JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY ~ ~~ PART IV I949 EDITORIAL The Report of the Royal Commission on the Press has not unnaturally received a “good press,” for the vindication of the honour of the industry against imputations of corruption could not fail to cause satisfaction to the Press itself. It is to be hoped however that amid the rejoicings over the main conclusions of the Commission some attention will be given to the comments and suggestions on standards of reporting. It is admitted in the Report that charges of triviality and sensationalism have not always been undeserved by the popular newspapers and as The Times remarks “Few journalists will dispute the conclusion that the Press as a whole has not done everything that might reasonably be expected of it to help in shaping the mind and taste of democracy.” Few ordinary citizens will endorse the conclusion of the old lady who after reading a summary of the Report remarked “So everything I have read in the papers in the last 50 years has been true after all!” Scientific people have long been critics of the Press in this respect.Scientific aspects of current affairs are commonly ignored by the popular Press or if attention is paid to them at all they are referred to in such a garbled form as to be incomprehensible or misleading. Even the “quality” papers-we are indebted to the Commission for this distinguishing term-are by no means beyond criticism in this respect and much concern has been expressed by scientific societies and institutions about the casual way in which scientific matters are handled.It has always seemed strange to us that whereas experts are employed in reporting financiai and sporting matters-to name only two fields of specialised journalistic activity-anything relating to science seems to be left to any available reporter. One trembles to think what would happen if a report of a football match were written by someone with no knowledge of the rules of the game or of the numerous technical terms necessarily involved. Journalists themselves are inclined to answer this charge by asserting that the public interest in scientific matters as such [ 321 3 is relatively small and that anything scientific is necessarily incom- prehensibIe anyhow unless it can be given some sensational significance.We believe that in this as in other fields editors including those of the “quality” papers under-rate the public intelligence and range of interest and would be surprised if they realised how the scope of what every schoolboy knows has widened since the days of Macaulay. There is reason to believe that in these times every schoolboy-and indeed every schoolgirl-knows more about electrical circuits than about con jugations of irregular (or possibly regular) Latin verbs and has a more immediate interest in the interaction of metallic sodium and water than in the arbitrary interventions of the Greek gods in the affairs of long-suffering mortals! Whether this is a good thing or not the fact remains that schoolchildren are quick to realise the garbled nature of most reports on scientific developments in the popular Press and it seems to us that those responsible for the production of our newspapers cannot afford to ignore the derision with which the coming generation of citizens is apt to greet their efforts.A more serious complaint by scientific people is that apart from the distortion of the simpler facts of science there is a wide- spread lack of understanding of the whole basis of scientific ideas and of scientific method. Many journalists fail to appreciate that science is concerned primarily with elucidating the laws of nature. Some write about it as if its purpose was to disturb or prevent the operation of natural laws and hence that its outlook is inhuman or even “contrary to nature.” A very general lack of understanding of the nature of a chemical change leads to the frequent recurrence of such headlines as “Silk Stockings made from Coal”-with the implication that coal itself has somehow been drawn out mechani- cally into transparent threads which by working the machine backwards might revert to the original form! The aims and methods of scientific research are generally completely misunderstood.It is assumed that penicillin was something deliberately “invented” to satisfy specific human needs and that someone having conceived the idea of an atomic bomb had then only to apply reasonably good craftsmanship to making one. It seems to us that in these matters the Press is out of touch not only with its more youthful readers but probably with the majority.The teaching of physics and chemistry in schools was becoming established before the first war when “science wings’ ’ were being added to existing educational buildings and the main demand for science graduates was as schoolteachers. Since then the extent and perhaps the quality of such teaching in schools has been greatly developed and it is now probably true to say that most men and women under about 45 years of age have had an [ 322 1 opportunity of picking up some elementary scientific facts and of acquiring a general though perhaps rather vague idea of scientific principles and methods. The case of those over about 55 years of age may be quite different for unless they showed some exceptional leaning towards science they would not in the majority of schools have received any encouragement to study it; indeed any enthusiasm they might have had would probably have been severely damped unless they were prepared to be classed as “barbarians.” It may well be that those responsible for the editorial side of newspapers are for the most part in the higher age group and we may therefore look forward to a considerable and possibly sudden change in outlook as younger men move up into their chairs.However this may be it must be admitted that among the sciences chemistry is one of the most difficult to present to a non-specialist audience and much must be done by chemists themselves if the achievements of their science are to be made known to the intelligent citizen.We may be grateful therefore to the Chemical Council which as reported elsewhere in this issue has put forward preliminary suggestions by its Committee of Enquiry on Publicity for British Chemistry on how to deal with the problem. It is right and proper that the Institute should co-operate closely in making these suggestions effective but that in agreeing to do so it should consider carefully how to achieve the best results from the stand- point of the profession of chemistry and of the public. Our own reflections on this important question are put forward without prejudice to the outcome of the discussions which are now proceeding. First it would seem that one of the most promising approaches would be through the Sunday papers in the “quality” class which already devote large amounts of space to literary artistic and musical topics.They clearly do not shrink from providing articles and reviews in those fields of a kind which may be expected to raise the standards of taste and interest of a limited but important body of readers and there should be little difficulty in extending this practice by the inclusion of columns devoted to scientific affairs. Articles on purely scientific topics at this level should do much to provide a background of understanding and to pave the way for the discussion of more specialised subjects. At the other extreme however we feel that little service to the public and none to science is given by the inclusion of snippets of scientific information in sensational news items especially where such information is obtained over the telephone just before the paper is put to bed-and often after the unfortunate scientist has already gone there! Such information can hardly fail to be garbled or at least unbalanced and busy people should not be bothered to provide it.Scientific news of importance does not in the nature [ 323 1 of things “break” suddenly and a better understanding between journalists and scientists should make many of these supposedly urgent enquiries unnecessary. Between the carefully prepared informative article and the “hot news” item there is a’ wide field for presenting scientific matter as such in the Press.But it seems to us that a still more valuable service would be to secure that the scientific aspects of general topics discussed in the newspapers should be brought out in proper relation to their social economic political and general human aspects. It may well be that many readers would not be attracted by articles of an obviously scientific nature for there is still a widespread prejudice that anything scientific is ips0 facto incomprehensible. But the average newspaper reader who is primarily concerned with news about current events and develop- ments has a right to expect that in the writing of “leaders” and other articles in the “quality” papers as much trouble will have been taken to get the scientific side right as has been devoted to the presentation of other aspects.At present one finds seemingly erudite commentary on such subjects as the East African ground nuts scheme for which the writer would have been wise to consult scientific people as well as the “experts” in other relevant fields. It is in our view a danger that scientific information may come to be regarded as something separate from what the layman calls commonsense knowledge and that science itself may be treated as something outside the scope of or even antagonistic to the humanities. Perhaps the most important objective should be to remove the barrier which many of the older generation of educated men still feel exists between them and science. The member of Parliament who when asked his opinion of the Atomic Energy film which he had just seen replied that it was interesting but scientific-and therefore he could not be expected to understand it-was adopting an attitude which is still common even among people who would never admit to a lack of appreciation of art or music or to an inability to understand the complex jargon of the race course or the stock exchange.Our first and perhaps main task should be to break down this barrier whether it arises from prejudice or from the persistence of the fashions of an earlier age by showing that science is not an esoteric cult but an important component in the structure of our common affairs and that scientific ideas form an integral part of the pattern of our thoughts. [ 324 1 SILVER JUBILEE IN THE MIDLANDS By E.M.. JOINER B.Sc. F.R.I.C. A.C.I.S. (Hon. Secretary Birmingham and Midlands Section) EARLY DAYS. In 1948 the Birmingham and Midlands Section celebrated its Silver Jubilee; it seems appropriate therefore to review the activities of past years and to revive the memories of its early days. On 22 January 1923 some ninety members attended a meeting of local Fellows and Associates held in Birmingham to discuss the formation of a Local Section of the Institute. Professor G. T. Morgan was elected to the Chair and Mr. C. A. F. Hastilow acted as Secretary; the Registrar of the Institute Mr. R. B. Pilcher addressed the meeting and explained the work which a Local Section could do emphasising the importance of promoting friendly relations between chemists.A provisional committee was elected and commenced operations almost at once; it consisted of Professor G. T. Morgan Dr. J. A. Newton Friend Dr. D. F. Twiss Dr. A. Slator Dr. W. H. Glover Dr. W. Wardlaw Mr. M. P. Booth Mr. O’Shaughnessy and Mr. C. A. F. Hastilow. Although this is now regarded as the real beginning of the Birmingham and Midlands Section an attempt had been made some five years earlier to get a Section going. There are records to show that an inaugural meeting was called for 13 November 1918 by Mr. F. C. A. H. Lantsberry. However little progress seems to have been made although some meetings were held and subscriptions were collected which eventually were paid over to the re-formed body. The provisional committee attacked its work in a vigorous manner and the initial dispositions having been made it was soon replaced bya permanent committee which drewup an attractive programme for the remainder of the session.At that time the Section boundaries were even more extensive than they are at present including much of the area now allotted to East Midlands. Contact was established with Professor F. S. Kipping who was anxious for his students to be admitted as Associates at a meeting in Nottingham travelling difficulties making it impossible for them to attend Birmingham meetings. A compromise was reached and a meeting was arranged in Derby. As Professor Kipping died only a few weeks ago (May 1949) it is fitting to recall this evidence of the importance which he always attached to the Institute and to its status and aims.[ 325 ] It is typical of those distant times that a request should have come from the Liverpool Section for a Conference between members of the Institute and the Council so that the rank and file could get to know the governing body. The Birmingham Committee thought this was unnecessary and withheld support. However a Conference was eventually held at York on 10 and 11 July 1925. Another suggestion which received no support in Birmingham was a proposal by the North-East Section that the Institute Council should be elected entirely by Sections-a hardy annual which has its adherents even to-day. That the Section pursued an energetic policy in these early days was largely due to the Chairman Professor G.T. (later Sir Gilbert) Morgan and the untiring efforts of the Secretary C. A. F. Hastilow. The Section lost the services of Professor Morgan when he was appointed Director of the Chemical Research Laboratory of the D.S.I.R. and about the same time Mr. Hastilow vacated the secretaryship although he continued to serve on the Committee eventually becoming the first District Member of Council for Birmingham and Midlands. The service Mr. Hastilow rendered to the Section may be estimated by this extract from his report. “The financial position is satisfactory and the Section now being fairly launched it is hoped that the continued interest and support of members will enable it to be of real service to Fellows and Associates resident in the district.” There is no doubt that in spite of all the initial difficulties and set-backs of the early days the foundations were well and truly laid and now support a structure that is proving attractive to a steadily increasing number of chemists.The efforts of pioneers may easily be overlooked but it must be remembered that the facilities which we now enjoy were not easily attained but had often to be fought for and won in face of considerable opposition. There was much professional controversy in those days and considerable discussion ranged around such subjects as the con-solidation of the profession an improved status better pay for the chemist and the desirability of building a Chemistry House. It was agreed by the Local Section that there should be close co- operation with the British Association of Chemists and it was also thought desirable that members should be entitled to wear a distinctive gown and hood.These are views which some members still hold but little progress has resulted in either matter; however they are both topical. It is interesting to recall that Mr. A. Chaston Chapman F.R.S. (elected President in 1924) when addressing the Section suggested to members that the three essentials for success in their profession were (1) a love of the subject (2) a sound con- stitution (3) a small private income. It was not perhaps surprising in the circumstances that chemists were demanding better pay! [ 326 1 PRE-WAR. Professor G. T.Morgan was followed as Chairman by Professor A. R. Ling of the Department of Industrial Fermentation in the University of Birmingham and the Section at this stage settled down to a steady programme of lectures and social functions. Among the latter smoking concerts were held at frequent intervals. In general the lectures were given by men of high attainments in the profession of chemistry or in kindred subjects. This feature by now has become traditional in the Birmingham Section. Chief among the subjects discussed and the lecturers were “Chemistry of Life,” by E. C. C. Baly F.R.S.; “Pernicious Anaemia,” by J. Kaufmann M.D.; “The Nature of Protoplasm,” by W. Styles F.R.S.; “Vitamin Research,” by J. C. Drummond; “pH,” by J. B. S. Haldane F.R.S.; “The Constitution of Hops,” by F.L. Pyman F.R.S.; “The Photosynthesis of Carbohydrates,” by J. F. D. Shrewsbury; “The Metabolism of Seaweed,” by P. Haas; “Colloid Structure,’’ by Dorothy Jordan Lloyd; “The Synthesis of Long-Chain Hydrocarbons,” by A. C. Chibnall; “Fermentation,” by A. Harden F.R.S.; “Physical Atomic Weights,” by F. W. Aston F.R.S.; “Enzymes,” by E. F. Armstrong F.R.S.; and “The Alkaloid Group,” by Robert Robinson F.R.S. Early records show that the Section while eagerly pursuing scientific knowledge was also in the forefront of much of the current professional controversy. It did not hesitate to be critical of the Council’s activities; in fact it did not pull its punches in any direction. It is duly recorded in the minutes of the Committee that a proposal was made to invite Mr.R. L. Collett (then Assistant Secretary) to lecture before the Section on the subject of “Why the Institute has failed.” Unfortunately the sequel is not reported although no doubt Mr. Collett’s reply would have made good reading. A further proposal which must have sounded optimistic even in those days was a motion for the reduction of Institute expenditure to permit of a reduced subscription. Looking back on those times it is truly amazing how much service was rendered at so little expense to the members by those zealous servants Pilcher and Collett . Amongst the social activities of this period was the first Summer Excursion to Bidford-on-Avon in 1932. Four years earlier the Jubilee of the Institute had been the occasion of a Section Dinner in Birmingham while three years later in 1935 the Jubilee of the Charter was similarly celebrated.These dinners and other functions of a social nature were usually held jointly with the Society of Chemical Industry. Mr. George King the local secretary of the Society of Chemical Industry and a Fellow of the Institute rendered notable service in this dual capacity at these joint events. [ 327 3 As newsprint was in better supply then than it is now much useful publicity resulted from these functions which were frequently attended not only by prominent chemists but by representatives of other professional bodies and the civic authorities. In 1934 the Sir Edward Frankland Medal and Prize was awarded to a student of the Section Mr.Leslie Rose of Coventry; it is of interest to note that since that award Mr. Rose has pursued a successful career and is now a Fellow of the Institute. Quite recently he delivered a lecture before the Section. Among the well-remembered meetings of this era was a demon-stration of micro-methods developed at the University of Birmingham by Professor Haworth and Dr. Hirst; this demonstration did much to popularise this technique among prominent Birmingham chemists. A few years later the Section was instrumental in arranging for a course in micro-chemical met hods at the Central Technical College Birmingham and as a result of the efforts of Dr. J. C. Duff some 30 to 40 members received valuable initial training in this work.Another notable meeting was the symposium on “The Chemical Industry in the Midlands,” at which a number of local chemists gave a brief account of the industries with which they were con- nected. About this time the Section was much occupied in discussing a Supplemental Charter which was rejected at a Section meeting- a verdict which was subsequently endorsed by the membership at large on the result of a postal ballot. In 1935 support was accorded to a proposal for a union of chemical bodies. This proposal had already received support in Belfast and in London and the principle was again reaffirmed in Birmingham in 1941. Subsequently it received backing from some 400 or more chemists many of them leaders of the profession who signed a letter addressed to the Editor of Chemistry and Industry.This demand has not yet been met. The Section also declared itself in favour of the election of Associates to the Institute Council; as an earnest of these democratic proposals a year previously it had elected an Associate as the Chairman of the Section for the first time. He was Mr. J. R. Johnson and a fine Chairman he proved to be; unfortunately he did not outlive his term of office. WARTIME. The outbreak of war occasioned a temporary break in activities but it was of short duration and it was followed by a remarkable phase during which interest increased meetings were better attended and members in common with the population generally lived more desperately and attended to their duties more devotedly.c 328 1 During 1940 the death occurred of Sir Oliver Lodge a former Principal of the University of Birmingham. The Section was represented at the Memorial Service in Birmingham Cathedral by the Section Chairman J. R. Johnson. Sad to relate J. R. J.