in character, and which afford a pleasant contrast to the representations of antiquated chemical plant which we have become rather accustomed to associate with elementary text- books of chemistry.This book should go a long way in reminding students and teachers alike that, as the late Dr. Mellor pointed out in the Foreword, the prime object of a text-book of chemistry is to recount facts, not to play with them.-H. W. C. “Copper Pipe-line Services inBuilding.” Pp. 116.(London : Copper Development Association.) Copper tubes; jointing methods for light gauge copper tubes; bending copper tubes; copper tube fitting; cold water services; hot water supply; heating installations; sanitation; gas fitting; copper electrical conduit; index. “Crystal Chemistry. ” Charles W. Stillwell. International Chemical Series; edited by James F.Norris. Pp. x + 432. (London : McGraw Publishing Company, Ltd.) 25s. net. The sizes of atoms and ions; the structures and properties of the elements; the metallic state; the nature of alloys; the structures of binary corn- pounds; the properties of binary compounds; the structures of the silicates; the structures of Werner compounds ; isomorphism, mixed crystals, polymorphism; the structures of organic crystals; natural fibres; synthetic fibres. Appendix. Index. 289 “Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases.” Bernard Lewis and Guenther von Elbe. (Cambridge Series of Physical Chemistry. Edited by E. K. Rideal.) Pp. xiv + 416. (Cambridge: The University Press.) 21s. net. Chemistry and kinetics of the reactions between fuel gases and oxygen: theoretical foundations ; the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen ; the reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen; the reaction between hydrocarbons and oxygen; emission spectra and ionisation in the flame front; the problem of ignition by sparks.Propagation of flames: limits of self-propagation of flames (limits of idammability) ; the recording of flame movement and pressure development ; spherical flames ; the influence of vessel shape and gas motion on flame propagation; stationary flames; theory of the burning velocity ; diffusion flames; detonation; flames in electric fields. State of the burnt gas: thermo- dynamic functions of gases from band spectroscopy; explosions in spherical vessels with central ignition ; freely expanding spherical flames; temperature and radiation of the burnt gas. Problems in technical combustion processes : industrial heating ;internal combustion engines;data for thermochemical calculations ;limits of inflammability ; flame temperatures.“Geological Survey of Great Britain, the First Hundred Years of.” Sir John Smith Flett. Pp. 280 and inset plate. (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office.) 7s. 6d. net. Antecedents; the Geological Survey under-Sir Henry Thomas De la Beche; Sir Roderick Impey Murchison; Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay; Sir Archibald Geikie; Sir Jethro Justinian Harris Teall; Sir Aubrey Strahan; Sir John Smith Flett. Ceremonial Opening of the new Museum by H.R.H. The Duke of York; celebration of the centenary of the Geological Survey of Great Britain; list of delegates and overseas guests at the ceremonies; staff list; biblio- graphy ; illustrations.11 Inorganic Chemistry, Modern Aspects of.” H. J. Emelkus and J. S. Anderson. Pp. xii + 536. (London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.). 25s. net. Atomic structure and the periodic system; atomic weights and isotopes; structure of molecules of inorganic compounds ;co-ordination compounds and inorganic stereochemistry ;co-ordination compounds and inorganic stereochemistry ;poly-acids and silicates ; hydrogen and the hydrides; free radicals of short life ; non-metallic oxides and related substances ; recent chemistry of the non-metals ; peroxides and per-acids ; recent chemistry of the metals ;metallic carbonyls, nitrosyls, and related corn- pounds; intermetallic and interstitial compounds ;reactions in liquidammonia and liquid sulphur dioxide; radioactivity and atomic dis-integration.“Matter, The Fine Structure of.” The Bearing of Recent Work on Crystal Structure, Polarisation and Line Spectra. Vol I1 of a Comprehensive Treatise of Atomic and Molecular Structure -Part 111: The Quantum Theory and Line Spectra. C. H. Douglas Clark. Pp. vii-xxxvi ; 459-644; xvii-lxii. (London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.) 15s.net. 290 Part I: X-rays and structure of matter; space-lattices and X-rays; the crystal structure of elements; the crystal structure of inorganiccompounds of type AB; the crystal structure of inorganic compounds of type AB,; the crystal structure of compounds of further inorganic types; the crystal structure of compounds of organic types; the crystal structure of colloids and amorphous substances; the crystal structure of alloys, intermetallic compounds and solid solutions ;crystal structure and molecular constitution.Part 11: Molecular polarisation : dielectric constants ; the Debye theory of polarisation; molecular refraction; polar molecules; molecular fields. Part 111: The quantum theory and line spectra :the quantum theory; tlhe general principles of line-spectra; the multiple of lines; line spectra and the periodic classification. References and list of authors cited in references and Subject Index. “Metallurgy. ” Edwin Gregory.Introduction by Cecil H.Desch, F.R.S. Pp. xviii + 284. (London and Glasgow: Blackie & Son, Ltd.) 17s. 6d. net. List of abbreviations and glossary of terms. Iron; steel-its manufacture, properties and uses; the constitution of metallic systems; the metallo- graphy, heat-treatment, and properties of iron and steel; “special” steels and other ferrous alloys; stainless or rust-resisting steels; non- ferrous engineering alloys. Index. “Metals andAlloys, Chemical Analysis of. ’ Edwin Gregory and Walter W. Stevenson. Foreword by T. Swinden. Pp. xvi + 376. (London and Glasgow: Blackie & Son, Ltd.) 15s. Fundamental chemical principles ;chemical properties of the elements ; preliminary operations and considerations; quantitative analysis of iron and steel; the analysis of pig iron and cast iron; the analysis of ferro alloys; the analysis of ores and slags; the analysis of non-ferrous alloys.Appendixes-tables of factors and of typical analyses of cast irons and pig irons, of steel and steel-making alloys, of iron ores and slags and of non-ferrous alloys. International table of atomic weights, 1937. Index. “Micro-methods of Quantitative Organic Elementary Analysis. ” Joseph B. Niederl and Victor Niederl. Pp. xvi + 272. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. London: Chap- man & Hall, Ltd.) 15s. net. Introduction ;the microchemical balaIice ;weighing on a microchemical balance ; miscellaneous weighing equipment ; miscellaneous laboratory utensils;preparation and weighing of a sample for analysis; elementary analysis : determination of metals and residues; determination of neutralisation equivalent (ionic hydrogen, carboxyl) ;volumetric deter- mination of aminoid nitrogen ; gasometric determination of nitrogen ; determination of carbon and hydrogen ; determination of halogens ; determination of sulphur ; determination of phosphorus; determination of arsenic ;determination of the molecular weight :ebullioscopic method; cryoscopic method; vaporimetric method; osmotic method ; structure analysis: determination of alkoxy and alkimide groups ; determination of acetyl groups ; determination of active hydrogen.Appendix: the teaching of quantitative elementary organic micro-analysis ;installation of a laboratory for quantitative elementary organic micro-analysis ; general microchemical literature ;calculations;nitrogen correction table ; log.tables. Author and Subject Index. 291 "Organic Chemistry : an Advanced Treatise." Editorial Board: Henry Gilman, Roger Adams, Hans T. Clarke, Homer Adkins, Carl S. Marvel, Frank C. Whitmore. In two volumes : Vol. I, pp. lvi + 858; Vol. 11, pp. lvi + 859-1890. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.). E3 15s. (LI 17s. 6d. each volume). Volume I. Alicyclic Compounds and the Theory of Strain-ReynoldC. Fuson. Theory of the Structure and Reactions of Aromatic Com- pounds-Louis F. Fieser. Stereoisomerism-Ralph L. Shriner, Roger Adams and C. S. Marvel. Organometallic Compounds.-Henry Gilman.Free Radicals-Werner E. Bachmann. Unsaturation and Conjugation- C. F. H. Allen and A. H. Blatt. Open-Chain Nitrogen Compounds- Charles D. Hurd. Molecular Rearrangements-Everett S. Wallis. Comparison of Chemical Reactivity-Homer Adkins. Volume 11. Natural Amino Acids-H. T. Clarke. The Chemistry of Pyrimidines, Purines, and Nucleic Acids-Treat B. Johnson. Alkaloids- Lyndon Small. The Anthocyanins and the Flavones-Karl Paul Link. Carotenoids: The Polyene Pigments of Plants and Animals-Marston Taylor Bogert. The Sterols, Bile Acids, and Related Compounds- William H. Strain. Carbohydrates I-Melville L. Wolfrom. Carbo-hydrates 11-Albert L. Raymond. Carbohydrates III-Cellulose-- Emil Heuser. Modern Electronic Concepts of ValenceJohn R.Johnson. Constitution and Physical Properties of Organic C6mpounds-Wallace R. Brode and John A. Leermakers. Rotatory Dispersion-P. A. Levene and Alesandre Rothen. The significance of Resonance to the Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules-Linus Pauling. The two volumes comprise an up-to-date review of the state of our knowledge in some of the more important fields, particularly in those subjects which have been developed recently, and in which therefore it is often most difficult to obtain an authoritative opinion without consulting the confusing mass of original literature. The subjects are considered in great detail, and references are given to more specialised textbooks and original papers. The indexing is good.Although the subject matter primarily concerns organic chemistry, suitable excursions are made into the related theories of physical chemistry, such as are becoming of increasing daily use to the organic chemist in visual- ising the mechanism of the reactions, and the properties of the compounds, which he is investigating. Topics of broader scope have been considered in the first volume. The general synthetic reactions of organic chemistry are described systematically and completely, and then the chemi- cal properties of the more reactive members. Optical activity is dealt with in great detail. The second volume is of more limited application and has a strong bias towards naturally occurring compounds of special 292 biochemical interest.Due weight has been given to the relation- ship of certain of these with vitamins A to D, and the vitamins themselves are fully described in the light of recent knowledge. Recent developments in the chemistry of the hormones are also included. The industrial chemist will find special interest in the article concerning the structure of cellulose. In addition he can derive a more general interest in the extensive description of the nature of aromatic substitution, resonance, and the electronic concepts of valency, in the knowledge of which he may have a tendency to lag behind the times. It is not difficult to point to omissions in a book which describes its chosen subjects in such detail, and it is to be hoped that further volumes on similar lines will soon follow.In general, too little prominence has been given to the purely synthetic compounds, such as are finding increasing uses in industry and medicine. The dyestuffs field, in any of its branches has not so far received recognition. An article on natural and synthetic porphyrins should be included later, and also a description of the preparation and properties of those unsaturated aliphatic compounds which give rise to the syn- thetic rubbers. The general problem of polymerisation is to be the subject of a later edition. Every industrial chemist who wishes to retain academic broadmindedness would do well to refer to these excellent vol- umes. The team of authors is to be congratulated.-C. D. “Petroleum,The Science of.’’ A Comprehensive Treatise of the Principles and Practice of the Production, Refining, Trans- port and Distribution of Mineral Oil.A. E. Dunstan, Managing Editor; A. W. Nash, Editor of Contributions; B. T. Brooks, Editor for the United States of America; Sir H. Tizard, K.C.B., F.R.S., Consulting Editor. Pp. xxvi + 3194. (London: New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press.) fI15 15s. net. Volume I-origin and production of crude petroleum : nomenclature; statistics ; origin of petroleum ; distribution of petroleum ; migrationof petroleum ; natural accumulations of petroleum ; geological methods of exploration; geophysical methods of exploration ;methods of drilling;sampling, coring, and bore-hole surveying ; production ; oilfield waters ; power in oilfield development; the measurement of oil, gas, and water in oilfields; crude oil transport; natural gas transport; storage of oil and gas.Volume II-chemical and physical principles of the refining of mineral oils; nature of crude petroleum; chemistry of petroleum; physical and chemical properties of petroleum and its products : determination, 293 correlation, and collected data; general analysis and testing of petroleumproducts ; history and development of refining ; casing head gasoline extraction ; natural and refinery gases; distillation. Volume 111-refining processes: physical, chemical ; solvent extraction methods of refining; dewaxing ; gas pyrolysis and polymerisation;cracking; hydrogenation ; engineering and chemical engineering as applied to refining; metals and alloys in refinery equipment; corrosion; instruments and meters; electrikation of refineries; power and water supplies; fires. Volume IV-utilisation of mineral oils and their derivatives; products of petroleum ; combustion; detonation ; bituminous materials and their products; oilshales, torbanites, cannels, etc.; shale oils and tar oils. Appendix; Indexes. The liquid and solid products of petroleum have been used by man since the dawn of history. The Sumerians used