-as he was popularly known-survived Sir Oliver by only a few weeks. His premature passing in the prime of life was a severe blow to the Section for he had taken a prominent part in both its professional work and social activities. In respect for his memory his friends collected a small sum which enabled them to purchase an ophthalmoscope for his daughter who was a medical student at the University. J. R. Johnson was succeeded as Chairman by T. H. Gant and under his chairmanship the Section activities made rapid progress.Despite the preoccupations of the war support was forthcoming for the election of Associates to the Council of the Institute and for the introduction of a third grade of membership; and preliminary talks were started on the possibility of erecting a Technical House in Birmingham. There was and still is a dearth of meeting houses and committee rooms for scientific societies in Birmingham. Since the war this shortage has been accentuated by the increased activities of all professional bodies and by the extension of the work of the Extra-Mural Department of the University. Gant’s enthusiasm for a Technical House was evidenced by his gift of a lectern to the Section. The reading desk still remains to be housed and only slight progress has been made in this project.In 1944 the Section Committee organised a course in chemical engineering which was attended by more than 100 chemists who received their instruction from Mr. E. Woollatt of Liverpool during four week-ends. So popular was this course that it was repeated two years later again with an attendance just over the 100 mark. At the conclusion of the war with the cordial co-operation of Professor E. K. Rideal two courses in colloid science were arranged at Cambridge. Each course lasted for a week and was attended by 100 chemists drawn largely from research associa- tions universities and industries throughout the country. Apart from the value of the course itself supplemented as it was by a full copy of the lecture notes the social contacts between individual chemists were of inestimable value.The pleasant surroundings and the quiet atmosphere of Cambridge made a deep impression on all those who attended and the memory will last a long time. The pioneer work which the Section did in this way aroused much interest and it is noteworthy that this new field of post-graduate education has been explored a good deal during the last couple of years. During the wa social functions were necessarily very restricted but when they could be arranged they were much enjoyed despite c 329 I the restrictions and limitations which were necessarily imposed. Several dances were held and as a result about Q25 was contributed by the Section to the Institute’s Benevolent Fund.Christmas lectures for schoolchildren were arranged in 1944 in co-operation with the science masters and mistresses of the Secondary Schools of Birmingham and district. These lectures were delivered by Dr. J. A. Newton Friend-a man cast for the r61e if ever a man was! By carefully staged demonstrations and his natural eloquence he captivated an audience of some 1,400 children. These lectures have now become an established feature in Birmingham although subsequent experience has shown the desirability of delivering them to a more restricted age group. The Section boundaries extend over seven counties and hitherto contacts with the outlying areas had been very poor. An attempt was therefore made to awaken the interest of Coventry chemists in the affairs of the Section.That this was done was in a large measure due to the enthusiasm of Dr. H. C. Smith of the Coventry Technical College. With his co-operation the Committee arranged the first Section meeting in Coventry and it is of interest to recall that the lecture was delivered by Mr. G. Roche Lynch while the Chair was occupied by Lord Henley a member of the Section and a former member of Council. Shortly afterwards the Coventry Chemical Society was formed and has since proved itself a most virile body. A joint meeting of the Section and the Coventry Chemical Society is now a recognised annual event. A parallel venture has also borne fruit in Wolverhampton where there is an annual joint meeting with the flourishing Society of Applied Science.The Section has also visited Stoke-on-Trent where cordial relations have been established with the British Ceramic Society which has its headquarters at the North Staffordshire Technical College. In addition to these arrangements the Summer Excursion has been revived. Rothamsted Agricultural Research Station and the Campden Fruit and Vegetable Preservation Research Station have recently been visited. Social functions have been arranged as occasion demanded sometimes in co-operation with other chemical bodies notably those represented on the Midland Chemists Committee; among the best remembered of these is the Victory Celebration Party held in May 1946. The arrangements included a luncheon a garden party and a dance.Between 600 and 700 people attended. The function was successful socially and financially. Reference has already been made to the tradition which has been established of securing lecturers of the highest standing for Section meetings. It has also been the Committee’s policy to arrange for lectures which had particular local interests or were [ 330 1 likely to be attractive for special reasons. Under these headings must be included “Rust- Acid- and Heat-Resisting Steel,” by W. H. Hatfield; “Chemical Ciphering,” by M. Gordon C. E. Kendall and W. H. T. Davison-both published as monographs by the Institute-and a notable lecture and demonstration at Coventry on “Micro-Chemistry,” by R. Belcher. POST-WAR. One of the most notable events in the Section’s history and one which will be fresh in the mind of the reader is the holding of the Annual General Meeting’of the Institute in Birmingham in April 1948.That the honour of entertaining the President Council and members on the occasion of the first annual meeting ever held in the provinces should fall to this Section in its Silver Jubilee year was a source of great satisfaction to the Committee and members. Included in the celebrations was an Exhibition intended to portray the varied activities of chemists in the Midlands. This was arranged with the co-operation of many industrial firms the University and Technical Colleges; more than 1,500 people attended including several large parties of children from local schools.Very useful publicity was obtained chiefly with the aid of a brochure prepared for the occasion. About two years ago the death was recorded of Professor Percy Faraday Frankland C.B.E. F.R.S. a former President of the Institute and one-time occupant of the Mason Chair of Chemistry in the University. As he was one of Birmingham’s best-known chemists it seemed appropriate that some effort should be made to perpetuate his memory; the Section Committee therefore agreed with the approval of Council to try to establish a memorial lecture in his honour. Although all the funds desired have not yet been obtained sufficient support has already been forthcoming to ensure that the lectureship will be endowed. The frequency of the lecture will depend on the further support which may be made available.It was hoped that the inaugural meeting might be arranged to coincide with the Silver Jubilee celebrations; subsequent events made this impossible and the lecture was eventually given on 26 January 1949 by Dr. L. H. Lampitt one of Frankland’s former students. This event therefore may be regarded as the starting point in the next 25 years of the Section’s history. Those present at the lecture and the Frankland dinner will agree that an auspicious beginning has been given to this new era to which we look forward with a confidence born of past history. t 331 I THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS A Survey of present-day practice By E. W. MOORE BSc. A.R.I.C. Senior Science Master Thorne Grammar School 1.THE MAIN SCHOOL In this article attention will be confined to the chemistry which is taught between the ages of about 11 and 16 years that is to what has been called the School Certificate level but what with the introduction of the new General Certificate of Education in 1951 will be termed the “Ordinary” level. In a subsequent article we shall consider chemistry teaching in the Sixth Forms that is to what has been the Higher School Certificate and what in 1951 will be known as the “Advanced” and “Scholarship” levels. It does not seem likely at present that this revolution in the examination system will produce any great changes in the methods of teaching chemistry in schools though it may well have an effect upon the age at which specialisation for advanced studies is commenced.It is therefore profitable to consider the methods which are current practice in the schools. Science teachers are sharply divided into those who believe in the General Science approach and those who believe that a better training is given by studying the separate sciences and from time to time argument runs high on this perennial topic. Some schools attempt a mean course by arranging General Science courses for the first two or three years followed by a formal study of one or more of the separate sciences usually in the last two years. Others have parallel courses in either General Science (often for the weaker pupils) and in one or more of the separate sciences. To obtain a satisfactory picture of the chemistry teaching in the Grammar Schools it is well to examine the aims and the methods adopted by the two extremes of thought.Those who favour the Pure Chemistry approach believe that in chemistry we have a unique opportunity for illustrating the inductive method of science and that such a study can profitably be undertaken by pupils between the ages of 11 and 16 years. The development of the Atomic Theory is certainly one of the greatest achievements of the human intellect and it is contended that even an elementary study of it has great cultural value and provides a valuable discipline for the mind of the young student. Thus from the beginning the chemistry course is designed to lead to important generalisations and to a synthesis of the Atomic Theory.Much stress therefore is laid on precise quantitative work. 332 1 It is usual to verify the laws of conservation of mass constant composition and often of multiple proportions to determine the equivalents of a number of metals and to develop the conception of equivalence to include the volumetric analysis of acids and alkaIis. On this stoichiometric basis is laid the first conception of Dalton’s Atomic Theory. A sufficient number of gas reactions are studied volumetrically to make possible the generalisation of Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes To the Dalton atom is then added the conception of the molecule and the Hypothesis of Avogadro. Molecular weights of vapours are now determined but it is not usual at this stage to consider the determination of molecular weights by any other methods.The deduction of atomic weights is of course essential to the full development of the Atomic Theory and the methods of Cannizzaro and of Dulong and Petit are usually discussed though it is probably rare for any school course actually to perform the series of experiments necessary for the satisfactory deduction of a single atomic weight by the former method and for the latter teachers have usually to be content with equivalents determined in the chemistry lessons and specific heats determined in the physics lessons. Probably the best expositions of this method are to be found in E. D. Goddard’s Fundamental Experiments in Chemistry and G. Fowles’ Lecture Experiments in Chemistry.The critics of this pure chemistry approach contend that the arguments involved are too tenuous and too difficult for the average Grammar School pupil really to appreciate that few pupils at this age are capable of sustaining an argument which takes several years to develop that it is more likely to produce satisfaction in the mind of the teacher than comprehension in that of the pupil and that such courses acquire significance only if pursued to an advanced level in the Sixth Form or beyond. They argue that such academic courses are designed for the few who will proceed to specialist courses in science and that for the majority of pupils the time so spent in the schools could be more profitably employed. It is essential that the chemistry course should be supported by work in physics and very few schools can find time to do both these except by the exclusion of biological studies.Turning to more specific points it appears inevitable that the preoccupation with chemical reactions selected to illustrate the Atomic Theory means that after the preliminary air and water studies great stress is laid upon the study of the non-metallic elements and on reactions involving gases. Again it may be argued that it is possible at this stage to perform only a few experiments carefully selected for their manipulative simplicity [ 333 1 to illustrate the gravimetric laws and that there is a grave risk that pupils may believe that their experiments have established what in fact they have only verified in a few highly selected instances.As presented at this stage Dulong and Petit’s method for atomic weight determination comes dangerously near to being a circular argument; and while it readily lends itself to a variety of suitably simple arithmetical problems it is doubtful whether these are of any great value or whether the significance of the method is ever really appreciated. Those who favour the General Science approach start from the assumption that it is not the business of the Grammar Schools to train specialists or technicians but to provide a liberal education for all pupils an education which will equip them for the duties of citizenship and to assume the responsibilities of leadership. The part that science should play lies in imparting such knowledge and developing such habits of thought as will give them an intelligent appreciation of the scientific age in which they live.The contention is that it is possible both to achieve this aim and also to lay an ade- quate foundation for future specialisation in any branch of science. Scientific studies should therefore be broadly conceived ranging over the three main branches biology chemistry and physics and not excluding reference to such subjects as geology astronomy etc. School courses which are confined to more or less academic studies of chemistry and physics (or even as was common some years ago say heat and light) are strongly deprecated. Quoting from the Report of the Science Masters’ Association on “The Teaching of General Science” (1936) “General Science is a course of scientific study and investigation which has its roots in the common experience of children and does not exclude any of the fundamental special sciences.It seeks to elucidate the general principles observ- able in nature without emphasising the traditional division into specialised subjects until such time as this is warranted by the increasing complexity of the field of investigation by the developing unity of the separate parts of that field and by the intellectual progress of the pupils.” It is clear that in courses with so wide a sweep depth must be sacrificed to breadth and it follows that those who subsequently specialise in chemistry must commence their specialist studies with a smaller equipment of chemical knowledge than the others who have followed in the lower school a course in pure chemistry.Nevertheless some experienced science masters claim that such pupils actually achieve better results immediately in their Sixth Form specialist courses. The narrowness produced by over-specialisation is perhaps one of the major intellectual defects of the present age and the longer that specialisation can be delayed the better. c 334 1 General Science courses aim in the early stages at showing the unity of science. Lessons are not differentiated into physics chemistry biology etc. and they are often taken by a single teacher and increasing numbers of schools are equipping un-differentiated laboratories for the elementary courses.The chemical content as we have said is more limited than in the Pure Chemistry courses and no attempt is made at a formal study of the Atomic Theory. Symbols formulae and equations are used as tools; reactions may be explained qualitatively in terms of atoms and molecules and even of ions but no attempt is made to justify these concepts logically. On the other hand much use is sometimes made of the so-called “Activity Series” of the metals- their sequence in order of their tendency to displace hydrogen from water or acids. This series provides a useful basis for systematking the study of the metals e.g. in relation to their extraction the stability of their compounds and their everyday applications as well as in explaining reactions at electrodes during electrolysis.The wide differences in properties between a compound and its cont- stituent elements is partly accounted for by supposing that the “activity” of the element has been used in producing the compound. While it is true that far less quantitative work is performed it would be untrue to suppose that it is completely ignored. Solubilities equivalents and simple gas analyses for example are usually included. Measurement indeed is recognised as funda- mental to all the physical sciences but whereas in pure chemistry quantitative work is largely directed to the Atomic Theory in General Science this need is not felt and measurements leading quickly to important generalisations are found to be more numerous in the physics parts of the syllabus.Again the range of substances for study is no longer selected primarily to develop the Atomic Theory but rather to illustrate the chemistry of everyday life and of the major chemical industries. Thus after air and water studies the chemical work may include such topics as the natural resources of the earth the winning of metals chemicals of importance in agriculture the utilisation of atmospheric nitrogen simple electrochemistry and most courses include some study of the simpler organic compounds. The critics of the General Science approach have been numerous and vociferous and they have included the Council of the Institute (see JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1937). It has been frequently contended that in the attempt to achieve breadth the General Science courses have been so overloaded that thoroughness has to be sacrificed; that in order to cover the ground practical work by the pupil must largely be replaced by demonstration work by the teacher; that quantitative work for example in chemistry [ 335 1 has to be reduced; and that the courses become “popular” in the worst sense.They maintain that pupils trained on such superficial courses develop slip-shod habits of thought and are ill-equipped to pursue specialist courses. These two schools of thought are still engaged in heated con- troversy (see for example School Science Review No. 103 1946 and No. 107 1947) but there are excellent teachers in both and it is probable that tby produce equally good results in their human material.Chemistry is still one of the most popular subjects among those which are presented for the Higher School Certificate. The weaker teacher of science whatever his pedagogical persuasion is tempted to take the easier path and demonstrate too much. The better teacher whether he take the academical approach or the General Science approach presents almost every lesson as an in- vestigation-a small research to be conducted by the class which he directs. Rarely does he find it necessary to demonstrate; as for example when he needs to teach some manipulative skill such as the use of the chemical balance. Experiment is the basis of his teaching. Whenever possible experiments are conducted by the pupils at their benches but inevitably-for example when the experiments are too dangerous or too costly-many must be conducted at the lecture table.The work however is still an investigation in which the class participates in everything except the actual manipulation and even in this the teacher sometimes invites individual pupils to share. Such lecture experiments which are not demonstrations may have great value. All pupils improve their laboratory technique by observing the skilled experimenter and some whose abilities are not manual may acquire a better appreciation of the scientific method from this vicarious experimenting. Whether we consider the young pupil as the citizen of the future or as the future professional chemist it is probable that the benefits he derives from his early scientific training should be measured more in terms of the sentiments he develops than of the actual knowledge he acquires.The boy first enters the chemistry laboratory full of curiosity and with a thrill of anticipation and the science master has an initial advantage over his colleagues in almost every other subject. The successful teacher grasps this advantage nourishes this interest in the many and inspires the few to find in science their vocation. c 336 1 A CHART ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE BRANCHES OF NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY First published in a paper submirtcd lo [he Royal Society Scienflfic Information Conferencc 1948. Reproduced wilh minor rnodrfication by permiision oj rhe Royal Sociery.THE RELATIONS BETWEEN CHEMISTRY AND OTHER BRANCHES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY By H. J. T. ELLINGHAM PH.D. A.R.C.S. M.I.CHEM.E. F.I.M. F.R.I.C. Most chemists are aware of the extent to which their science is linked up with other branches of natural science and of the importance of its applications in almost all fields of technology. It is natural however that the chemist who is mainly concerned with some particular aspect or application of chemistry should be most interested in the relations within his own specialised field and may not fully appreciate the special position that chemistry occupies among the natural sciences and their derived technologies- a position which arises from the fact that chemistry forms a bridge between the physical and the biological sciences.The accompanying chart which was first prepared some years ago in a more primitive form to illustrate the relationships between the sciences was subsequently elaborated in 1948 to serve as a background on which to portray among other things the scope of the various abstracting services in this country and was published as part of a paper on “Divisions of Natural Science and Technology” in the report of the Royal Society Scientific Information Conference 21 June to 2 July 1948. This form of the chart with minor amendments has been reproduced here at the request of the Publications and Library Committee of the Institute with a view to making available to a wider circle of chemists a general picture of the ways in which their science impinges upon other sciences and is relevant to their applications.In this chart the main divisions of pure science occupy the central panel ranging downwards from Mathematics through Physics and Chemistry and by way of the Inorganic and Organic sub-divisions of the latter to Geology and Biology respectively. On each side of this central panel lie the most nearly related branches of technology thus Physics is flanked by Civil Mechanical and Electrical Engineering; Physical Chemistry by Chemical Engineering; Inorganic and Organic Chemistry by the corresponding fields of applied chemistry and in the case of the former also by Metallurgy; similarly Geology is linked up with Metallurgy and Mining and Biology with Medicine and Agriculture.The chart 1 337 3 is constructed so that in most instances the branches of technology shown on the outer edges of the two side-panels are closely related to one another. These edges could therefore properly be joined by wrapping the chart around a cylinder thus Mechanical and Electrical Engineering would thereby be justifiably brought together; so also would the two areas which it has been convenient to assign to Chemical Engineering. By suitable modification of the lay-out it would be possible to allow for the chart to be spread over the surface of a sphere thereby enabling the area of each science to make contact with those of all other sciences and tech- nologies with which it is at all closely connected instead of-as at present-with only those which appear to be most nearly related.It should be emphasised that the chart in its present form is not claimed to give anything approaching a complete picture of all the relationships that exist. Even in the selection of titles for inclusion in the chart there is a measure of arbitrariness but an attempt has been made to insert the titles of all branches of science and technology that are of sufficient importance to form the fields of work of separate societies and study groups or of periodical publications. In particular no claim is made that the sizes of lettering used for these titles or of the areas allotted to particular subjects are representative of their relative importance. These are matters on which opinions would differ widely and although the views of several experts in different fields have been obtained there is no reason to believe that finality has been even approached.On the other hand the titles given in the chart are reasonably representative and it is believed that they cover most of the fields at present recognised as subjects for study. A major difficulty in the arrangement of these titles in any two-dimensional representation is that they belong to sub-divisions of science and technology which it has been found convenient to recognise but which have arisen from diverse systems of classification. Thus in the field of chemistry itself the primary division into inorganic and organic chem-istry is on a different basis from the division into physical chemistry and what may conveniently be described as “preparative and structural chemistry.’’ These two sets of sub-divisions cut across one another and in this type of diagram this feature can be appro- priately indicated by writing the two sets of titles in different directions on the chart.In general an attempt has been made to write the titles of dissimilarly based sub-divisions at different angles on the diagram. Relationships of one kind are thus indicated by parallel titles and those of different kinds by titles at angles to one another. Closeness of relationship is normally shown by proximity but where this is not practicable an attempt has some- times been made to indicate connections between more distant [ 338 1 titles by writing one at such an angle that it is directed towards the other.Thus “Detergents” points towards “Surface Energy” and “Surface Chemistry.” A major purpose of the chart is to draw attention to the various border-line subjects that have grown up between the main fields of the individual sciences for it is in these regions where one science impinges on another that the greatest activity is commonly witnessed. Biochemistry is a good example. It will be appreciated that even the main branches of science owe their recognition as individual fields of study to what has been essentially an evolutionary process rather than the result of any attempt at rational planning. Thus whereas astronomy and geology clearly arose from the need to separate particular regions of the universe for convenience of study physics and chemistry owe such individuality as they still retain to the desire to deal separately with certain phenomena of general significance.The boundaries between the main divisions of science are therefore by no means rigid. Considerable areas of biology are being invaded by the biochemist and the organic chemist ; large parts of chemistry have become the subject of investigations by physicists while certain aspects of physics are in course of becoming the purview of the mathematical philosopher. The same fluidity is observed within the areas of the sub-divisions of science and technology and for this reason no importance should be attached to the lines shown on the chart.The whole field of natural science and technology is properly one and the divisions and sub-divisions that we customarily use are adopted merely for convenience at a particular time for nobody can be actively concerned with the cultivation of more than one or two small plots in this vast field- and it is necessary to use titles to identify such plots. THE MEMBERSHIP OF THE INSTITUTE Since the publication of the Register of Fellows and Associates for 1948 analyses have been made of some of the information contained in that very useful volume and members may be interested in the results of these enquiries. The Register which referred to the position at 31 March 1948 contained the names of 10,744 corporate members of whom 3,695 were Fellows and 7,049 Associates.There were also at that date over 1,500 registered students but the names of these were not included. By the end of 1948 the numbers of Fellows and Associates had risen to 3,769 and 7,391 respectively giving a total corporate [ 339 1 membership of 11,160; the number of registered students had increased to 1,912. Statistics reported in this article refer to 31 March 1948 except where otherwise stated but those given as percentages will not have altered appreciably since that date. 00 ggf The above chart of membership statistics shows how the numbers of Fellows Associates and total corporate members have varied since the foundation of the Institute in 1877. The sharp rise in the number of Associates towards the end of the 1914-18 war is noteworthy and may be ascribed largely to the introduction in 1917 of new Regulations whereby suitably qualified candidates [ 340 1 could be admitted to the Associateship without having necessa.rily to take the Institute’s Examination.A further notable change in the slopes of the curves especially of those for Fellows and for Registered Students also occurred during the 1939-45 war and there is little doubt that those war-time increases in the rate of growth of membership are partly due to the wider recognition accorded in these periods to the importance of chemistry in the life of the nation. The inset chart of Appointments Register Statistics should be studied in conjunction with the recent article by the Registrar (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1949 111 180).DISTRIBUTION GEOGRAPHICAL OF MEMBERS Information on this subject is readily obtained from the Geographical Index to the Register. Considering first the members resident outside Great Britain and Ireland their total number was 1,286 out of 10,774 representing just under 12 per cent.-a not inconsiderable proportion-and their distribution among countries was as follows:- India (without Burma Ceylon an d Pakistan) .. 371 Union of South Africa .. .. *. .. .. 219 Australia .. .. .. .. .. .. 130 New Zealand .. .. .. .. .. .. 90 United States of America .. .. .. .. 71 Canada .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 70 Other countries in Asia .. .. .. .. 137 Other countries in Africa .. .. .. .. 78 Countries in Central and South America (including the West Indies) .... .. .. .. 73 Other countries in Europe (including the Channel Isles) .. *. .. .. .. .. .. 41 Other parts of the world . . .. .. .. 6 1,286 Apart from the six countries specifically mentioned above no individual country overseas has more than 35 corporate members resident in it. Local Sections are functioning in three of the four overseas countries with the largest populations of members-India South Africa and New Zealand. In India the proposal to replace the former Indian Section by five Local Sections based on the principal centres of activity has not proceeded beyond the establishment of the Bangalore Section and the acceptance of a petition for the [ 341 1 formation of a Northern India Section based on Delhi.In South Africa the Cape Section is active only in the Cape Province where there were 72 members of the Institute at 31 March 1948. In New Zealand and in South Africa Local Sections of the Institute exist alongside indigenous professional chemical bodies-t he New Zealand Institute of Chemistry and the South African Chemical Institute. A Local Section of the Institute was operative in Malaya before the war but has been in abeyance since the country was overrun by the Japanese. The number of corporate members listed in the Register as resident in Malaya was 23. In some countries where there is no Local Section of the Institute (as well as in New Zealand and India) Honorary Corresponding Secretaries have been appointed.A list of these officers is given on p. x of the Register. The whole of the area of Great Britain and Ireland is covered by Local Sections and any member having his registered address in any part of these islands is ips0 facto a member of the appropriate Section. The numbers of corporate members in each of these Local Sections at 1 January 1949 were published in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1949 I 46 while the corresponding figures for 31 March 1948 are shown on the accompanying sketch map. This map-which in its original form was exhibited at the recent Anniversary Meetings-also indicates the distribution of members among the principal centres of population conventional signs being used to represent cities and towns with over 100 members 20 to 100 members and 10 to 19 members.From this it is clear that the two regions with the highest concentration of members are (i) London and its satellite towns (ii) Manchester Liverpool and neighbouring towns in South Lancashire and North Cheshire. In these two regions are concentrated respectively over 30 per cent. and over 15 per cent. of the whole membership of the Institute; together they account for well over half the members resident in Great Britain and Ireland. The London and South-Eastern Counties Section which includes Cambridge Oxford and Reading as well as the towns around London contains practically 40 per cent. of the members in Great Britain and Ireland. Next in order of membership of Local. Sections come Manchester and District (9-0 per cent.) Liverpool and North-Western (8-9 per cent.) Birmingham and Midlands (7.2 per cent.) Glasgow and West of Scotland (5-2per cent.); each of the other Local Sections in Great Britain and Ireland contains less than 4 per cent.of the corporate members in the two islands. This map should be of considerable value in guiding the future development of the Local Section and District organisation of the Institute for although this organisation should not be based solely- or perhaps even mainly-on the number of members in particular c 342 1 localities such data are not without significance in this connection. Moreover to those who know the transport facilities in various parts of the country the map will afford a useful indication of how relations between local organisations might best be developed and extended and what new centres of Institute activity might be established.AGESOF MEMBERS AND THEIR PERIODS OF MEMBERSHIP No information about ages can be derived from the Register but the returns made by members in connection with remuneration statistics provide valuable data (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1948 11 101). Thus it is seen that of 8,319 Fellows and Associates in employment who gave the required particulars in October 1947 the percentages in various age groups were as follows:- Age group . . 21-25 26-30 31-35 3640 4145 Percentage . . 7.5 13.5 19.9 14.7 15.6 Age group .. 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 over65 Percentage .. 12.4 7.3 5.4 2.5 1.2 The peak comes in the age group 31-35 and it appears that about half the “active” members are under 40 years of age and less than 10 per cent.over 55. There is no doubt that the Institute consists largely of relatively young men and women-probably more so than other bodies of similar age and size for the great majority of present members were elected after 1917 when the conditions of admission were radically modified. An examination of dates of admission given in the 1948 Register shows that only 580 of the present members were elected before 1917 and only 783 (under 7.3 per cent.) before 1918. It is true that many of mature age were elected after that date but the majority in every year have been young people who had recently qualified for admission.OCCUPATION OF AND REMUNERATIONMEMBERS The Register is a mine of useful information about occupations and we are indebted to Miss Cawston our Principal Assistant Secretary for following up her work in the preparation of the Register by extracting the statistics given below. Of the 10,744 entries in the Register 8,693 descriptions (80 per cent.) were found suitable for analysis the remainder relating to members from whom no particulars of occupation had been received or who had retired or otherwise ceased to be active in the profession of chemistry. In view of the diverse descriptions of -occupations of members resident overseas it was thought desirable to limit the [ 343 1 present analysis to the 7,728 (nearly 72 per cent.) members actively engaged in professional work in Great Britain and Ireland.The results are as follows percentages being based on the 7,728 entries used for the purpose:- Industrial Firms Seventeen firms each employing more than 25 members .. .. .. 1,747 Other industrial firms .. .. 2,913 4,660 =60.30/ Government Departments Ministry of Supply .. .. .. 319 Department of Scientific and Industrial Research .. .. .. *. 93 Admiralty .. .. .. .. 78 Department of Government Chemist 55 Ministry of Agriculture .. .. 37 Other Departments .. .. 203 f. 785 =10*2yo Universities and Colleges (staffs) .. 765 = 9.9% Schools (teachers) .. .. .. 507 = 6.6% Public Utility Organisations and Nationalised Industries Gas Undertakings .... .. 111 National Coal Board .. .. .. 61 Sewage Drainage River Boards and Water Undertakings .. *. 44 Electricity Undertakings .. .. 34 Railways .. .. .. *. 30 -280 = 3.6% Public Analysts and Consultants . . 270 = 3.5% Research Associations .. *. .. 218 = 2.8% Hospitals (including those attached to Universities) . . .. .. .. 105 = 1.4% Local Authorities (including Education Departments but not staffs engaged in teaching) .. .. .. .. 43 = 0.6% Miscellaneous .. *. .. .. 95 = 1.1% 7,728 The data confirm the impression previously gained that about 60 per cent. of members of tile Institute are employed in industry. That Government Departments and Universities and Colleges should follow next with 10.2 and 9.9 per cent. was also expected but the figure of 6-6per cent.for teachers in schools is higher than many had c 344 1 0 8 3 [ 345 1 anticipated. It will be noted that Public Analysts (mostly part- time) and Consultants account for only 3.5 per cent. of the total whereas at one time they formed the largest single group in the Institute. Information on the remuneration of members has been provided in the above-mentioned report on the subject (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1948 11 101). The accompanying diagrams show (a) the percentage of Fellows Associates and total corporate members receiving remuneration above any given amount; (b) the average remuneration of “active” members in relation to age. It is noteworthy that the average remuneration increases approximately linearly with age up to the point at which the number of members concerned ceases to be large enough for statistical purposes.REMS. I800. 