bitumen as a binding material in the walls of their buildings, and the long period of the independence of Constantinople was due in part to the possession of the secret of “Greek Fire.” This was the most powerful military weapon before the invention of gunpowder and cannon.It was .probably prepared from a self-igniting mixture of petroleum and quick-lime. The next remarkable use of mineral oil arose with the growth of industry in the early nine- teenth century. The demands of the Lancashire textile industry for lubricants prompted James Young to distil oil from a small seepage in Derbyshire. From this he was led to distil Scottish shales, and he put a cheap lamp oil on the market. Soon 130 distilling plants were established in the world. The search for petroleum was inspired by attempts to find even cheaper alternatives to Young’s oils. This could be done only by obtaining petroleum in large quantities, and this was achieved in 1859, when Drake succeeded in sinking a well by drilling.Since that date, the petroleum industry has expanded enormously, in two stages; first, chiefly as a purveyor of lamp oils, and then of fuel for internal combustion engines. Owing to the newness of the modern industry it has developed an exceptionally good scientific tradition. This book is a very remarkable manifestation of that tradition. It has been edited by Dr. A. E. Dunstan of the Anglo- Iranian Oil Company, Professor A, W. Nash of Birmingham University, Dr. Benjamin T. Brooks of New York, and Sir Henry Tizard, the Rector of the Imperial College of Science, assisted by twenty-four associate editors and 316 contributors. About one-half of the work is concerned with chemistry and chemical engineering.Some of the notable contributions in the chemical sections are by Professor J. F. Thorpe and Dr. E. H. Farmer on the general chemistry of hydrocarbons, by Professor 294 A. G. Egerton on the chemistry of detonation, by Professor J. von Braun on naphthenic acids, by Professor H. Freundlich on the colloid and capillary chemistry of petroleum, by Professor F. Challenger on sulphur compounds in bituminous oils, and by Dr. F. Bergius on hydrogenation. Mr. T. A. Boyd, who with Dr. Midgley discovered the remarkable power of lead tetraethyl to suppress “knock” in engines, writes on the measurement of the knocking characteristics of automotive fuels. Dr. D. R. Pye has edited the lubrication sections, and Professor A. S. Eve the very interesting group of contributions on geo-physical methods of prospecting. Professor V.C. Illing has edited the lengthy geological part. There are very full con-tributions on gas pyrolysis and polymerisation, several of which have been written by Dr. D. A. Howes. The chemical theory and practice of cracking is covered in seven articles. Besides containing first-hand statements by most of the scientific authorities on petroleum, the work contains invaluable lists of references. Nearly all of the contributors have given a select list of references at the ends of their papers, which is often almost as helpful as the article. A comprehensive work of this sort is not intended only as a convenient summary of knowledge in each field for the specialist in that field.The specialist often consults such a work to learn what is known on subjects outside, though related to, his own field. Here is virtually everything that he might expect. On looking through these volumes the reader gains an impression of how much has been discovered about petroleum, and yet how much remains to be discovered. Dr. Thole in his article on the chemical constitution of petroleum remarks that owing to its complication little is as yet known about it. After 5 years’ analytical work, Washburn and his collaborators have isolated only 30 constituents of a natural petroleum. The scope for further chemical research on petroleum is vast and inspiring. The Science of Petrolewz will be an indispensable work of reference for all who have any interest in the subject.-J.G. C. ‘Safety Rules for Use in ChemicalWorks.” Part I: Model Rules. Pp. 50. (London: Association of British Chemical Manufacturers.) 5s. net. Rules for the design and operation of plant with fie and explosive risks; rules for the design and operation of plant involving risks from gas, vapour, fume or dust; rules for the design and operation of plant involving dangers from contact with corrosive or deleterious substances ; rules for the design and operation of plant involving other risks; fk! protection; first aid; welfare. 295 In 1928, the Council of the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers decided to prepare and publish to its members, in provisional form, a set of Model Safety Rules for Use in Chemical Works.These Rules were based on the Factory and Workshop Act, the Chemical Works Regulations, the Electricity Regulations, and similar statutory provisions and included other desirable precautions derived from experience. They were the first attempt to draw up a comprehensive safety code for the chemical industry. Part I was published early in 1929. Various amendments and additions have been suggested in the light of experience since gained, and Part I, now issued in its final form, includes the provisions of the Factories Act, 1937. It is an epitome of precautions to be taken, an introduction to detailed instructions given in Part 11, which will contain more extended explanation of the objects to be attained by the Rules, the dangers arising from their non-observance and the best methods of obtaining the desired results.A revised edition of Part 11, originally issued in 1929, is in preparation for publication at an early date. The Council of the Institute is much gratified to state that, by the courtesy of the Council of the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, copies of the Safety Rules (Part I) are being circulated to all Fellows and Associates of the Institute, with this Part of the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS. “Steel, The Structure of.” Eric N. Simons and Edwin Gregory. Introduction by F. C. Lea, O.B.E. Pp. x + 116. (London and Glasgow: Blackie & Son, Ltd.) 3s. 6d. net. Mixtures, compounds, and solutions; equilibrium diagrams ; freezingof iron-carbon alloys; critical points; crystalline forms; impurities in steel; alloy steels ; heat-treatment: case-hardening; characteristics of alloy steels ;microscopic structure ;testing of steel ; corrosion; stainless steel; X-rays.Table I: Brinell’s hardness numbers. Table 11: Con-version table of various hardness numerals. Index. The Report of the National Physical Laboratory for the Year 1937 has been published by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (H.M. Stationery Office- 2s. 6d. net). The Report of the Executive Committee records the appoint- ment of Dr. W. L. Bragg, F.R.S., as Director of the Laboratory, 296 and includes a general review of the work of the Laboratory during the year in its various departments, viz.:-physics, electricity, radio, metrology, engineering, metallurgy, and aerodynamics