1 700-ROYAL 1NSTlTUTE OF CHEMISTRY REMUNERATION STATISTICS- I948 (1. and P.. 1948. II 103-5 Tables 1-3) 1600-I soo-1400-/ 1300-1200-1100-1000-900-AVERAGE REMUNERATION,AGE OF “ACTIVE ” MEMBERS 800-Fellows -0 A Associates -a 700-fellows and Associates Q--0 600-500 The Presidential Badge of Office,-An article describing the characteristics of this unique badge and the investigations involved in its production has been prepared. Publication has been held over however to a later issue of the Journal so that the article may be accompanied by an appropriate photograph.THE ORGANISATION OF OTHER PROFESSIONS* IV. THE PHARMACEUTICAL PROFESSION By F. W.ADAMS,B.Sc. Ph.C. A.R.I.C. Barrister-at-Law Secretary and Registrar The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain Historical. Pharmaceutical practice in some form or other is one of the most ancient branches of human activity and until the seventeenth century its course in Britain had been broadly parallel to that followed in other countries although the apothecary as the practitioner of pharmacy was then called had not acquired the privileged position which his continental counterpart enjoyed. With the grant of a Royal Charter to the Society of Apothecaries in 1617 giving exclusive rights to its members to prepare administer and sell medicines in London it looked as though the future of pharmaceutical practice in Great Britain would be similar to that in continental countries.Soon however British pharmacy began to diverge from the traditional line of development. Later in the century quarrels between the physicians and the apothecaries on the question of the encroachment of each on the other’s preserves resulted in a High Court decision in 1703 which gave the apothecaries the right to under- take medical as well as pharmaceutical work though not to charge fees for the former. Protected by this verdict the apothecaries throughout the eighteenth century came increasingly to engage in medical practice as well as dispense physicians’ prescriptions and deal generally in medicines until by the Apothecaries Act of 1815 their position was regularised and they were permitted to charge fees for medical attention.Eventually they became fully absorbed into the medical profession. During this long period of transformation of the apothecaries matters did not stand still pharmaceutically in other respects. Gradually a new class of persons preparing and supplying medicines and dispensing physicians’ prescriptions began to take shape and by 1841 it was sufficiently well-defined to provide the basis for a permanent organisation in the form of the Pharma- ceutical Society of Great Britain. Two hundred years during which the position of the pharmacist might have been consolidated had been occupied by a process in which his identity became merged with that of the medical practitioner while the movement of events generally during this period had created a situation which rendered the building-up of a pharmaceutical profession a formidable task.The view that pharmacy needed to be regarded as a specialised and protected calling appears to have declined as changes occurred in political and economic thought and although subsequent history shows that an increasing measure of recogni- tion has been accorded to pharmacists the ground lost earlier has not yet been fully regained. The timeliness and importance of the task which the founders of the Pharmaceutical Society set themselves was recognised by the granting of a Royal Charter of incorporation within two years of the Society’s foundation. The objects of the Society were defined as “advancing Chemistry and Pharmacy and promoting a uniform system of Education of those who should practise the same and also for the protection of those who carry on the business of Chemists and Druggists and that it is intended also to provide a Fund for * Previous articles in this series are (1)“The Medical Profession” (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1946 V 209; (2) “The Legal Profession (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1947 111 132); and (3) “The Architectural Profession” (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1949 I 8).c 347 1 the relief of the distressed Members and Associates of the Society and of their Widows and Orphans.” Membership was to be open to persons who were or had been in business on their own account or who complied with the examination requirements laid down for membership.Associateship without right of holding office or being present at general meetings was to be open to assistants who passed the appropriate examination. The Society was to be governed by a Council of 21 persons elected from and by the members. The Pharmacy Act 1852 continued the work begun by the foundation of the Society. This confirmed the position of the Society and its examination system and set up Registers of Pharmaceutical Chemists Assistants and Apprentices or Students to consist in the first instance of all persons who were at the time of the passing of the Act respectively Members Associates and Students of the Society and thereafter of persons who passed the prescribed examinations.A Registrar was to be appointed by the Council to maintain these Registers. Registration under the Act was distinct from membership or associateship of the Society and registered persons were free to join the Society in their appropriate categories or not as they saw fit. Apart from consolidating the Society the most important aspect of the Act was the control it introduced over the use of the titles “pharmaceutical chemist” and “pharmaceutist.” These were permitted to be used only by persons who were registered as pharmaceutical chemists under the Act. It was also made an offence for anyone not a member of the Society to describe himself as such. The next stage was in 1868 when regulation of the sale of poisons was introduced by the Pharmacy Act of that year.A Register of Chemists and Druggists was set up admission to which was open to persons who passed what had hitherto been the Assistant’s Examination of the Society. The appointment of examiners for the Chemist and Druggist examination had to be confirmed by the Privy Council and provision was made for an officer appointed by the Privy Council to be present at every examination. The right to “sell or keep open shop for the retailing dispensing or com- pounding Poisons ” or to use the titles “Chemist,” “Druggist ” or “Chemist and Druggist” or “Dispensing Chemist or Druggist” was reserved for the use of persons registered under the Act as Chemists and Druggists or under the Act of 1852 as Pharmaceutical Chemists; to the use of the latter the additional title of “Pharmacist” was reserved.Failure “to conform with any Regulation as to the keeping or selling of poisons made in pursuance of this Act ” and “to compound any medicines of the British Pharmacopoeia except according to the Formularies of the said Pharmacopoeia” were made offences. Requirements regarding labelling of poisons and a Schedule of substances to be regarded as poisons for the purpose of the Act were laid down. The Council of the Society was empowered to make additions to the Schedule subject to the approval of the Privy Council. The Schedule which was divided into two parts contained 15 substances or classes of substances 10 of which were in Part I and could be sold only if the purchaser was known to the seller and an entry was made in the Poisons Register and signed by the purchaser.These two Acts by establishing statutory qualifications and by restricting the use of certain titles and the sale of certain poisons to qualified persons determined the main lines of pharmaceutical legislation as it exists to-day. They have been followed by an Act to amend the Pharmacy Act 1868; the Pharmacy Acts Amendment Act 1898; the Poisons and Pharmacy Act 1908; the Pharmacy Act 1929; the Pharmacy and Poisons Act 1933; the Pharmacy and Medicines Act 1941 ; and the Medical Practitioners’ and Pharmacists’ Act 1946. Other legislation affecting pharmacy includes the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875,and the Food and Drugs Act 1938; the Dangerous Drugs Acts r 348 3 1920-32; the Therapeutic Substances Act 1925 and the Penicillin Act 1947.Legislation such as the National Health Insurance Acts and the National Health Service Act though dealing with much wider issues have had important effects on pharmaceutical practice. The Law of Pharmacy The following is a summary of the present legislative control of pharma ceutical practice as a result of the changes brought about by these Acts. The retail sale of poisons in Part I of the Poisons List or of preparations including dispensed medicines containing them can be undertaken only by "authorised sellers of poisons " on registered premises and effected by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. Every person registered as a pharma- cist that is to say whose name appears in the Register of Pharmaceutical Chemists or the Register of Chemists and Druggists is by virtue of that fact a member of the Pharmaceutical Society.He is required to pay to the Society a registration fee at present two pounds and an annual retention fee at present two pounds which takes the place of the membership subscription payable by members before 1933,'when membership of the Society was voluntary and no fees were chargeable for entry in or the retention of names in the Registers. The fees are determined by byelaw; there is no limitation on the amount of the registration fee but the retention fee may not exceed two pounds. There are two main classes of poisons which are prescribed respectively in Parts I and I1 of the Poisons List. Part I contains substances which are used mainly for medicinal purposes; Part I1 contains substances used for other purposes and which can be sold under certain conditions also by persons other than authorised sellers of poisons.Although its provisions have been modified in various degrees by rule for different categories of poisons the main legislation requires a poison to be sold only to a person known by the seller to be a person to whom the poison may properly be sold and particulars of the sale to be entered into a book and signed by the purchaser. The poison must subject to modification by rule bear the name of the poison its proportion in the case of a preparation the word poison and the name and address of the seller. The Secretary of State for Home Affairs is the authority determining the contents of the Poisons List but he acts only after consultation with or on the recommendation of the Poisons Board.This body consists of 16 members appointed as to one by the Home Secretary one by the Secretary of State for Scotland two by the Minister of Health one by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries five by the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society one by the Royal College of Physicians of London one by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh one by the General Medical Council one by the Royal Institute of Chemistry and one by the British Medical Association. The Government Chemist is also a member and the Home Secretary has power to appoint additional members. Conditions modifying or adding to the provisions of the main legislation relating to substances in the Poisons List may be prescribed by Rules made by the Home Secretary after consultation with or on the recommendation of the Poisons Board.Rules have been made dealing with such matters as the storage transport labelling and containers of poisons the persons to whom and the purposes for which poisons may be sold the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations containing poisons the colouring of poisons the making and preservation of records of sales the sale of certain poisons only in accordance with the prescription of a medical practitioner dentist or veterinary surgeon and the form of such prescriptions and the supply of poisons from and in hospitals. I 349 1 An authorised seller of poisons is a pharmacist or a body corporate carrying on business which comprises the retail sale of drugs provided that in every set of premises where the business is carried on it is so far as concerns the retail sale of drugs under the personal control of a pharmacist whose name and certificate of registration is conspicuously exhibited in the premises.In the case of a body corporate the business as a whole must so far as concerns the keeping retailing and dispensing and compounding of poisons be under the management of a superintendent who must be a pharmacist. In the matter of titles the provisions already mentioned remain u naltered except that bodies corporate which are authorised sellers of poisons may if the superintendent is a member of the board of the body use the titles chemist druggist chemist and druggist dispensing chemist or dispensing druggist in the same way as registered persons.They may not however use the titles pharmaceutical chemist pharmaceutist and pharmacist which remain personal titles. The word pharmacy is limited in its use to premises owned by pharmacists or bodies corporate which are authorised sellers of poisons. The title chemist is now only limited in its use if employed in connection with the sale of goods by retail. The existence of the ownership of pharmaceutical businesses by bodies corporate is due to a High Court decision in 1880 when it was held that as a body corporate was not a person within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act 1868 it was not prevented from “keeping open shop” for the sale of poisons or using restricted titles.Parliament did not deal with this situation until 1908 when the measure of control over such bodies above described was laid down by the Pharmacy and Poisons Act. As mentioned earlier in order legally to sell poisons in Part I of the Poisons List the sale must be effected on registered premises. Every authorised seller of poisons must cause all the sets of premises where his business so far as it relates to the retail sale of drugs is carried on to be registered. The register is kept by the Registrar of the Pharmaceutical Society and a fee not exceeding three pounds (at present two guineas) must be paid for registration and annually to retain the premises on the register.There is no restriction on the distribution or number of the sets of registered premises which an authorised seller of poisons may possess. While the Pharmacy Acts do not provide specifically for the dispensing as distinct from the sale of a dispensed medicine containing a poison to be undertaken by or under the supervision of a pharmacist this effect is produced by the provision that the normal requirements of records and labelling of poisons apply to such dispensed medicines unless the compounding is done by or under the direct and personal supervision of a pharmacist. Notwith-standing the above provisions a medical practitioner may supply his patients with medicines containing poisons. Control over the production of medicines containing poisons is limited to the requirement that the manufacture of those for use in the internal treatment of human ailments must in general be under the supervision of a pharmacist or a member of the Royal Institute of Chemistry.Legal restrictions on the production and distribution of pharmaceutical products not containing poisons are not extensive. The Therapeutic Sub- stances Act imposes complete official control over the manufacture for sale of certain substances which cannot be adequately tested chemically and the Penicillin Act restricts the dispensing and sale of penicillin to qualified persons; advertisements for articles used in the treatment of certain diseases are pro- hibited and articles which are recommended as medicines must bear a disclosure of their active principles or ingredients and in certain cases can only be sold by authorised sellers of poisons but generally speaking the manufacture and sale of medicines not containing poisons may be undertaken freely.[ 350 I The purity and potency of pharmaceutical substances is controlled mainly by the British Pharmacopoeia which is accepted as a presumptive standard for legal purposes. It is published by the General Medical Council in accord- ance with the provisions of the Medical Act 1856 and the Medical Council Act 1862. The first British Pharmacopoeia which appeared in 1864 has been followed by six others the latest being published in 1948. Since 1928 the book has been produced under the direction of the General Medical Council by the Pharmacopoeia Commission which is appointed by the Council on the recommendation of a Selection Committee consisting of four persons nominated by the General Medical Council two persons nominated by the Medical Research Council and three persons nominated jointly by the Councils of the Pharmaceutical Societies of Great Britain Ireland and Northern Ireland.The practice of pharmacy in hospitals is not subject to any direct restric- tions as to the qualification of persons who may be engaged in it. The requirements relating to dangerous drugs in hospitals limit in general the custody and dispensing of such articles to medical practitioners or pharmacists but otherwise no qualification is required by law for undertaking pharma- ceutical work in hospitals.The Phaymuceutical Society Some indication has already been given of the changes in the structure and powers of the Pharmaceutical Society since its position was confirmed by the Pharmacy Act 1852. The requirement introduced in 1933 that every pharmacist should by virtue of his registration as such be a member of the Society made membership coincide with the class of persons eligible for membership ;previously the number of pharmacists who became members was about two-thirds of the total number. Thus the Society is now fully representative of those whose interests among other objects it set out to serve at the time of its foundation. The grade of Associateship had been discontinued in 1898 when chemists and druggists were given the full status of members and the title “pharmacist,” both hitherto reserved to Pharmaceutical chemists.The original distinction between members and associates as principals on the one hand and assistants on the other had long since disappeared and henceforth the higher educational attainments and the right to exemption from jury service of pharmaceutical chemists were the only differences remaining between them and chemists and druggists. In addition to being a body whose purposes are laid down in its Charter the Society is the statutory examining registering inspecting and disciplinary body for pharmacy. By the Act of 1933 its Council now includes three members appointed by the Privy Council thus increasing the number to 24. These additional members have the same status as the elected members.They serve for four years the elected members for three one-third of the latter retiring each year. The elected members are all elected by the votes of the membership as a whole. Local organisation within the Society takes the form of branches into which the whole of the country is divided. This system was introduced in 1922 and the number of branches at present is 135. There is a tendency for the larger branches to divide to produce more compact branch areas. Branches are self-governing and are provided by headquarters with funds based on the numerical size of the branch. They receive additional assistance through the payment of expenses of headquarters speakers. Two branch representatives’ meetings are held each year; one on the day following the Annual General Meeting of the Society in May the other in connection with the British Pharmaceutical Conference which is held during the summer.i 351 3 The earlier meeting is devoted primarily to the discussion of motions submitted by the branches the later one to matters of more interest to Conference members generally. The branch representatives’ meeting has no formal status in the Society‘s constitution but its decisions are considered by the Council and a report made to a subsequent meeting on matters in which the Council have been asked to act. The Society has a Scottish Department with headquarters in Edinburgh and a Resident Secretary. The department provides facilities for the Scottish members deals generally with matters of special interest to them and is the centre for the Society’s examinations in Scotland.It is administered by a committee elected by members resident in Scotland. In its capacity as the representative body of pharmacists the Society aims to assist in the formulation of public policy on pharmaceutical matters and is concerned to improve the efficiency and raise the standard of professional behaviour of the pharmacist to ensure the adequate recognition of the pharmaceutical qualification and generally to further and protect the pro- fessional interests of its members. Economic matters are mainly the concern of other pharmaceutical organisations. The Society’s interest in education was manifested in its earliest activities.The School of Pharmacy which developed fom the course of lectures instituted in the first days has remained throughout the intervening period as an important centre of pharmaceutical education and for many years it was the only one. Its original chemical laboratory is said to have been the first one open for public instruction in chemistry in this country. Recently following discus- sions with the University of London of which it has been a School since 1924 the College of the Pharmaceutical Society as it has been latterly called has become an independent institution with a governing body on which the Society and the University are represented and resumed its former name. The Society has a Library and a Museum of Materia Medica in London and a Library in Edinburgh.It publishes two periodicals-the weekly Pharmaceutical Journal its official organ and a paper of general interest and the monthly Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology devoted primarily to the publication of research papers review articles and abstracts-two standard works of reference-the British Pharmaceutical Codex and the Extra Pharmacopoeia- the National Formulary (jointly with the British Medical Association) the Pharmaceutical Pocket Book and a number of specialised works. The British Pharmaceutical Conference which meets annually for the reading and discussion of science papers is held under the aegis of the Society but its membership is not confined to pharmacists. The Society’s Benevolent Fund and War Aid Fund provide financial assistance to those in need.A convalescent home for members is maintained in the country; a small charge is made to visitors the remainder of the upkeep costs being paid from the Benevolent Fund. The enforcement of the Pharmacy Acts is in the main a duty of the Pharmaceutical Society and it is required to appoint inspectors for the purpose who must be pharmacists. As this duty may involve criminal proceedings the Society finds itself in the case of offences being committed by pharmacists engaged in prosecuting its own members in the Courts of Summary Jurisdiction. This is a unique state of affairs among professional bodies and‘ creates an unusual relationship between the Society and its members. At present there are nine inspectors for the whole country and they periodically visit pharmacies to ascertain whether pharmacists are in personal control and their certificates exhibited records are properly kept and the storage of poisons is in order.They make special visits to investigate and report on alleged breaches of the Pharmacy Acts by authorised sellers of poisons and others and give evidence in any proceedings which may result [ 352 1 from the consideration by the Council of the reports of these special investi- gations and of their routine visits. The inspectors have powers of entry examination and enquiry. A pharmacist may cease to be qualified by failing to pay his annual retention fee and a body corporate by ceasing to employ a pharmacist superintendent but disqualification may also be brought about by the action of the Statutory Committee of the Society.This consists of five persons appointed by the Council and one who is the Chairman appointed