departments, and the William Froude Laboratory. The Laboratory receives a large number of enquiries from industry for information on scientific problems. Many of the enquiries result from a misapprehension of the functions of the Laboratory. Apart from numerous requests for chemical analyses, the Laboratory has been asked to deal with problems of physiology, bacteriology, psychology, and even physical training. In most cases, it is possible to refer the applicant to the appropriate authority. (Such enquiries are, in fact, passed on, from time to time, to the Institute of Chemistry.) The work of the Physics Department includes a reference to research on the thermal properties of metals at high tempera- tures, and, on the other hand, to investigations concerning refrigeration.Under radiology, there are references to electro- deposited chromium and the fatigue failure of metals; under optics, reference is made to an investigation of optical methods of providing a numerical criterion of the “quality of finish” of metal surfaces which has been in progress for the Metallurgy Research Board. In the Engineering Department an investigation has been undertaken on behalf of the Gas Cylinders and Containers Committee, into the strength of welded construction of pressure vessels. Developments in chemical engineering have caused an increase in the commercial uses of various liquefied gases, and improvements in cylinder and container construction, which lead to reduction in weight without relaxation of a necessary margin of safety, are of a considerable advantage to the industries concerned.An investigation has been undertaken whereby a detailed examination will be made of oxy-acetylene welding as applied to pressure vessel construction. Joints are subjected to mechanical tests and metallurgical examination, and the results should enable a comparison to be made of the relative merits of the types of welding for the construction of welded vessels. The liquefied petroleum gases, propane and butane, are being brought into use for industrial and domestic purposes, and it has become necessary to obtain data on those physical properties of the gases on which the safe design of the containers must be based.Experimental work, therefore, has been commenced on liquid density and vapour pressure, within the range likely to be met in practice. 297 An extensive programme of lubrication research has been actively pursued and directed towards obtaining a better under- standing of both fluid film and boundary type of lubrication, and to provide more exact data for the efficient design and operation of lubricated mechanisms. The work on the redetermination of specific heats of gases at high temperature has been brought to conclusion, and a final report thereon is in preparation. In the Department of Metallurgy special mention is made of work on the improvement of magnesium alloys, a monograph on which has been published by H.M.Stationery Office. A schedule of papers published by this department includes references to age-hardening alloys and the theory of age-hardening; to the constitution of the alloys of silver, tin, and mercury; to dental amalgams; to the effects of impurities in copper; to magnesium and its alloys; the chemical properties and stability of metals at high temperatures, etc. Appendix I contains the particulars of the personnel of the laboratory committees. Appendix 11, the staff. The Cambridge University Press announces that it has taken over the publication of ''Discovery "-which celebrated its seventeenth anniversary in April. The journal covers a wide and varied scope of scientific interest, is illustrated and well- produced in modern style and format, Annual subscription, 12s. 6d., post free.The Medico-Legal Criminological Review is published by Messrs. Bailli$re, Tindall and Cox for the Medico-Legal Society, and also includes papers read before the Manchester Medico-Legal Society. It is the only journal of its kind in English, and is now conducted under the honorary editorship of representatives of medicine, chemistry and law. The first number of the present year (Vol. VI, Part I) is in a new format, and includes-common ground ; science and justice ; medico-legal institutes ;food poisoning; the medical witness; the bladder tube case; the adulteration of food and drugs; scientific aids to police work; medicine in Parliament; reviews of books; journals received ; abstracts from medico-legal literature.(3s.quarterly; annual subscription, 12s. 6d. net, post free.) 298 The April issue of Sands, Clays and Minerals contains, inter alia, articles on Tantalum and Niobium, by R. Genders; The Selection of Coal for Industrial Purposes, by G. W. Himus; Early Technical Balances, by A. Barclay; The Reparation of Historical Buildings, by A. R. Warnes; Rubber Fillers, by F. H. Cotton. (Published by A. L. Curtis, P.O. Box 61, Chatteris, Cambs., England: 3s. 6d.) The Annual Report of the World Power Conference for 1937 has recently been published with a Supplementary Report dealing with the work of the British National Committee during that year.British Standards Institution. The following British Standards have recently been received (2s. each, 2s. zd. post free) :-No. 748-1937. Hzmacytometer Counting Chambers and Hzmacytometer Dilution Pipettes. No.616-1938. Sampling of Coal Tar and its Products. (Revised April, 1938.) No. 791-1938. Bomb Calorimeter Thermometers. The International Tin Research Development Council has lately published the following brochures :-The Second General Report, 1937. Series A, Number 73: “Frostiness in Plumbers’ Solder,” by F. A. Rivett. Series A, Number 74: “Research on Thin Layers of Tin and Other Metals: IV, Further Investigation on Corrosion by Oils,’’ by P. J. Haringhuizen and D. A. Was. Series A, Number 76: “The Coating of Metals with Tin from VapourPhase” (“Stannising”), by B.W. Gonser and E. E. Slowter. Series B, Number 7: “The Hot Tinning of Fabricated Articles,” by E. 5. Daniels. The Lancastrian Frankland Society, which was founded in 1933 to perpetuate the memory of Sir Edward Frankland, the first President of the Institute-a native of Lancaster-has published an address entitled “Rewards and’ Fairies,” delivered on the 14th January, by Sir James C. Irvine, F.R.S. Sir James reviewed the progress of chemistry during the life of Sir Edward Frankland and paid a tribute to the late Professor Henry E. Armstrong, who was closely associated with Frankland in the early part of his career. 299 Mr. J. W. T. Spinks has translated, with the co-operation of the author, Gerhard Herzberg’s book on “Atomic Spectra and Atomic Structure.’’ (Messrs. Blackie & Son.) Professor J. Read has written a textbook on “Organic Chemistry, Historical, Structural and Economic, ”-pub-lished in Bell’s Natural Science Series, under the General Editorship of Dr. E. J. Holmyard. The Report of the Advisory Council of the Science Museum for the year 1937, recently published (H.M. Stationery Office, price IS. 3d. net), shows that the Museum is seriously hampered for lack of sufficient accommodation for its Library and Exhibits. The Advisory Council urges that adequate accommodation for at least ten years accessions to the Library be constructed before the end of 1938. At holiday times, the attendance in the Museum causes the galleries to be uncomfortably overcrowded.Exclusive of readers, the number of visitors during 1937 was 1,z71,599,-the attendance on Easter Bank Holiday reaching the figure of 37,625. The Chemistry Handbooks prepared by Mr. Alexander Barclay, Associate,-Part I, History, and Part 11, Catalogue,-have already been noticed in the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS. 300 The Register. At the meetings of Council held on 29th April and 20th May, 1938, I new Fellow was elected, 26 Associates were elected to the Fellowship, 93 new Associates were elected, 42 Students were admitted, and 2 Students were re-registered. New Fellow. Atkinson, Ralph Hall, M.A. (Cantab.), 64, Twyford Avenue, London, W.3.Associates elected to the Fellowship. Ashmore, Stanley Arthur, B.Sc. (Lond.), 69, Dovercourt Road, London, S.E.22. Colegrave, Edward Barnard, B.Sc. (Lond.), 4,Ribble View, West Bradford Road, Clitheroe, Lanes. Currie, Henry Thomas, Willowdene, Ballyclare, Co. Antrim, N. Irelana. Darney, Alexander, M.Sc. (Lond.), Caber Feidh, Kinlochleven, Argyll. Daubney, Charles Gaspard, M.Sc. (Lond.), Bildens, Camden Park Road, Chislehurst, Kent. Dodd, Alfred Herbert, M.A. (Cantab.), c/o Messrs. Newton, Chambers, Ltd., Thorncliffe, nr. Sheffield. Dracass, William Robert, M.Sc. (Lond.), c/o E. Hinks, Esq., F.l.C., Analytical Laboratories, 16, Southwark Street, London, S.E. 1. Elliott, Frederick Jacob, M.Sc., Ph.D., (Dunelm), 13, Sanderson Road, Jesmond, Newcastle upon Tyne.Green, Brian Michael, M.A. (Cantab.), 6, Lambolle Road, London, N.W.3. Griffiths, John Gaius Ashwell, B.A., Ph.D. (Cantab.), 11, Coppice Avenue, Great Shelford, Cambridge. Hughes, Edward David, D.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Wales), Department of Organic Chemistry, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C. 1. Hunt, Sydney Walter, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., 21, Hillsboro’ Road, London, S.E.22. Jowett, Maurice, Ph.D., D.Sc. (Liv.), Bio-Chemical Laboratory, Cardiff City Mental Hospital, Whitchurch, Glamorgan. MacMillan, William George, B.Sc. (Aberd.), Ph.D. (Cantab. and Aberd.), c/oIndia Jute Mills Association, 16, Old Court House Street, Calcutta, India. May, Cecil John, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., D.I.C., Trinidad Lease- holds, Ltd., Forest Reserve, Trinidad, B.W.I. Morris, Richard m7illiam, B.Sc.(Lond.), A.C.G.F.C., D.I.C., 45, Purley Bury Avenue, Purley, Surrey. McCartney, William, Jr., Ph.D. (Edin.), A.H.-W.C., The Rowett Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen. Olliver, Miss Mamie, M.Sc. (Lond.), 22, Leys Avenue, Cambridge.Pearce, Leonard Roger Batten, B.Sc. (Lond.), 50, Mark Lane, London, E.C.3. 301 Perry, Miss Hilda Mary, M.Sc. (Lond.), 39, Lavender Vale, Wallington, Surrey.Rains, Harry Gascoyne, M.Sc., Ph.D.Met. (Sheffield), 60, Clarence Avenue, Ilford, Essex. Vale, Alan Leslie, B.Sc. (Lond.), 63, Wilkes Street, London, E.1. Vaughan, Ernest James, M.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., D.I.C., 30, Banner Cross Road, Ecclesall, Sheffield, 11. Venables, Percy Frederick Ronald, B.Sc., Ph.D.(Liv.), 25, Tresco Gardens, Goodmayes, Ilford, Essex. Wallace, Thomas, M.Sc. (Dun.), A.Inst.P., Brentwood, Speke Road, Hunts Cross, Liverpool. Woolf, Sidney Samuel, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), 54, lT7arwick Road, London, w.5. New Associates. Allum, Walter John, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., 25, Alexandra Avenue, South Harrow, Middlesex. Archer, Frederick Stanley, 21, Gerard Road, Wallasey. Austin, Eric William, B.Sc. (Lond.), 89, Crowther Road, London, S.E.25. Billingham, Albert, 55, Moat House Road, Alum Rock, Birmingham, 8. Brownlee, George White, M.P.S., Ph.C., Thorneloe, Old Cumock, Ayrshire. Bryant, Stephen Arnold, B.A., B.Sc. (Oxon.), c/o Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough, Aylesbury.Burley, Donald Weston, B.A. (Oxon.), c/o Nessrs. T. J. Smith & Nephew, Ltd., Neptune Street, Hull. Butler, George Herbert, 19, Holmes Road, Durban, S. Africa. Campbell, William George, B.Sc. (St. Andrews), M.S. (Wisconsin), c/o Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough, Aylesbury. Carter, Horace George Charles, 58, Queen's Road, Jesmond, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2. Christie, Scott Laurence, B.Sc. (Edin.), 26, Upper Greenmount Road, Burntisland, Fifeshire. Clarke, William James, M.Sc. (Wales), 26, Coychurch Road, Bridgend, Glamorgan.Coombes, Alfred Henry, B.Sc. (Lond.), 168, Park Avenue, Hull. Crook, Eric Mitchell, M.Sc. (Melbourne), 14, Magrath Avenue, Cambridge. Cunliffe, William, B.Sc. (Lond.), 56, Chester Road, London, E.ll.Dvorkovitz, Vladimir, B.Sc. (Lond.), 42, Rodney Court, Maida Vale, London, W.9. Edmondson, Albert Norman, 20, York Road, Bowerham, Lancaster. Evans, John Nigel Illingworth, B.Sc. (Lond.), Brome, Daines Way,Thorpe Bay, Essex. Ford, Harold, 11 7, Mersey Road, Widnes. Forrester, Robert Eric, 90, Rupert Road, Huyton, Liverpool. Frewing, Joseph John, B.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc., Tudor Cottage, Cookham Dean, Berks. Goodrick, Cecil Edward Maurice, B.Sc. (Lond.), 15, Gloucester Road, London, E.ll. Gregory, John Goodland, B.Sc. (Lond.), The British Hartford-Fairmont Syndicate, Rockware Avenue, Greenford, Middlesex. Greig, Edwin Ian, M.P.S., Ph.C., Ford House, Sorn, Mauchline, Ayrshire. Hawke, Frank, B.Sc. Eng., M.Sc. (Witwatersrand), 11, Sussex Road, Parkwood, Johannesburg, S.Africa. HawkeI, Gerald Hugh, B.Sc. (Lond.), 127a, Croydon Road, London, S.E.20. Hercock, Robert James, BSc. (Lond.), 30, Medway Road, London, E.3. Heron, Alexander Eltringham, 41, Cowpen Bewley Road, Haverton Hill, Billingham, Co. Durham. 302 Hoblyn, Edward Henry Treffry, Ph.D. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., D.I.C., A.M.I.Chem.E., 304, Colchester Road, Ipswich. Howes, Edward Arthur, B.Sc. (Lond.), 85, Laleham Road, Staines. Hunter, William, B.Sc. (Lond.), 75, Weldon Crescent, High Heaton, Newcastle upon Tyne. Hyde, Cyril Walter, B.Sc. (Lond.), 17, Princes Avenue, London, W.3. Jacobs, Stanley, B.Sc. (Lond.), 124, Camberley House, Redhill Street, London, N.W.l. Jones, Emlyn, M.Sc. (Liv.), 30, Rangemore Road, Mossley Hill, Liverpool, 18.Jones, Hilary Arthur, Aughton, Huntly Road, Fairfield, Liverpool, 6. Jones, Robert Andrew, B.Sc. (Lond.), 24, Lowther Hill, Forest Hill, London, S.E. 23. Key, Cyril, B.Sc. (Lond.), 57, Deabill Street, Netherfield, Notts. Kinnard, Leonard Matthew, B.Sc. (Birm.), 38, High Santon, Appleby, nr. Scunthorpe, Lines. Kitto, Walter Harold, M.Sc. (S.A.), Box 422, Salisbury, S. Rhodesia. Lahiri, Tara Kant, M.Sc. (Punjab), 3, Temple Road, Lahore, India. Lambert, Ernest William, M.A. (Cantab.), M.Sc. (Lond.), 34, Bent Avenue, Glyn Road, Quinton, Birmingham, 32. Legge, Alfred John, M.Sc. (Wales), 54, Pemberton Gardens, Chadwell Heath, Essex. Lewis, Reginald Haydn, M.Sc. (Lond.), 95, St. Andrew’s Terrace, Oaken- shaw, nr.Bradford. Liddle, William Stewart, B.Sc. (St. Andrews), 9, Balgay Avenue, Dundee. Llewellyn, Frederick John, B.Sc. (Birm.), 7, King Edward Road, Moseley, Birmingham, 13. Lowe, Robert Cecil Holgate, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.M.C.T., 32, Darley Road, Manchester, 16. Marsden, Arthur Whitcombe, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., 146, GunnersburyAvenue, London, W.3. Marshall, Alan Thompson, B.Sc. (Lond.), 48, Hurstbourne Gardens, Barking, Essex. Matthews, Charles William, 81, Cantsfield Street, Smithdown Road, Liverpool, 7. Morris, George Oswald, 4, New Road, Eccleston Lane Ends, nr. Prescot. Morrison, Thomas John, B.Sc., Ph.D. (St. Andrews), 19, Park View, Wigan. Mudbidri, Shanker Mangeshrao, B.A. (Bombay), M.Sc., Atlas Fertiliser Works, Hide Road, Kidderpore, Calcutta, India.Nelson, Eric, B.A., B.Sc. (Oxon.), 107, Waterloo Road, Woverhampton. Noble, Wilfred, B.Sc. (Lond.), Bent Lea, Caledonia Road, Shelton, Stoke- on -Trent. Pallister, Miss Sylvia, B.Sc. (Lond.), Cartref, Oakamoor, N. Staffs. Pilkington, Geoffrey Eaton, M.Sc. (Mane.), Barclay, Elmsway, Hale Barns, Cheshire. Porter, Geoffrey Veale, B.Sc. (Lond.), 16, Beresford Avenue, London, W.7. Poupard, Herbert John Eric, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., 66, The Drive, Ilford. Power, Godfrey Maurice, B.Sc. (Lond.), 27, Woodhouse Avenue, Fartown, Huddersfield. Preston, Ronald, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Mane.), 17, Coronation Road, Fairhaven, Lytham-St. Anne’s, Lancs. Pritchard, Harry, M.Sc. (Lond.), 7, Woodyear Road, Bromborough,Cheshire. Rathenasinkam, Eliathampy, B.Sc.(Lond.), Government Analyst’s Laboratory, Colombo, Ceylon. Ray, Santosh Chandra, M.Sc. (Calcutta), Ph.D. (Lond.), Animal Nutrition Institute, Izatnagar, Kumaon, U.P., India. Reeson, William Bateman, A.M.C.T., 49, Grove Road South, Southsea. 303 Roberts, Douglas Keir, 306, New Chester Road, Port Sunlight, Cheshire. Roberts, Frank Wilson, 39, Meredale Road, Mossley Hill, Liverpool, 18. Rumens, Murray James, 50, Stanhope Gardens, Ilford Essex. Self, Alan David Henderson, B.Sc. (Lon.), 20, Curtis Road, Hornchurch, Essex. Sen, Monmohan, D.Sc. (Calcutta), Mungpoo P.O., Dist-Darjeeling, Bengal, India. Shand, William, 17, Mossy Bank Road, Wallasey. Shaw, Philip, B.Sc. (Lond.), 124, Primrose Avenue, Chadwell Heath, Essex.Smith, Robert Roy, B.A. (Cantab.), 82, New Street, Sutton, St. Helens. Spooner, Cyril Edward, M.Sc. (Sheffield), 133, Queen Victoria Road, Totley Rise, Sheffield. Steel, William, B.Sc. (Glas.), A.R.T.C., 25, Bramley Avenue, Stretford, Lancs. Taylor, Alan, B.Sc. (Leeds), 176, Victoria Avenue, Hull. Taylor, Eric Dansey, B.Sc. (Lond.), 30, Daisy Lea Lane, Huddersfield. Taylor, Tristram Allan, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Sheffield), 377, Foxhill Road, Birley Carr, Sheffield. Terleski, John Theodore, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Liv.), Oakwood, Hilton Lane, Prestwich, Manchester. Tittensor, Eric, B.Sc. (Liv.), 11, Molesworth Grove, Liverpool, 16. Tuckemn, Hugh Ritchie, B.Sc. (Glas.), 62, King Street, Alloa, Scotland. Walker, Eric, B.Sc. (Lond.), 44, Beachwood Avenue, Chatham, Kent.Ward, Joseph, B.Sc. (Liv.), 50, Cooper Street, St. Helens, Lancs. Warne, Harry, M.Sc.Tech. (Manc.), 6, Thornton Avenue, Audenshaw, Manches ter. Warnes, Edward Arthur, B.Sc. (Lond.), 55, Brownspring Drive, London, S.E.9. ~White, Edward George, B.Sc. (Witwatersrand), 127, William Road, Norwood, Johannesburg, S. Africa. Wilkinson, Peter Alfred, Innisfree, Pine Walk, Carshalton Beeches, Surrey. Williams, Edmund Gardner, M.A. (Cantab.), Dellside, Heswall, Wirral, Cheshire. Williams, Gwilym, B.Sc. (Wales), 22, Dyffryn Street, Mountain Ash, Glam. Wilson, Hector Muir Dawson, 156, Croftend Avenue, Croftfoot, Glasgow, 5.4. Wood, Frank, 9, Newcomen Street, Southcoates Lane, Hull. Worthington, Henry, B.Sc. (Liv.), 40, Shaw Street, St.Helens, Lancs. Young, William Hamilton, 22, Altenburg Gardens, London, S.W.ll. New Students. Anderson, Sydney Graham, 76, Marchmont Road, Edinburgh, 9. Banks, Henry Edward, 90, Swan Meadow Road, Poolstock, Wigan. Bellmaine, Alan Godfrey, 53, Oaklands Avenue, Syon Lane, Osterley, Middlesex. Bennett, Frederick Edward, 23, Ranelagh Gardens, London, W.6. Bennett, Thomas Frederick, Ashlyn, Queen’s Avenue, Flint. Birtill, Joseph Edgar, Dunthorp, Balcarres Road, Leyland, Lancs. Booth, Stanley, 14, Laura Street, All Souls’ Road, Halifax. Bush, Leonard Albert, 40, ,High Street, Kingswood, Bristol. Clubley, George Harley, c/o 6, Benson Street, Norton, Stockton-on-Tees, Co. Durham. Cuthbertson, William Robert, c/o Australia House, Strand, London, W.C.2.Dean, John, 483, Oldham Road, Middleton, Manchester. Devlin, John, 264, Heath Road, Bebington, Cheshire. Dore, William Paterson, 8, Old Kiln Lane, Bolton. Eagleton, Sidney Douglas, 20, Cornwall Road, St. Albans, Herts. 304 Edge, Peter Frank, 139, Baginton Road, Coventry. Fleet, Arthur, 28, Surrey Street, Bradford Road, Keighley, Yorks. Godin, George William, 61, Chestnut Road, London, S.W.20. Hartles, George, 80, Moorfield Road, Widnes. Harwood, John Holley, 183, Dawlish Drive, Ilford, Essex. Hilton, Raymond Frederick, 347, Uttoxeter Road, Longton, Staffs. Hyams, Montagu, 3, Holmdale Mansions, Holmdale Road, London, N.TV.6. Illingworth, Dennis, Springfield House, Eldwick, Bingley, Yorks. Jackson, Alistair Frederick McKenzie, 24, Homefield Road, Drayton, Portsmouth.Jones, Eric Bruss, 124, Wellington Road, Withington, Manchester, 14. Laverton, Kenneth Douglas, 233, Cranbrook Road, Redland, Bristol, 6. Lodwick, John Rhys, 113, Mayfair Avenue, Ilford, Essex. Lovelock, James Ephraim, 41, Hillview Road, Orpington, Kent. Lyon, Alexander Ian Leslie, 39, Bedford Place, London, W.C.l. Major, Frederick William, 43, Hastings Avenue, Ilford, Essex. McCormack, Archibald Campbell, Millpark House, Laurencetown, Co. Down, N. Ireland. Payne, Sidney Thomas, 88, Naylor Road, London, S.E.15. Peacock, Archibald George, 6, East Shrubbery, Redland, Bristol, 6. Pilgrim, Archibald John, 1, Briggs Street, York. Polkinhorne, Harry, 8, Stapleton Road, London, S.W.17. Quarrington, John Ernest, 33, Harrow Road, Brislington, Bristol, 4. Seymour, Joseph, 144, Rochdale Road, Oldham, Lancs. Singer, Joseph Henry, 82, Coolgardie Avenue, London, E.4. Stannett, Vivian Thomas, Berry House, Stoke Poges, Bucks. Street, Harold Vincent, 200, Bolton Road, Kearsley, nr. Bolton. Thruston, Mervyn Nisbet, 126, High Street, Maidenhead, Berks. Widocks, David Harold, 172, Grimsby Road, Cleethorpes. Williams, Sidney, 73, Mancot Lane, Queensferry, nr. Chester. Re-registered Students. Jones, John Meigant, c/o Yorkshire Amalgamated Products, Ltd., North Bridge, Doncaster. Murray, Keith Edward, 63, McCourt Street, West Leedervills, Perth, W. Australia. DEATHS. The Council regrets to record the deaths of three Fellows and two Associates.Fellows. John Harry Hale-White, C.B.E., A.R.S.M. William Jago, J.P. Hugh Ramage, M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.C.Sc.1. Associates. William Archibald Andrews, B.Sc. (Birm.). Giles Hadden V7elsford, Major (retd.). CHANGES OF NAME. John Albert Charles Flohren, Associate, to John Floren. Helen Trevenen Cole, Associate, to Helen Trevenen Cohn-on her marriage. 