by the Privy Council. The Privy Council member must be a person having practical legal experience. The Statutory Committee is not a committee of the Society’s Council and is not responsible to that body. Its powers are derived directly from the Act of Parliament. The Committee is empowered to direct the Registrar to remove the name of a pharmacist if he or any person employed by him in the carrying on of his business has been convicted of any such criminal offence or has been guilty of such misconduct as in the opinion of the Statutory Committee renders him or in the case of an employee would if he were a pharmacist render him unfit to be on the register.In the case of a body corporate which has been convicted of an offence under the Pharmacy Acts or any member of the board or officer or employee of which has been con- victed or been guilty of misconduct in circumstances similar to those which might lead to the removal of the name of a pharmacist from the register the Statutory Committee may direct that the body corporate cease to be an authorised seller of poisons and be disqualified for such period as may be specified in the direction or that any or all of its premises be removed from the register and disqualified for such period as may be specified n the direction. There is a right of appeal to the High Court against a direction of the Statutory Committee.The regulations of the Statutory Committee provide for an inquiry before any such direction is given and it cannot be given without the concurrence of the Chairman. A reprimand and admonition may be issued by the Chairman without an inquiry or by the Committee after an inquiry. An inquiry must be opened in public but may be continued in private. The Committee have power to restore names removed by them. In view of its special place in the development of pharmaceutical organisa- tion the position of the Pharmaceutical Society has been discussed at length but there are several organisations serving separate interests connected with pharmaceutical practice to which attention should be drawn. For many years after its formation the Pharmaceutical Society was the only national body concerned with pharmacy and the setting up of other bodies in comparatively recent times reflects the development of specialised interests.The membership of the National Pharmaceutical Union and the Scottish Pharmaceutical Federation consists of proprietors of pharmacies whether pharmacists or bodies corporate. The larger bodies corporate have their own organisation the Company Chemists’ Association. A committee of the National Pharmaceutical Union on which the Company Chemists’ Association and the co-operative societies are represented acts on behalf of the owners of pharmacies in negotiations with the Government concerning terms of service for participation in the National Health Service.The Guild of Public Pharmacists has a membership composed of pharmacists employed in hospitals and other public services while the National Association of Women Pharmacists is concerned with the welfare of women pharmacists who constitute about 11 per cent. of the total number of pharmacists. The Association of British Pharmaceutical Industry is the representative body of the pharmaceutical manufacturing firms. All these organisations are well supported by the persons or bodies for which they cater. Employee organisa- tion has made little progress among pharmacists though several trade unions accept pharmacists as members. [ 353 1 Education and Employment Reference has been already made to the foundation of the Society’s School.Later a number of private schools came into existence and instruction in pharmacy was given in certain technical institutions and two universities but it was not until after the First World War that pharmaceutical education began to be organised on a national scale. As the result of developments since then there are at the present time 16 technical or university institutions recognised by the Society for giving instruction for the Pharmaceutical Chemist and Chemist and Druggist Qualifying Examinations and two tech- nical colleges and one privately-owned school for the Chemist and Druggist Qualifying Examination only. A much larger number of technical colleges is recognised for the Intermediate Examination. The most recent changes in the examination requirements took place last year.Until then the require- ments for the Pharmaceutical Chemist and the Chemist and Druggist Quali- fying examinations respectively had maintained a difference of standard between these two examinations through the various examination changes which had taken place since 1868. Latterly the distinction took the form of a two years’ final academic course for the former and a one year’s similar course for the latter. In future there will be the same two years‘ final academic course for both examinations so that in practice the distinction between the pharmaceutical chemist and the chemist and druggist will ultimately disappear. It is hoped that the legislative changes necessary to establish one statutory register in place of the present two will be made thus removing a difference which has no substantial legal significance.There are three stages in qualifying as a pharmacist. Preliminary.-For registration as “Apprentice or Student ” the applicant must offer examination results which satisfy the requirements of matriculation at the University of London or those for an attestation of fitness of the Scottish Universities Entrance Board obtained by passing the Senior Leaving Certificate Examination of the Scottish Education Department in which mathematics has been passed at the Higher Grade or the Preliminary Examina- tion of the Scottish Universities Entrance Board. Intermediate.-The Intermediate Examination consists of written and practical papers in chemistry physics and biology.A candidate must have been registered as “Apprentice or Student ” and have attended an approved course of three terms at an approved teaching institution. He must have completed the work of the course to the satisfaction of the governing authority of the institution. A person may be deemed to have passed two or all of the subjects by presenting (a) a Higher School Certificate showing the subjects in question passed as “principal,’’ “main” or “group” subjects; (6) a certificate of having passed in the required subjects the first or intermediate examination for a degree in Arts or Science of any University in England or Wales or of the corresponding examinations of any Scottish or other approved university. Final.-Candidates for admission to the Chemist and Druggist or Pharmaceutical Chemist Qualifying Examinations are required (1) to have passed or be deemed to have passed the Intermediate Examination ; (2) to have undergone since passing the Intermediate Examination or being eligible to present themselves in one subject only a period of practical training of not less than two years under approved conditions in a pharmacy hospital pharmaceutical department or manufacturing [ 354 1 pharmaceutical laboratory and under approved Articles of Pupilage endorsed by the Registrar (the practical training may be taken after the candidate has sat the final examination in which case Articles of Pupilage are not required and a period of one and not two years suffices); (3) to have attended an approved course of instruction of two sessions of three terms each at an approved institution.The subjects of the examination are pharmaceutical chemistry pharmaceutics pharmacognosy physiology and forensic pharmacy with written and practical papers in all subjects except the last which has a written paper only. A certificate of having passed the examination is not given to any successful candidate unless or until he has reached the age of 21 years. It will be seen from the above that the minimum period required for qualification is five years if the practical training precedes the final examina- tion and four if it follows that examination. The Society’s examinations are conducted by two Boards of Examiners one for England and Wales and one for Scotland.Candidates are free to chose by which Board of Examiners they will be examined. Examinations in England and Wales are held in various centres; those in Scotland in Edin- burgh only. Members of the Boards are appointed by the Council of the Society subject to the approval of the Privy Council. There is a joint inspectorate of the Society and the University of London to inspect and make recommendations concerning the approval of teaching institutions where courses are held for the Pharmaceutical Chemist qualifying examination and the Bachelor of Pharmacy degree of the University of London. Provision is made in the examination regulations to approve degrees in pharmacy of British universities for exemption of their holders from any or all of the subjects of the final examination.There are at present six universi- ties granting such degrees-Glasgow Leeds London Manchester Nottingham and Wales-and they are all recognised for all subjects except forensic pharmacy. The policy of the Society is to encourage the establishment of university degrees in pharmacy and students to proceed by this route to qualification. Provision is made in the examination regulations for the present two years’ final course to be increased to three years at the discretion of the Council of the Society. There are three universities-Glasgow London and Nottingham-with a three years’ final course for their pharmacy degrees and Leeds has a third year for those taking honours. The large majority of the 25,000 pharmacists practise their calling in pharmacies as proprietors managers or assistants.There are approximately 14,700 pharmacies in Great Britain. Compared with the position in countries where the number of pharmacies is limited the number is high in relation to the population. Of this number 8,200 are owned by pharmacists and 6,500 by bodies corporate. The ratio of proprietor pharmacists to managers tends to decrease showing the increasing proportion of pharmacies falling into the category of branches. Though the ownership by a pharmacist of more than one pharmacy is not unusual bodies corporate have been mainly responsible for the development of multiple ownership. Health Insurance and Health Service legislation has made substantial changes in the extent to which the dispensing of medicines is undertaken in pharmacies.At the time when the Pharmaceutical Society was founded the supply of dispensed medicines was largely in the hands of medical practitioners and this state of affairs continued until the passing of the National Health c 355 1 Insurance Act. This provided that medicines required under the Act should be supplied from pharmacies and dispensed by or under the supervision of pharmacists except in rural areas where the patient had the choice of getting his medicines from the doctor or a pharmacy this adding considerably to the amount of dispensing undertaken by pharmacists. As the same principle is applied in the National Health Service Act pharmacies have now become the main source of supply of dispensed medicines required for general practitioner treatment.In the event of health centres being extablished and pharma- ceutical services being provided in them such services must be given by pharmacists.. The two other principal sections of pharmaceutical activity are hospital and manufacturing. The number of pharmacists employed in hospitals has increased substantially in recent years but there are still hospitals including some large general hospitals where there are no pharmacists employed and many smaller or specialised establishments which need at least pharma- ceutical supervision. Under the National Health Service this state of affairs is expected to be remedied as time goes on. For this reason and the expected expansion of the hospital service under the new system there is likely to be continued growth in the scope for the employment of pharmacists in hospitals.Pharmaceutical industry in its development from its origins in the pharm- acy has become increasingly varied in the range of work undertaken by the pharmacists engaged in it and they are to be found filling many different kinds of posts in the production research analytical distribution and other departments of manufacturing and wholesale houses. CHEMISTRY AND THE MANUFACTURER By W. A. JOINER MSc. A.M.I.Chem.E. F.R.I.C. Chairman New Zealand Section Royal Institute of Chemistry [An address delivered at Dunedin on 25 August 1948 at a Joint Annual Conference of the Section and of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry.] Manufacturing industries in New Zealand may be divided roughly into two categories (1) those in which standard raw materials e.g.metals plastics etc. are imported and fabricated into useful articles by mechanical means and (2) those in which raw materials obtained in this country or imported are adapted and processed. Industries in the first group require very little from the services of the chemist. Most if not all the chemistry connected with them has already been done e.g. metallurgy synthesis of plastic materials etc. The further industry ventures away from purely mechanical fabrication the greater the necessity for the services of the chemist. The r81e of the chemist in industry is familiar to all and I do not propose to deal extensively with this subject now.Perhaps it is as well to point out however that in many industries which may at first glance appear to be very largely mechanical the application of chemistry can play an important part if such industries are to be operated in the most efficient way. These remarks apply for example in the metal industries-in the making and casting of alloys and in metal finishings (electroplating and protective or decorative coating of materials). r 356 I The services of the chemist are necessary to industry in three ways:- (1) In the control of the quality of raw materials including fuel and in checking quality throughout the various stages of manufacture; in two words-process control ; (2) in the application of new processes either for more efficient production or for extending the range of manufactures of the industry concerned ; (3) in research and the development of new processes arising from research.These three functions of the chemist are connected with the state of technological development of an industry. Before the application of new techniques and before the results of research and development can be properly utilised it is necessary that some form of process control should be in operation not only to ensure efficient and trouble-free functioning of an industry but also to provide a standard by which the value of new techniques or the results of research can be assessed. Although manufacturing industry in this country has made great advances in recent years especially under the pressure of war conditions I am afraid that in many industrial plants the value of what the chemist can do even in the simplest field of process control is not by any means yet fully appreciated.Such a statement does not of course apply to all as there is in some of the industrial undertakings of this country a very great appreciation of the value of applied science and it is encouraging to note the enthusiasm with which a few manufacturers are supporting scientific work in their own industries. Some idea of the progress in the application of chemistry in industry in this country can be formed from an examination of the 1937 and 1947 register of members of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry and the New Zealand Section of the Royal Institute of Chemistry.In 1937 53 chemists were directly engaged in industry of a total of 152 members of the Institutes. In 1947 the corresponding numbers were 104 and 340. Thus the number of members of the Institutes working in industry has almost exactly doubled in 10 years although the proportion of the total remains roughly the same. In concluding these general remarks which state something which is familiar to many of you but which I think can still bear some repetition I should like to emphasise that no PYocess industry of any pretensions whatever can afford in the long run to do without the services of the chemist either as a consultant or as a full-time employee (depending on the size of the industry concerned).In the field of research and development the important part to be played by the chemical engineer must not be overlooked. While the chemical engineer has much to do with ensuring the efficient design and smooth running of process equipment perhaps his most important sphere is in the development and application of new processes. It seems still necessary to point out that a chemical engineer is not merely one who has acquired some knowledge of chemistryand engineering and may be neither a good chemist nor a good engineer. While he must of course have a knowledge of the fundamentals of both these sciences and of other things besides he differs I think from the engineer and the chemist chiefly in his approach to the problems which confront him.While retaining the functional attitude of the engineer he must since he is concerned not only with structures and machines but also with the physical and chemical changes of materials keep in close touch with the fundamentals of the chemistry and physics involved in his work. As an example in the development of a new process use is often made of pilot plant as a stage in the translation of the process from the laboratory to industrial scale operation. Too often the pilot plant is regarded by the chemist only as a means of obtaining a large sample of some new material [ 357 I and by the engineer as a means of trial and error experimentation The chemical engineer’s attitude is or should be that such pilot plant is primarily a means of attaining data on plant design and on the process in question which cannot be obtained by other and cheaper methods.It may be of interest to quote some remarks by the Rt. Hon. Lord Moulton speaking of the chemical engineer more than 25 years ago. He said “Re- member his task is this; he has to achieve the same result as the chemist; he has to do all that the chemist could do under the favourable conditions that obtained in the laboratory and he has to get these results although he no longer enjoys the advantages which originally enabled the chemist to attain them. In spite of abandoning all these aids he has to be content with nothing less than the same success.” I should add to Lord Moulton’s remarks that in addition the chemical engineer has to make the process pay.Many industries in this country could benefit from the services of chemical engineers and I should like to express my admiration of those chemists whose foresight has resulted in the establishment of a comprehensive course in chemical engineering at Canterbury College. Great things may be expected from this development in the future. I have mentioned the three different ways in which the chemist or scientist can be of value to industry. Owing to the comparatively small size of many industrial units in this country it is to be expected that in such smaller units only services in the first category-process control and trouble shooting- could be afforded at present by individual firms. We have noted a two- fold increase in the number of chemists employed in industry over the last 10 years and I should think it likely that most of these are employed in this way.However if we were to be content with this state of affairs we should be ignoring the means of future progress. How then can industry benefit from the second and third kinds of service which the chemist can give- development and research? I think one answer is by co-operative research. You will remember that towards the end of the First World War the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research was established in the United Kingdom and that one of its functions was to foster research in industry on a co-operative basis between groups of industry and the State. The Government at that time voted l1 million to provide for the setting up of research associations in a number of industries.From that beginning 36 important industries now have research associations with a total annual income of L1.7 million and most of these receive grants through the D.S.I.R. The value of such co-operative research for our own industrial progress was perceived when the D.S.I.R. was established in this country in 1927 and since that time research associations have been formed for the primary industries-dairy wheat tobacco hops and for manufacturing industries- leather and footwear woollens and pottery. Two others-for the laundry industry and for the fertiliser industry-are in process of formation. It will be noted that all these involve the services of the chemist. Until recently the direct scientific assistance which the manufacturing industries have had from the Government has been mostly through research associations.Now however the policy of Government assistance has been widened by making as far as possible the services and resources of the various branches of the D.S.I.R. available to industry. This means that the Dominion Laboratory now undertakes