305 Coming Events. 1938 May-Oct. EMTIRE EXHIBITION SCOTLAND’S : Glasgow.June 2 THECHEMICALSOCIETY:Ordinary ScientiGc Meeting, at Burlington House, Piccadilly, London, W.l, at 8 p.m. 6-1 1 INSTITUTION TECHNOLOGISTSOF PETROLEUM : Conference on Oil Shale and Cannel Coal, at Glasgow. 9 INSTITUTEOF CHEMISTRY(London and South-Eastern Counties Section): Visit to The South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.14 BRITISH STANDARDS : Annual General Meeting, at INSTITUTION the Dorchester Hotel, Park Lane, W.l, at 11.15 a.m. 17 JUNE OF CHEMICAL (57th Annual General Meeting); SOCIETY INDUSTRY to CANADIAN CHEMICAL ASSOCIATION,AND THE CANADIAN JULY INSTITUTE (21st Annual Canadian Chemical Con- 1 OF CHEMISTRY vention) : (17) Quebec City; (18-19) Shawinigan Falls; (20-22) Ottawa; (23) Sudbury; (24-25) Toronto; (25) Hamilton; (25-27) Niagara Falls; (28-29 June, 1st July) Montreal; (July 1) Quebec City. ENGINEERING21 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS: Glasgow. 25 INSTITUTEOF CHEMISTRY: Joint Summer Meeting of the Birming- ham, East Midlands and Manchester Sections, at Trentham Gardens, Stoke.FOR THE STUDY AND EARLY29 THE SOCIETY OF ALCHEMY CHEMISTRY: “The Name of Plato in Alchemy.” Miss D. W. Singer, at 8 p.m. JdY 5-8 FIRSTCONGRESSON THE CHEMISTRYOF WOODand the FOURTH INTERNATIONAL ON TIMBER UTILISATION CONFERENCE in House of Industry, Vienna. 11-16 ROYAL SANITARY INSTITUTE: Health Congress, at Portsmouth. 12 REFRIGERATION in the Rooms of the Royal Society, CONFERENCE, London. FOR THE ADVANCEMENT SCIENCE17-24 BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF : Cambridge Meeting. Aug. CONGRESS at Zurich. 7-13 FIFTHINTERNATIONAL OF CELL RESEARCH, Further information from Das Anatomische Institut, Platten- strasse 9, Zurich, 7. 25 to WORLDPOWERCONFERENCE: Vienna Sectional Meeting: Subjects SEPT.2 for discussion: The supply of energy for agriculture, small- scale industries, household purposes, public lighting and electric railways.Study tours,-approximately a week. Information obtainable from the Austrian National Committee of the World Power Conference, Lothringerstrasse 20. (Konzerthaus), Wien. 111. 306 Sept. INTERNATIONAL19-23 SEVENTH MANAGEMENTCONGRESS: Washington,D.C., U.S.A. FBDERATION at21-26 INTERNATIONAL FOR DOCUMENTATION,Oxford. 23-26 ASSOCIATION LIBRARIES BUREAUX,OF SPECIAL AND INFORMATION at Oxford. 22 to IRONAND STEELINSTITUTE OFand INSTITUTE METALS: Joint OCT.2 Autumn Meeting: 22 Sept. (Quebec);2 Oct. (New York, U.S.A.). 307 General Notices. Lectures.-Professor F. M. Rowe of the Department of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing in the University of Leeds has kindly consented to give two lectures before the Institute on 14th and 2Ist October next, on “The Development of the Chemistry of Dyestuffs.” Professor Rowe will deal with the life and work of Sir William H.Perkin (1838-1907) and will review, under their respective chemical classes, the progress that has been made in the production of synthetic dyes of improved properties, limiting the whole to the chemistry of dyes that have proved to be of commercial value. Examinations.-Examinations for the Associat eship will be held from 12th to 17th September.* The list of entries will be closed on Monday, 11th July. (Notebooks can be received up to 2nd September.) Examinations for the Fellowship will be held from 19th to 24th September.* The list of entries will be closed on Monday, 11th July, except for candidates in Branch G, Industrial Chemistry, or for those desiring special examinations, whose applications should be received before 10th June.An Examination for the Fellowship in Branch F, Agricultural Chemistry, will be held in the University of Leeds, in the week commencing 5th September. An Examination in Branch G, Industrial Chemistry with special reference to Petroleum, will Probably be held in September, in London. Any Associates, other than those who have already entered, who desire to present themselves for the above Examinations, should forward their applications so that they be received not later than 10th June. Forms of Application and further particulars can be obtained from the Registrar.* When the number of Candidates renders it necessary, Examinations may also be held during the succeeding week. The Meldola Medal (the gift of the Society of Maccabaeans) is normally awarded annually to the chemist whose published chemical work shows the most promise and is brought to the notice of the administrators during the year ending 31st Decem- ber prior to the award. The recipient must be a British subject not more than 30 years of age at the time of the completion of the work. The Medal may not be awarded more than once to the same person. The next award will be decided in January, 1939. The Council will be glad to .have attention directed, before 31st December, 1938, to work of the character indicated.Sir Edward Frankland Medal and Prize for Registered Students.-A medal and prize (LIO 10s.) for the best essay, not exceeding 3,000 words, will be awarded in January, 1939, and will be presented at the next Annual General Meeting, or at a meeting of the Local Section to which the successful competitor is attached. Entries are limited to registered students who are less than 22 years of age at the time of forwarding the essay. The object of the essay is to induce Registered Students to develop a sense of professional public spirit and to devote thought to questions of professioszal interest and to the position of chemists in the life of the community-the essay to be on a subject of professiod, rather than technical or purely chemical importance.Having due regard to the objects stated above, Registered Students are informed that the Council is prepared to consider an essay on any subject which has a bearing on chemistry or chemical work, provided that it does not deal with any purely chemical, technical, or historical subject. Each essay must be sent to the Honorary Secretary of the Local Section of the district in which the competitor resides (see list of Local Sections at the end of the JOURNAL) on or before the 31st December, 1938, and must be accompanied by a signed declaration that it is the independent work of the competitor. Essays will be valued partly for literary style and technique, but mainly for the thoughts and ideas contained therein.The Committee of each Local Section will be asked to select, from those received, not more than three essays considered to be worthy of the award. The essays selected by the Local Sections will be referred to assessors appointed by the Council. On the report of the assessors the Council will decide whether, and to 309 whom an award shall be made. The award will not be made more than once to any individual Competitor. Beilby Memorial Awards.-From the interest derived from the invested capital of the Sir George Beilby Memorial Fund, at intervals to be determined by the administrators representing the Institute of Chemistry, the Society of Chemical Industry, and the Institute of Metals, awards are made to British investigators in science to mark appreciation of records of distinguished work.Preference is given to investigations relating to the special interests of Sir George Beilby, including problems connected with fuel economy, chemical engineering and metallurgy, and awards are made, not on the result of any competition, but in recognition of continuous work of excep- tional merit, bearing evidence of distinct advancement in science and practice. The administrators of the Fund-the Presidents, Honorary Treasurers, and Secretaries of the three participating institu- tions,-who will meet in October next, will be glad to have their attention drawn to outstanding work of the nature indicated, not later than 30th September, 1938.All communications on this subject should be addressed to the Convenor, Sir George Beilby Memorial Fund, Institute of Chemistry, 30, Russell Square, W.C.I. Notices to Associates.-The Council desires to encourage all Associates to qualify for the Fellowship. Copies of the regulations and forms of application can be obtained from the Registrar. Appointments Register.-A Register of Fellows and Associates who are available for appointments, or are desirous of extending their opportunities, is kept at the offices of the Institute. For full information, inquiries should be addressed to the Registrar. Fellows and Associates are invited to notify the Institute of suitable vacancies for qualified chemists. Students who have been registered as Students of the Institute for not less than six months and are in the last term of their training for the Associateship, may receive the Appointments Register of the Institute, provided that their applications for this privilege are endorsed by their professors.310 Lists of vacancies are forwarded tdce weekly to those whose names are on the Appointments Register. Fellows and Associates who are already in employment, but seeking to improve their positions, are required to pay 110s. for a period of six months. Members and Students who are without employment are required to pay 6s. 6d. for the first period of six months, and, if not successful in obtaining an appointment, will thereafter be supplied with the lists gratis for a further period if necessary.The Institute also maintains a List of Laboratory Assistants who have passed approved Preliminary Examinations and, in some cases, Intermediate Science Examinations. Fellows and Associates who have vacancies for Registered Students or Laboratory Assistants are invited to communicate with the Registrar. The Library.-The Library of the Institute is open for the use of Fellows, Associates, and Registered Students between the hours of 10a.m. and 6 p.m. on week-days (Saturdays, 10a.m. and I p.m.), except when examinations are being held. The Library is primarily intended for the use of candidates during the Institute’s practical examinations. Under the Deed of Agreement between the Chemical Society, the Institute of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical Industry, dated July, 1935,the comprehensive Library of the Chemical Society is available, for the use of Fellows and Associates and Registered Students of the Institute wishing to consult or borrow books, from 10 a.m.to g p.m. on week-days (Saturdays from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.), except during August and the early part of September, when the hours are from 10a.m. to 5 p.m. Members and Students of the Institute using the Library of the Society are required to conform to the rules of the Society regarding the use of its books. The Institute has entered into an arrangement with The Science Library, Science Museum, South Kensington, S.W.7, whereby books may be borrowed on production of requisitions signed by the Registrar or the Assistant Secretary of the Institute. In addition to its comprehensive sets of literature on cognate subjects, which are not available in specialised libraries, this Library contains an exceptionally extensive collection of works on chemistry.Nine thousand scientific and technical periodicals 311 are received regularly in the Library. All publications added to the Library are recorded in its Weekly Bibliography of Pure and Applied Science, which has a wide circulation among research workers and institutions. Boots’ Booklovers Library.-Under the arrangements made on behalf of Fellows and Associates of the Institute, subscriptions to Boots’ Booklovers Library expired on 1st March. All who wish to continue the use of the Library, or to subscribe de ROUO, should obtain applica-tion forms from the Registrar of the Institute.Members who do not wish to renew their subscriptions to the Library should return, to the most convenient branch library, any volume of the Library which they may have in their possession and also their Library membership tokens. Lewis’s Lending Library.-Any Fellow or Associate who is not already acquainted with this Library of Scientific and technical books may obtain a copy of the Prospectus from the Registrar of the Institute. A copy of the Catalogue of the Library (revised to December, 1927,with Supplements 1928-30 and 1931-33) is available in the Library of the Institute. A Bi-monthly list of Additions is also issued. Covers for Journal.-Members who desire covers (IS. zd. each) for binding the Journal in annual volumes, are requested to notify the Registrar of their requirements, indicating the years for which the covers are required.Arrangements may be made with Messrs. A. W. Bain & Co., Ltd., 17--19,Bishop’s Road, Cambridge Heath, London, E.2, to bind volumes of the JOURNAL AND PROCEEDIXGSon the following terms: buckram cover, IS. zd.; binding, 2s. gd.; postage and packing, gd.; in all, 4s. 8d. Lantern Slides for Lecturers.-A collection of slides is kept at- the Institute for the use of members who are giving lectures. Enquiries should be addressed to the Registrar. As the slides are frequently in demand, members are requested to notify their requirements at least 14 days before the date on which the slides are to be used. 312 Changes of Address.-In view of the expense involved through frequent alterations of addressograph plates, etc., Fellows, Associates, and Registered Students who wish to notify changes of address are requested to give, so far as possible, heir permanent addresses for registration.All requests for changes in the Register should be addressed to the Registrar, and not to the Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections. *IThe Profession of Chemistry” (Fourth Edition, 1938), is in preparation and will be ready shortly. Copies will be supplied gratis to any Fellow, Associate or Registered Student, on application to the Registrar.