where possible work for industry in addition to its primary functions of service for Government Departments and research on projects of national interest. It must be made clear that in its work for industry the D.S.I.R. does not wish to usurp the functions of the private consultant. Work which can be done by consultants and work of a routine or control nature is not normally r 358 1 undertaken by the Dominion Laboratory.Some such work has at times to be performed when there is no one else to do it but it is considered that control work should be done by the manufacturers themselves or arrangements be made by say a group of firms to support a chemist of their own. I am of the opinion that the use of the permanent services of the D.S.I.R. for direct work for industry should be regarded as only a stage in the development of the application of science to industry and should be regarded chiefly as a means of encouraging industry to employ its own scientific staff either individually or co-op era tivel y . Most of us realise that to be of maximum use to any industry the chemist must actually be in the industry itself.He must not only be able to deal with specific chemical jobs as they arise but he must also be acquainted with the whole technology of the industry and many other aspects besides. Never-theless I think it only fair to state that on numerous occasions valuable assistance has been given to industries by the laboratories of the D.S.I.R. at a cost which is very small compared with the continuing benefits received by such industries. The research association has I think proved most successful in this country. It must be admitted that early in the establishment of some there was scepticism in the minds of manufacturers as to their usefulness but it has been most encouraging to see how enthusiastic members of associa- tions become after they have been working together for some time.If anyone is still sceptical I would recommend him to talk things over with a member of one of the associations which has been established a few years. To my mind one of the great advantages of the research association lies in its independence. An association of this kind while receiving Government assistance virtually belongs to the industry concerned and its work is directed by the industry for its own good. Until recently research associations have been operated within the organisation of the D.S.I.R. with the freedom of management just mentioned. Now however it is possible to extend this freedom by making them incorporated bodies with power to engage staff accumulate finance fix salaries and do other things which would be difficult within the Public Service organisation.In addition to having their own laboratories research associations have all the resources of the D.S.I. R. available to them. It may be considered that some groups of industries are as yet too small to have chemists in their own works or to support a research association. In such circumstances there is still another way in which groups of industries of this kind may avail themselves of the services of science. Recently consideration has been given to the possibility of a group of industries main- taining a research worker in one or other of the laboratories of the D.S.I.R. to work on some common problems of the industry concerned. Such a scheme has not yet been worked out and I do not know if it would be possible but I know that one or two industries have been considering the idea although they have not so far made formal approaches to the D.S.I.R.An idea such as this might well be considered by our University Colleges. So far I have talked a good deal about the D.S.I.R. and its part in industrial research but I have no doubt that the University can exert a very important influence in the scientific development of industry in this country. I cannot speak for those in the University but I feel they would agree with me when I state that the university should guard against becoming in any sense a technological institution. To my mind the functions of the university are education and research and I mean these words to be inter- preted in their widest sense.While I realise that the university must have the utmost freedom in the choice of its research work and while I do not think that it should be concerned with the day-to-day problems of applied c 359 1 science might I suggest that there is a very wide field for investigation which is connected with our industrial development and that some of the more fundamental problems are worthy of the attention of the best research minds which we have in this country? Close relations between industry and universities have yielded very fruitful results overseas and we have some good examples of such collaboration in the relations which exist between the Dairy Research Institute and Massey College and between the Woollen Mills Research Association and the University of Otago.It seems to me that to the research worker in the university who is extending the frontiers of pure science the added knowledge that he is also taking a share in the progress of his own country must give an increased satisfaction COST OF RESEARCH. I suppose the standard by which any industrial undertaking must be judged is whether or not it will pay and as industrial research cannot be carried on for nothing it is natural that those who are responsible for the business and financial side of industry should need some evidence of the value of scientific research. Industry is becoming less and less dependent on the individual skill and labours of the craftsman and advances in technology as a result of scientific research have provided new tools for production.The tendency to regard these new tools as sufficient in themselves must be guarded against and the attitude of the craftsman must still be preserved in their use. Just as these tools have sprung from advances in scientific knowledge so their effective use depends on the continued application of such knowledge. Whether it is always realised by those engaged in industry or not it is I think true to say that the methods of most modern industry are founded on scientific research in some way or other and unless scientific research is carried on continuously there is a very great risk of reaching a state of technological bankruptcy. There has been a renewed appreciation of this fact in Great Britain where industry is now spending a sum of the order of L30 millions a year on research within its own establishments equivalent to about 2/3rds of 1 per cent.of the annual value of British manufacture. The extent of the awakening to the value of research can be gauged when this figure is compared with the pre-war expenditure on research which in 1938 was just under L5+ millions. I have no means of estimating what the corresponding figures are in this country. I can only guess that the amount spent on research here is very much smaller in proportion. It might be argued that with huge sums being spent overseas there should be no need to spend money here as all the results can be used here. Most people now realise however that we have our own peculiar industrial condi- tions and while we have available much of the results of research overseas these cannot be made use of effectively unless scientific staff is employed in or by industry in this country.It may be interesting to quote an example of the cost of operating a research association in this country. The total income of the Association I have in mind is at present itj3,000 half of which is subscribed by industry and half by the Government. The subscriptions of member firms range from about k75 to L500 per annum depending on their size. These subscriptions do not by any means represent all the expenditure of these firms on research or scientific work since a number of them maintain their own staffs of chemists. And here it should be stated that the industries which will receive the most benefit from the research work being done will in the long run be those with scientific staffs of their own.[ 360 3 Expenditure on such a scale as I have quoted represents only a beginning and I feel sure that those who have embarked on such an enterprise will wish to spend more and more as the years go by. However the example given does indicate the modest scale of the expenditure required for one industry to get going with an effective programme of research. There must be few worth-while industries which could not afford expenditure on such a modest scale. We have reviewed very briefly the ways in which the chemist can serve industry the scientific resources available for the assistance of industry in this country and the parts to be played by chemists in industry in the University and in the D.S.I.R.It might be gathered from what has been said that the responsibility now rested on the manufacturer to use these resources for the improvement of industry for the good of himself and of the country generally. If I have created such an impression I must hasten to remove it. At the present time and for some years ahead the responsibility for the application of chemistry in industry is perhaps rather more that of the chemist than of the manufacturer. The industrialist is responsible for the organisation of industry for the pro- duction of goods for transport and for the buying and selling. He may realise in a general way how much modern industry owes to chemical science but may not be aware that in his industry there is anything for the chemist to do.He will appreciate at once that a chemist is needed in making sulphuric acid but may find it hard to understand that a chemist should assist in making sponge-cake. It is not his job to know chemistry. That is the job of the chemist and it is also the job of the chemist to make it plain to the manu- facturer how he can use the services of chemistry. I have no fears about the chemist’s ability to do the first part of his job but I cannot feel so confident about the second part. I am concerned about the apparent inability of many chemists to com- municate their thoughts and ideas or even to write plain straightforward English. I say “apparent inability” because I cannot believe that chemists are really incapable of writing decently.The trouble seems to lie in the fact that many of us are more interested in doing things than in writing or talking about the things we have done; but apart from the fact that to write well is worth doing for its own sake it is surely worth while that we should try to make the meaning of our work plain to all educated people. Professor R. S. Hutton says in a recent number of the new journal Research “The art of communicating abstruse matters in an understandable way seldom if ever attains success without much hard work and practice. Even T. H. Huxley who is famous for the lucid style in which he wrote and lectured was in his earlier years very weak in his power of expression.It is reported that he appreciated this handicap and set himself deliberately to overcome it. He often wrote his essays six times before he was satisfied. .” I once knew a university lecturer who told his students that they could expect to get no marks in their class problems if they made mistakes in arithmetic no matter how well they had grasped the principles involved. His attitude was of course that they were expected to have learned to calculate accurately before coming to the university and that a man who did not think it worth-while to check his calculations could hardly been entrusted with important work later on no matter how much scientific knowledge he might possess. Does not the same principle apply in writing? Perhaps the universities can do something to help although the appreciation of clear expression should have been formed by the student long before he has reached the university stage.It is often said that the chemist’s place is at his bench and this is certainly r 361 1 the best place to do chemistry. If however the chemist is to play his proper part in the progress of industry he must be prepared to assume wider responsi- bilities and from time to time come out of his laboratory and tell others what he is doing. The work of the chemist must be judged by educated people outside his profession by the way in which he communicates his ideas and makes plain the results of his work. SUMMARIES OF LECTURES THE MINISTRY OF LABOUR AND THE CHEMICAL PROFESSION By Professor W.WARDLAW, C.B.E. DSc. F.R.I.C. [London and South-Eastern Counties Section 19 January 19491 The origins of the Technical and Scientific Branch of the Ministry of Labour go back owing to considerable foresight on the part of the authorities to early 1939 when a professional committee of 28 representing inter alia chemists and other scientists was set up to conserve scientific man-power in the event of an emergency; a Chemical Sub-committee under the Chairman- ship of the late Professor J. C. Philip was formed. In 1940 voluntary registration of chemists physicists and other scientists was commenced and the Royal Institute of Chemistry gave valuable assistance for chemists; a first pool of some 5,000 chemists was thus obtained. In 1941 the Government set up an Inter-Departmental “Technical Personnel Committee,” under the Chairmanship of Lord Hankey and in view of the possibility of hostilities being prolonged an assessment of the pool of scientists was made and practical encouragement for example by way of bursaries was given to younger men.In 1941-42 the question of de-reservation of scientific man-power arose and this was referred to the Central Register authorities who had been re- sponsible for the registration of scientific man-power. The Joint Recruiting Boards on which were represented the Services the Universities and the Ministry of Labour of which the Central Register was a part were set up before the outbreak of the 1939 war and were con- cerned with the deferment of young scientists and their allocation to the Forces or civilian employment.There is some evidence that the American authorities whose deferment policy relating to scientists was very rigid (in fact scientific deferments in the United States were the exception rather than the rule) recognised that the alleged “lavish” deferment policy in this country had been completely justified. In the post-war period the Ministry of Labour through its Technical and Scientific Branch has a number of important functions. In particular it is available to give help and advice to qualified scientists who wish to avail themselves of its assistance. It is especially concerned to be helpful to ex-Service men who will leave the Universities and Technical Colleges during the immediate post-war years.In association with Lord Hankey’s Technical Personnel Committee the Technical and Scientific Branch of the Ministry of Labour is holding an enquiry into the supply and demand position so far as it affects professional chemists and in the near future a Report should be available on this important subject. It is hoped that this publication will be read widely by chemists and potential chemists. [ 362 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF HOT STARS By Professor F. J. M. STRATTON, O.B.E. D.S.O. D.L. [London and South-Eastern Counties Section and the London Branch Institute of Physics 16 March 19491 It was to the chemists that we looked at first for the identification of the absorption lines in the reversing layers of the atmospheres of the sun and stars and it was Professor Miller of King's College London who collaborated with Mr.Huggins (later Sir William Huggins P.R.S.) in his early visual observation and identification of the lines of stellar spectra. After the photo- graphy of the Balmer series of hydrogen by Huggins the next landmark was the identification of the lines of helium in the late nineties 30 years after the line D had been found in the sun by Norman Lockyer. The Pickering series occurring in some of the hotter stars were found by Fowler in 1913 in a tube containing hydrogen and helium and ultimately in the light of Bohr's theory identified by him as due to ionised helium. (The stellar line 4686 of He+ had been obtained in the laboratory in a helium tube by C.P. Butler in 1909). Gradually the enhanced lines of the elements so-called by Lockyer and A. Fowler because they were strengthened in the spark spectrum compared with the arc spectrum were recognised as due to atoms in various stages of ionisation the old symbols p.Fe p.Ti etc. standing for proto-iron proto- titanium gave place to Fe+ Ti+ or Fe++ Ti++ etc. It was the work largely of Alfred Fowler to recognise by the use of the condensed spark the successive stages of ionisation found for silicon nitrogen oxygen and carbon in the hotter stars. Saha's transformation of Nernst's equation in physical chemistry C$A+B-U to the form Ca + Caf + e -U led to an equation connecting the degree to which a gas was ionised with its temperature and pressure; in the hands of R.H. Fowler and Milne this led to the determination of the ionisation temperatures of the reversing layers of the stars of different spectral classes. This work in its turn played a part in the study of the abundance of elements in the stars and in particular to the recognition of the high preponderance of hydrogen in stellar atmospheres. Much higher temperatures were subsequently found for the central stars of planetary nebulae when Bowen identified the lines of the unidentified nebular spectra as forbidden lines of O++ excited by radiation from the central star. Temperatures up to 50,000" K. were found for such stars while similar evidence for novae in their later stages indicated temperatures running up to 90,000' K. as shown by the emission of the lines of N+++f in ,the gaseous envelopes.Another important celestial spectrum still defying the chemist's identi- fication is that of the super-nova which may be 300,000,000 times as bright as the sun and shows a spectrum of broad bright bands which slowly shift to the red :there is a very puzzling weakness in the ultra-violet region of the spectrum. When next a super-nova appears in our galaxy we shall need the help of the chemist the physicist and the radio-astronomer to elucidate the complex phenomena that it will offer for our understanding. r 363 1 THE CHEMISTRY OF SEMI-CONDUCTING SOLIDS By J. S. ANDERSON, Ph.D. A.R.C.S. D.I.C. [London and South-Eastern Counties Section at Mitcham Junction 24 March 19491 Semi-conductors are solids which exhibit electronic conductivity increasing exponentially with temperature.They are of interest to chemists because semi-conductivity as shown by compounds such as the oxides and sulphides of the heavy metals depends on minute departures from ideal composition and is highly sensitive to changes in the equilibria affecting these imperfections. The Physical Background of Semi-conductivity Typical "impurity " semi-conductors owe their conductivity to easily ionised impurity centres or impurity centres acting as electron traps (and leaving mobile positive holes). These impurities are most generally an excess of one component of a compound. The relation between conductivity and the equilibrium of a crystal with its environment can be related to the thermo-dynamics of the real crystal.Wagner (1933-39) developed this viewpoint and substantiated it with a limited range of evidence. Whilst for some rather simple cases (e.g. elements such as Ge) the modern theory seems satisfactory the subject as a whole shows some quite unexplained anomalies. One such is the temperature-dependence of the thermo-electric effect of some impurity semi-conductors (e.g. SnS Cu,O). Another problem concerns the relative r6le of surface and bulk-phase processes in the creation of conducting centres. Reactions creating impurities take place initially and instantaneously at the surface. It is not clear whether the observed conductivity and properties of such substances as ZnO or PbS are determined solely by the surface layers of the particles and by intercrystalline contacts the interior of each particle being either effectively non-conducting or else quasi-metallic.Where as in Cu,O there is a chemically detectable range of composition one might find both surface and bulk conduction as dis-tinguishable processes. Comparison of compact macrocrystalline specimens with thin films leaves this uncertain. The R61e of Semi-conductors in Chemistry The importance of surface atom layers and of intergranular contacts in semi-conductor systems makes them very sensitive indicators of chemical reactions which occur on the surface of a crystal and change the surface composition. Such reactions include reduction and roasting processes and heterogeneous catalysis.Reactions which have been observed and studied include the reduction of metal sulphide surfaces containing an excess of sulphur (SnS and PbS) with consequent diminution in conductivity. On exposure to oxygen the I' resulting clean " sulphide surface chemisorbs oxygen and its conductivity is restored. At slightly elevated temperatures the decay of conductivity reveals another reaction-oxidation of the sulphide surface. Similar results have recently been described by Garner and Gray for the chemisorption of oxygen and of carbon monoxide on cuprous oxide. In this case the catalysed oxidation of carbon monoxide can be followed. A model for typical oxidation and reduction processes can be based on these observations. [ 364 1 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGICAL RESEARCH By T.G. PEARSON, Ph.D. D.Sc. F.R.I.C. [East Midlands Section at Nottingham 31 March 19491 Metallurgy is a technology involving the principles and techniques of a number of basic sciences and in particular mathematics physics and chemistry. In each aspect of metallurgy the factual content is particularly concerned with the extraction and behaviour of metals but the underlying principles used to classify the facts and the techniques used to investigate the phenomena are those of mathematics physics and chemistry. The research school of metallurgy is therefore at its healthiest when its members include individuals who are mathematicians physicists and chemists by training but metallurgists by inclination or adoption.This is not to say that the specialist trained metallurgist does not also find his place in the team. The particular advantages conferred by his training are however perhaps most useful in the actual technological applications of metallurgy rather than in the discovery of new metallurgical knowledge. The metallurgist with pre-graduate training in the rigid discipline of one of the more basic sciences and with post-graduate specialised training in metallurgy is just as likely to be well equipped as a research worker as the man whose entire training has been based on a less thorough study of the wide range of sciences touching the study of metals. Physical chemistry is no more a self-contained branch of science than is metallurgy but a man can not be regarded as a trained physical chemist unless he has assimilated the essential aspects of physics and chemistry as a whole.In addition physical chemistry has this to be said for it that it provides both the theoretical and practical background necessary for think- ing and working quantitatively with substances and it is this quantitative aspect combined with its peculiar chemical content both theoretical and practical which is the basis of its especial usefulness as a background for the pursuit of research in any field involving the study of the transformation of matter of which metallurgy is a particular example. This is illustrated by a few of the contributions made to the development of aluminium metallurgy by physico-chemical techniques. A study of the fundamentals underlying the Bayer process involved precise physical measure- ments on caustic soda and sodium aluminate solutions and the interpretation of the results using the principles of kinetics thermodynamics and the theory of strong electrolytes.A study of equilibria occurring in molten salts and of the electrochemistry of the processes occurring at the electrodes has led to a considerably clarification of the processes underlying the operation of the aluminium reduction furnace (Trans. Faraday SOL,1947 No. 1 307). The application of the elegant vacuum gas analytical techniques developed by C. E. Ransley and his co-workers has shed considerable light on the inter- actions between aluminium gases such as hydrogen and alloying additions and impurities in the aluminium (e.g.C. E. Ransley The Analyst 1947 72 504; C. E. Ransley and H. Neufeld J. Inst. Met. 1948 74 599). In the analytical field an essential aspect of almost all metallurgical research purely physico-chemical techniques are now predominant in routine analysis and are being more and more used for special purposes in the more difficult analyses often involved in metallurgical investigatory work. Thus in determining traces of sodium in aluminium and its alloys it has been found that the best preliminary separation of the sodium is achieved by distillation in a high vacuum. In spectrographic analysis the development of a reproducible spark source for the special applications of the aluminium industry was the joint effort of a physical chemist and a physicist working in close collaboration (C.Braudo and H. R. Clayton J. SOC.Chem. Ind. 1947 66 259). [ 365 1 PROCEEDINGS OF THE COUNCIL Council Meeting 17 June Constitutional and Administrative Matters.-It was learned that all but three of the members invited at the previous meeting to serve on Committees and Joint Committees had accepted. The list as amended was approved for publication in JOURNAL AND PRO-CEEDINGS (%? Part 111 P. 237). Approval was given to the Rules of the South-Western Counties Section which had been prepared by the Officers of the Section and accepted by the Inaugural General Meeting. Provisional approval was given to draft Rules prepared by the Organising Committee of the proposed new Dundee and District Section subject to these Rules being adopted by the Inaugural Meeting of the Section to be held in the autumn.On the under- standing that the proposed title of the Section would be acceptable to members in the area it was agreed that this title be adopted. Recommendations by the Cape Section were accepted for amending Section Rules 1 and 6 referring respectively to the title of the Section and the responsibility for the handling of its funds. A proposal by the Committee of the Dublin and District Section on joint administrative arrangements for printing and circulating notices of meetings of the Section and of cognate bodies in Eire was approved in principle. It was agreed that if such a scheme became operative the Section would be allowed to claim reasonable expenses outside the ordinary annual grant for its share of the printing costs.A cordial invitation was received from the Glasgow and West of Scotland Section for the Annual General Meeting of the Institute to be held in Glasgow in 1950 with a suggestion that the meeting should take place on 31 March 1950 so as to follow immediately after the Annual General Meeting of the Chemical Society in Edinburgh on 30 March. Subject to confirmation that it would be possible for the financial statements to be prepared in time it was agreed that the invitation of the Glasgow and West of Scotland Section be gratefully accepted. [Note.-An assurance on this point has since been received and acceptance of the invitation has therefore been confirmed.] A letter was received from the Committee of the London and South-Eastern Counties Section suggesting that in circulating particulars of candidates for election as General Members of Council information be given in respect of retiring members eligible for re-election on the number of their attendances at Council meetings and their membership of Council Committees.In the opinion of the Committee the provision of such information would materially c 366 1 assist members of the Institute in deciding which candidates would best serve their interests and the interests of the Institute. It was recalled that in considering a similar proposal in connec- tion with revision of its constitution the Council had already agreed that reporting merely the number of attendances of Members of Council at Council meetings was likely to be misleading as the number of such attendances gave an incomplete indication of the services rendered by Members of Council.Moreover it was recog- nised that if the proposals now under consideration for the amend- ment of the constitution of the Council were approved this question would not arise as each General Member of Council would be elected for a period of three years and would thereafter not be eligible for re-election until after the lapse of one year. It was agreed therefore that no action be taken on the suggestion to report attendances at Council meetings. Finance House and Staff Matters.-The Report of the Finance and House Committee (13 June) covered a wide range of subjects including expenses of the Anniversary Meetings 1949; legal expenses in connection with the new Royal Charter; the Institute’s share in the cost of maintenance of the Chemical Society’s Library; insurance of the new Presidential Badge of Office; estimate of income and expenditure for 1949; a recommendation for amending the scale of Examiners’ fees for practical examinations; revision of the accommodation charges for the Associateship Examination by the Royal Technical College Glasgow ; recommendations for the reinstatement and the re-election of members; a recommendation for the purchase of additional office equipment.On the recommendation of the Committee it was agreed to appoint Mr. and Mrs. Street as resident housekeepers with effect from 4 July 1949 and it was unanimously resolved to eApress to Miss Cawston Principal Assistant Secretary the cordial thanks of the Council for the heavy additional work which she had under- taken in maintaining the operation of the canteen service since the resignation of the previous housekeepers in April.The Report was then adopted. Charitable Funds.-A Report was received that the Residential Clubs Fund at its first meeting (27 May) had given attention to the form of an appeal for financial support of the Fund to be issued as soon as possible to all members. It had been agreed that consideration of applications for residence in the first of the Clubs established under “Crossways Trust” be deferred until a notice had appeared in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS (see 111 249) calling attention to the fact that three places in this Club had been allotted to the Fund.c 367 1 The Report of the Benevolent Fund Committee (13 June) was adopted. The Report dealt inter alia with Accounts for the period 1 January to 31 May 1949; current cases; holidays for children. The Committee drew attention to the notable decrease in the income of the Fund in the first five months of the year in comparison with the corresponding period in 1948 and the Council expressed the hope that all members would endeavour to provide such additional support as they could to this worthy cause. The circumstances of six current cases were reviewed and it was agreed to continue the help which had been given during the past few years to a widow aged 85 and to a Fellow aged 52 suffering from disseminated sclerosis.A further loan to cover emergency hospital expenses was made to a Fellow who had suffered a recurrence of an illness. The grant of El2 per month paid since March 1948 to a widow with two young children was increased to f14 per week in view of the decrease in her receipts from other sources. It was agreed that there was no longer need to continue a temporary grant to the wife of an Associate who had had a nervous breakdown in 1948 but had now recovered sufficiently to take a full-time appointment. The Committee reported that of k3,509granted as loans during the whole period of existence of the Benevolent Fund kZ,196 had been repaid k743 written off or converted into grants leaving f1570 outstanding.As a result of recent appeals substantial repayments had been made during the last few months and promises of further sums had been received. The thanks of the Committee had been accorded to the Committee of the London and South-Eastern Counties Section for a contribution of k21 9s. 9d. representing a profit made at a recent dance held by the Section in aid of the Fund. A further sum of f16 3s. 8d. was received through Messrs. W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. as royalties on the sales of the American edition of What Industry Owes to Chemical Science. The Committee had agreed to continue the scheme of holidays for children of regular beneficiaries on the same lines as were adopted in the last few years.Mernbershi p.-The Report of the Nominations Examinations and Institutions Committee of 20 May with subsidiary Reports by the Chairman of the Committee and by the Registrar were adopted and elections to the Fellowship and Associateship were made in accordance with the recommendations. On an Interim Report of the N. E. & I. Committee (17 June) it was agreed that registration of students at Birkenhead Technical [ 368 1 College be accepted and that training at that College be accepted in respect of the first two years of part-time study. The congratulations of the Council were ordered to be conveyed to members whose names appeared in the Birthday Honours List (see Part 111 p. 270). The President referred particularly to the satisfaction felt by all chemists at the conferment of the Order of Merit on Sir Robert Robinson President of the Royal Society.He also expressed the congratulations of the Officers and Council to Mr. R. L. Collett Registrar on his appointment as a Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. It was reported that lists had been prepared of present members of the Institute who had been elected prior to 1918 and it was agreed that the congratulations of the Council be sent to the following members who had completed 60 or more years of membership:-Leonard Dobbin elected in 1880; E. F. Herroun E. E. Johnson T. B. Marriott A. J. Spiller R. T. Thomson Thomas Turner Rowland Williams and W. P. Wynne elected in 1887; S.H. Collins A. J. De Hailes Walter Hogben E. E. H. Thorne H. B. Weeks and E. A. Werner elected in 1888. The Council then devoted considerable time to the discussion of proposals submitted by the Membership Committee for raising the status of the Institute’s qualifications. It was agreed that further consideration be given at the next meeting of the Council to these far-reaching proposals of the Committee. Status Privileges and Employment of Mem bers.-A statement was received on further consultations with officials of the Ministry of Fuel and Power on the position of part-time Gas Examiners following nationalisation of the industry. Publications Library and other Educational and Scientific Matters.-The Report of the Publications and Library Committee (2 June) which was adopted dealt inter alia with Lectures Monographs and Reports; books received for review; acceptance of a proposal by the Royal Society whereby lectures and monographs would in future be accompanied by a synopsis of their contents; the preparation of JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, Part 111.External Relations and Pu b1icity.-Consideration was given to a letter from the Hon. Secretary of the Chemical Council setting forth proposals by the Committee of Enquiry on Publicity for British Chemistry and inviting the co-operation of the Institute. It was agreed to join with other chemical bodies in providing the Chemical Council with information which might facilitate the preparation of articles on chemical topics in- a form suitable for publication in the weekly and daily press.It was also agreed to accept an invitation from the Chemical Council for the Institute c 369 1 to act as a centre to direct enquiries from editors to appropriate experts on the understanding that such enquiries should be made wherever possible in writing and that members of the Institute should not be troubled by telephone enquiries in connection with items of “hot news.’’ The Council was of opinion that the publica- tion of articles on chemical topics in some of the more prominent of the weekly papers should serve a useful purpose in educating the public and in keeping them informed about developments in chemistry and welcomed the steps which the Chemical Council proposed to take to this end.It was recognised however that in any such scheme it would be necessary to establish a closer under- standing with editors so that the help which could be given by scientists might be used in the best way for the benefit of science and the community. ACTIVITIES OF LOCAL SECTIONS Birmingham and Midlands.-On 22 April at a Joint Meeting with the Midland Metallurgical Societies a lecture was delivered by Dr. W. H. J. Vernon O.B.E. entitled “Metallic Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention.” An audience of some 250 people listened to Dr. Vernon and a lively discussion followed. Mr. W. E. Ballard occupied the Chair and the vote of thanks to the lecturer was proposed by Dr. S. H. Jenkins. A visit to the British Thomson-Houston Co. Ltd.at Rugby took place on 15 June. About 40 members and friends from Birmingham and Coventry inspected the Lamp works the Laboratories and the Luminescence Section and at the conclusion of the tour enjoyed the hospitality of the Directors. The party then proceded to the College of Technology and Art where they were received by the Principal Mr. W. Cooper. After an inspection of the college laboratories a Section meeting was held and Mr. R. Snadow delivered a lecture on “Silicones” to an audience of about 80 persons. Mr. George King proposed a vote of thanks to the lecturer and reference was made to the efficient demonstrations which accompanied a lecture of outstanding merit. This was the first time a Section meeting had been held in Rugby and it proved a happy occasion for all concerned.Mention should be made of Dr. J. S. Wignall’s cordial co-operation in the arrangements made. Bristol and District.-On 25 June members of the Chemical Society the Institute and the Society of Chemical Industry visited the University of Bristol Fruit and Vegetable Preservation Research Station at Campden Gloucestershire. The main party of members and friends travelled by coach from Bristol and were joined by others at the Research Station where they were welcomed by Mr. F. Hirst Director Mr. W. B. Adam and Dr. Gillespy. The visitors were divided into three groups which were in turn shown the various laboratories and experimental canning plant. Mr. Hirst gave an account of the practical side of canning and the developments which had taken place in recent years in canning machinery.Mr. Adam explained the general work of the Research Station and referred especially to the statistical methods of Quality Control which were used to assess the sterility and quality of manufacturers’ products. Dr. Gillespy gave details of the bacteriological problems which arise and emphasised the necessity of determining the r 370 1 minimum time and temperature conditions for each type of can in order to obtain sterility without overcooking. After the tour of the Station the party took lunch at the King’s Arms Campden and at the end of the luncheon Mr. Adam gave a short talk on the history of the town of Campden and offered to conduct the party over the church in the early afternoon.This was very much appreciated. Mr. Lewis Chairman of Bristol Section of the Institute proposed a vote of thanks to the staff of the Research Station and to Mr. Adam particularly for the additional trouble he had taken to give the party an insight into the antiquities of the town. Later the coach party returned via Painswick where tea was taken and the Stroud valley. East Anglia.-Note.-The text of the paper on “The Analytical Charac- terisation of Alkyd Resins,” by Dr. N. W. Hanson read before the Section on 17 December 1948 has been published in the Journal of the Oil and Colour Chemists’ Association 1949 32 137. Glasgow and West of Scotland.-The joint summer meeting of members of the Royal Institute of Chemistry The Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry was held in Glasgow on 13 and 14 May 1949.A Dinner was held in the Royal Technical College on 13 May at 6 p.m. This was preceded by an informal reception in the Staff Common Room of the College where the guests were received by Professor W. M. Cumming O.B.E. and Mrs. Cumming. About 60 persons were present at dinner including Mr. C. A. and Mrs. Oakley Professor W. M. and Mrs. Cumming Professor J. M. and Mrs. Robert- son and Mr. A. R. Jamieson. At the conclusion of the dinner the guests adjourned to a lecture room where as Chairman of the meeting Professor Cumming voiced the regret of all at the death of Mr. J. G. Hawley County Analyst Dumfries. He then called on Mr. Oakley Scottish Regional Officer of the Board of Trade to deliver his address on “Scotland’s Industrial Future.” Mr.Oakley discussed Scotland’s industrial future in the light of her industrial past. He traced the industrial development of Glasgow Edinburgh Dundee and Aberdeen and showed how the centre of industry had in the past moved to the West Coast. The industrial estate was an important factor in future development. There was a growing resistance to the Government policy of attracting firms into the development areas. A number of American firms however had opened branch factories in the areas and thus an American depression might have some influence on Scotland’s future. Mr. Oakley felt that the centre of Scottish industry was destined to move East towards the Fife coalfields and Edinburgh.After a vigorous discussion Professor Cumming moved a vote of thanks to the speaker. This was heartily accorded. On the morning of 14 May the party travelled by train and steamer to Millport to visit the Marine Biological Station where they were welcomed by the Director Mr. Ford and were then allowed to wander at will through the Station inspecting the various exhibits and demonstrations on view including various types of sea weeds copepods and other sea animalculae shown under the microscope exampIes of the various devices for sampling and recording the temperature of sea-water at depth a paravane-like device for taking samples of plankton and a depth recorder. The aquarium of the Station proved an attraction. A buffet tea was served in the Library after which Dr.I. V. Hopper on behalf of those present wished Professor Cumming success in his new venture in chemical industry as technical director to the British Dyewood Co. Glasgow. Professor Cumming thanked the assembly for their wishes c 371 1 and moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Ford Dr. Orr Dr. Marshall Dr. Barnes and the other members of the Marine Section for the pains they had taken in producing such an interesting exhibition. He also thanked the Joint Sub-committee who had organised the outing. The party returned to Glasgow by steamer. During the month of June three Works Visits were arranged for the members of this Section. At each visit about 25 members were present. The first on 7 June was to the British Silk Dyeing Co.Ltd. Balloch where members saw the various processes involved in the cr6ping and dyeing of silks rayons and other kindred materials. This was an unusual but extremely interesting visit. The second visit was on 16 June to the Glasgow Corporation Provan Chemical Works. Here the by-products of the city’s gas works are processed and refined and the various unit processes which were inspected were of interest to all concerned. Lastly on 29 June a party visited the Tanneries of Messrs. W. & J. Martin & Co. Ltd. Bridgeton Glasgow at which members were shown the processes involved in the preparation of varieties of leather from the preparatory soaking and liming through the chrome tanning to the drying and finishing of the product. At the close of the visit the members were invited to afternoon tea by the Directors.The Section is greatly indebted to the courtesy and co-operation of the firms concerned who helped to make the visits of practical value and interest. London and South-Eastern Counties.-The Summer Programme of the London and South-Eastern Counties Section offered a very generous bill of fare in the shape of works visits; all shades of interest seem to be covered. For those interested in pharmaceuticals there were two visits to Burroughs Wellcome and Co. Ltd. Dartford Kent and a visit to Pharmaceutical Specialities (May and Baker) Ltd. Dagenham Essex. In the field of so-called “heavy industry” there were visits to British Oxygen Co. Ltd. Cricklewood Bevans Cement Works Northfleet Kent R.and A. Kohnstamn Ltd. Randak Tannery Beckenham Kent and possibly one of the most interesting Stewart and Lloyds Ltd. Steel Works Corby Northants. A visit of a rather different character was that to the works of Kodak Ltd. Harrow. The function of the chemist in public utility undertakings was not forgotten and was adequately demonstrated in the visit to the West Middlesex Main Drainage Works at Mogden Isleworth. A function of a different kind but none-the-less successful was the Golf Meeting at the South Herts. Golf Club. The contest took place for the Govern- ment Laboratory Challenge Cup and the whole afternoon proved a very pleasant social function. Manchester and District.-The Annual Ladies Evening was held on 27 April at the Engineer’s Club Manchester.The theme of the meeting was “Colour in the Home,” and the programme included a popular lecture on this subject an exhibition emphasising the part that colour plays in everyday life and a Display of Films. The Chairman Dr. G. N. Burkhardt after welcoming the ladies present expressed the wish both of himself and of the Committee to present to the retiring Chairman Mr. S. R. Best some more concrete tribute than is usually accorded. This took the form of a book voucher and its recipient was both touched and gratified with this novel termination of office. Dr. Burkhardt then introduced the Lecturer Dr. Thomas Vickerstaff of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. In an easy informal and humourous way Dr. Vickerstaff succeeded in entertaining interesting and instructing the audience of over 200 and both his lecture and his apt illustrations by [ 372 1 means of colour charts lantern slides and lighting effects were greatly appreciated.After the lecture the members and their ladies were able to avail them- selves of a running buffet and to inspect the exhibitions which by the kindness of four Companies were on view. The Clayton Aniline Co. showed various dyeing processes as applied to skins leather and fabrics and a demonstration of dyeing by means of screen printing was ably given by Mr. J. L. Dunlop. The Geigy Co. Ltd. demonstrated the use of moth-proof dyes and attracted much interest with their exhibit of living and magnified specimens of the adult and larval forms of the clothes moth woolly bear and black carpet beetle.The Dunlop Rubber Co. showed a variety of colourful rubber articles- dolls water bottles toys shoes capes gloves etc.-with a special demon- stration of the dyeing of balloons. The I.C.I. exhibit under the supervision of Miss Tyrell showed the appli- cation of dyestuffs to aluminium and perspex ware. In addition there was a demonstration by Mr. Holmes of the selective dyeing of three types of fabric when dipped into a composite dyeing bath. The evening was rounded off in an interesting way with four films shown by the kindness of the Central Office of the Ministry of Information. South Wales.-On 11 March members of the Section participated in a meeting arranged by The Chemical Society and the University College of Swansea Chemical Society held at University College Swansea with Professor C.W. Shoppee presiding. Dr. G. M. Bennett C.B. F.R.S. The Government Chemist lectured on “The Function of Sulphuric Acid in Aromatic Nitration” (an account of the lecture has appeared in Chemistry and Industr-y 1949 pp. 235-237). A very successful meeting was held on 26 March at the Swansea Vale Works of the Natiqnal Smelting Company Ltd. a subsidiary of Imperial Smelting Corporation Ltd. by the kind invitation of the Works Manager Mr. G. P. Fenner. Members and their guests were entertained at lunch by the Works Manage ment and were then conducted on a short tour of the works. They then assembled with Mr. R. 0. Bishop M.B.E. presiding for a discussion on “The Training of Chemists for Industry.” Dr.W. G. Hiscock Imperial Smelting Corporation Ltd. in opening the discussion first outlined a specification for the type of man required in industry and then discussed his training which was divided into three stages school pre-graduation and post-graduation. For pre-graduation the training should be of a general nature rather than too specialised and this he thought was best achieved by direct entry into a University taking the normal Honours Chemistry course but with attendance at lectures and the attainment of certain standards in other subjects such as physics mathematics geology etc. with particular attention to the art of self-expression. Following graduation training within industry was desirable with a period of induction followed by vocational courses management training etc.(The full text of Dr. Hiscock’s address has been published in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1949 Part 111 pp. 191-9). Principal Sir Frederick Rees University College Cardiff emphasised the need to extend technical training particularly in rural areas where because of the lack of industrial outlook students tended to proceed to the professions rather than to seek an industrial career. The function of the secondary technical school was an important one. Even in the university there was r 373 1 sometimes a tendency for graduates to play for safety in seeking employment and it was necessary to introduce scientists to management ideas. Mr. R. B. Southall National Oil Refineries Ltd.stressed the need for careful selection and considered that two types of men were required the research type and the works chemist type. He thought that the first three years in industry should be regarded as a training period and that “training within industry” was performing a very useful function. Principal J. S. Fulton University College Swansea expressed the view that a university training should be as general as possible with science students learning something of the humanities and arts students gaining some knowledge of scientific ideas and methods. He described the experiment instituted at Swansea this session of requiring all freshmen to write a series of essays which were read and discussed with members of the staff. For liaison with industry he thought that industrialists should sell their wares and inform students of the various careers in industry which were open not only to scientists but also to all graduates.At the request of the Chairman Mr. T. B. Williams and Mr. Morris spoke of their experiences as graduates entering industry. After a brief reply by Dr. Hiscock Professor J. E. Coates proposed and Mr. E. Thornton seconded a vote of thanks to the speakers. Mr. R. 0. Bishop supported by Professor C. W. Shoppee then expressed the thanks of the meeting to the Management of the National Smelting Company for entertaining the members and visitors and to Mr. Fenner and his staff for making such excellent arrangements for the meeting. SubsequentIy those present were entertained at tea.The Thirty-first Annual General Meeting of the Section was held on 22 April at the Central Library Alexandra Road Swansea. Mr. R. 0. Bishop M.B.E. presided. The Annual Report and Financial Statement was received and adopted. In the Report special mention was made of the formation of the North Wales Section the holding of a meeting arranged primarily for teachers of chemistry and the discussion on “The Training of Chemists for Imdustry.” Officers and members of the Committee for the ensuing Session were elected as follows:-Chairman Mr. R. 0. Bishop M.B.E.; Hon. Secretary Mr. E. E. Ayling; Committee Professor C. W. Shoppee Dr. I. Jones Messrs. R. G Cox G. P. Fenner R. H. Jones and D. L. Phillips. Messrs. J. W. Adye and M. L. Hughes were re-elected as Hon.Auditors. Mr. Dudley Williams District Member of Council then gave an account of Council activities during the past year. He referred specially to the revision of the Charter and By-Laws particularly in relation to the proposed changes in the election and constitution of the Council the formation of new Sections and the issue of the Register. Mention was made of the work of various Committees such as the Membership Committee the Nominations Examinations and Institutions Committee the Publications Committee in AND PROCEEDINGS, relation to the development of the JOURNAL the Finance Committee and the Benevolent Fund Committee with reference to the question of Residential Clubs for Old People. After a discussion on points which had been raised the Chairman thanked Mr.Williams for his report. South-Western Counties.-The Inaugural Meeting of the Section was held at the Washington Singer Laboratories University College of the South- West Exeter on 14 May 1949. The meeting was preceded by a luncheon at the Rougemont Hotel at which the President and the Secretary of the Institute and Dr. T. Malkin the Chairman of the Bristol and District Section were entertained as guests of the Section; some 16 members of the Section acted as hosts. [ 374 I The Inaugural Meeting which was attended by about 20 members commenced at 2.30 p.m. with a business meeting at which the President of the Institute Professor J. W. Cook F.R.S. was invited to take the Chair. The President opened the meeting by wishing the new Section success but he hoped nevertheless that it would not grow too rapidly because any great expansion of membership in this area could result only from such an intrusion by industry that the natural beauties and amenities of the region might be impaired.Dr. H. J. T. Ellingham the Secretary of the Institute addressed the members on the functions of Local Sections and then offered the Rules which had been drawn up by a provisional committee to the members for their acceptance. The Rules were unanimously approved. After the President had declared the result of the postal ballot for the election of the Committee the following officers nominated by the Committee were elected unanimously :-Chairman Professor H. T.S. Britton; Vice-Chair- man Dr. L. H. N. Cooper; Hon. Secretary-Treasurer Dr. C. V. Reynolds. Professor Britton then took the chair and after thanking the President and the Secretary for their good offices declared the business meeting closed. The members adjourned to the lecture theatre where they were joined by a number of friends to hear the President deliver the Inaugural Lecture entitled “Chemical Activities in Chile.” In his address Professor Cook described the impressions that he gained during his visit last year to the Chemical Congress at Santiago. He stressed in particular that very little research in pure science was in progress in the Universities of Chile and that the greatest emphasis was on the application of chemistry to industry. His accounts of the country and of the living standards of the peasantry were particularly vivid and gave the audience an exceptionally clear idea of the prevailing social conditions in Chile.The meeting concluded with a few words of appreciation by Professor Britton followed by a vote of thanks to the President proposed by Dr. E. Vanstone and seconded by Dr. L. H. N. Cooper. After the meeting the officers and members of the Committee entertained the President and Dr. Ellingham at an informal tea at Deller’s Cafe. Cape of Good Hope.-The Twenty-fourth Annual General Meeting of the Section was held at the Athenaeum Newlands on 29 April 1949. Nineteen members of the Section were present. The following officers and committee members were elected for the year 1949-50:-Chairman Mr.A. L. Abbott; Hon. Secretary Dr. H. M. Schwartz; Hon. Treasurer Dr. R. G. Shuttleworth; Committee Members Dr. P. A. E. Kamerman Mr. H. W. Schirach and Dr. F. Sebba; Hon. Auditors Mr. F. E. A. Leibbrandt and Mr. W. H. Seath. After the formal business of the evening the Chairman Mr. Abbott addressed the meeting on “The Treatment of Industrial Wastes.’’ Members of the Section were invited to attend a meeting of the Western Province Section of South African Chemical Institute which was held in the Drawing Office of Cape Explosive Works Ltd. Somerset West on 29 March. Mr. H. J. R. Durr of the Division of Entomology spoke on “Insecticides -Past and Present.” Members of the Section were also invited to join an excursion arranged by the Cape Chemical and Technological Society to the factory of the National Portland Cement Co.at Philippi on 4 May. Many availed themselves of the opportunity and spent a very instructive afternoon going over the factory. New Zealand.-The 22nd Annual Meeting was held in the Council Room of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research on 14 March 1949 [ 375 J Mr. W. A. Joiner Chairman of the Section presiding. In the annual report it was noted that the Section membership was 90 (32 Fellows 58 Associates) an increase of 5. The Joint Annual Conference with the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry was held at Dunedin from 24 to 27 August 1948 and was attended by 151 members of the two Institutes. Mr. W. A. Joiner delivered the Presidential Address on “Chemistry and the Manufacturer” (see p.356). Twenty-three papers were presented in six symposia and there were a number of Discussion Groups. Visits were made to laboratories and industrial works there was an exhibition of apparatus and books and the Conference ended with a very successful dinner. The Joint Employment Register had issued 16 circulars. Of the vacancies advertised in New Zealand 33 were in industry 58 in Government Service and 19 in the University. Standard methods of analysis in use in various New Zealand laboratories had been under review since 1945 and sub-committees were still working on particular problems. The joint scheme for sending food parcels to Britain had been continued and letters of thanks had been received from the Institute and individual recipients.The following Officers and Committee for 1949-50 were elected Chairman Mr. F. J. T. Grigg (Wellington); Hon. Secretary-Treasurer Mr. N. H. Law (Wellington); Auditor Dr. J. K. Dixon (Wellington); Committee Mr. F. H. V. Fielder (Auckland) Dr. H. R. Whitehead (Palmerston North) Mr. G. A. Lawrence Mr. M. L. H. Stewart (Wellington) Dr. H. 0. Askew (Nelson) Dr. R. 0.Page (Christchurch) and Mr. D. H. Keys (Dunedin). Dr. Dixon was thanked for organising the food-parcels scheme. The meeting expressed thanks to Mr. W. A. Joiner for his services as Chairman for two years and to the retiring Secretary Mr. R. L. Andrew. NOTES PERSONAL Mr. G. E. Bessey Fellow Director of Research to the Research Council of the British Whiting Federation will direct the work at the laboratories recently established at Bedford.Dr. Donald Burton M.B.E. Fellow has been appointed Hon. Treasurer of the International Union of Leather Chemists’ Societies. Mr. A. Harvey Fellow is Hon. Secretary of the Union. Mr. A. S. Carson Associate has been appointed lecturer in inorganic and physical chemistry in the University of Leeds. Dr. G. H. Cheesman Fellow has been appointed Secretary of the Commis- sion on Inorganic Nomenclature of the International Union of Chemistry. Professor A. C. Chibnall F.R.S. Fellow is retiring from the Sir William Dunn chair of biochemistry in the University of Cambridge. Dr. R. Child Fellow has relinquished the post of director of the Coconut Research Scheme Ceylon which he has held since 1932.Mr. G. W. Douglas Fellow has been appointed Director of Research of the Australian T>eather Research Association. Mr. Harold Edwards Fellow has been elected Vice-president of the Liverpool Metallurgical Society. Professor Sir Alfred Egerton F.R.S. Fellow has been appointed Director of the Salters’ Institute of Industrial Chemistry in succession to the late Sir Robert Robertson F.R.S. Fellow. c 376 I Mr. E. A. Evans Fellow has been appointed a member of the Oil Consumers’ Council by the Minister of Fuel and Power. Professor C. S. Gibson O.B.E. F.R.S. Fellow has retired from the chair of chemistry at Guy’s Hospital Medical School which he has held since 1921. Dr. A. T. Green O.B.E.Fellow has received the degree of D.Sc. honoris causa of the University of Leeds in recognition of his services to the science of ceramics. Dr. G. A. D. Haslewood Fellow has been appointed to the University chair of biochemistry tenable at Guy’s Hospital Medical School University of London as from 1 October. Leverhulme Research Fellowships for 1949 have been awarded to Mr. S. H. Higgins Associate for the purpose of research into the history of the bleaching industry and to Mr. J. T. Kendall Associate to study electronic conduction in homopolar crystals. Mr. 11. R. C. Pratt Fellow. has accepted an appointment with the Ministry of Supply to lead a research group in the chemical engineering division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment Harwell.Dr. W. S. Rapson Fellow present Director of the National Chemical Research Laboratories of the C.S.I.R. in Pretoria has been appointed to the chair of organic chemistry at the University of Cape Town where he was formerly senior lecturer. Mr. T. F. E. Rhead Fellow has been appointed scientific adviser to the West Midlands Gas Board. Dr. G. Swann Fellow has been appointed research manager to Beck Koller and Co. (England) Ltd. at Speke near Liverpool. ROYAL AUSTRALIAN CHEMICAL INSTITUTE His Majesty the King has been graciously pleased to grant the use of the prefix “Royal” to the Australian Chemical Institute. The Council of the Royal Institute of Chemistry has expressed to the Royal Australian Chemical Institute congratulations and cordial good wishes on receiving this distinction.SCIENCE IN PARLIAMENT (26 April to 3 June 1949) Atmospheric Pollution.-On 2 June Mr. Shurmer asked the Minister of Health if in view of the inconvenience and deleterious effects on the health of residents in the central areas of Birmingham especially those who suffer from respiratory ailments by fumes from metallurigcal processes and excessive smoke from factory premises he will consider granting greater powers to the Corporation to deal with constant offenders by way of increased penalties. THE MINISTER OF HEALTH (Mr. Bevan) The maximum fines are fixed in Part 111 of the Public Health Act 1936. When the time comes for revision of public health legislation their adequacy will be considered. In reply to further questions by Mr.Longden MR. BEVAN said that the Annual Reports of the Chief Inspector of Alkali Works were a record of the steps constantly being taken to abate the nuisance. At the moment it was not intended to review the law on this matter. [1 377 1 National Research Development Corporation.-On 10 May Mr. Blackburn asked the President of the Board of Trade whether he has yet appointed the members of the National Research Development Corporation; and from what date the Corporation will commence to operate. THE PRESIDENT OF THE BOARDOF TRADE (Mr. H. Wilson) As 1 said in the answers I gave to questions on this subject on 14 March and 27 January we have had a good deal of difficulty in finding the right men to direct the unusual and difficult work which the Corporation will have to do and I am not yet in a position to announce the appointment of the Chairman or any member of the Board except the Managing Director.The Corporation cannot therefore yet come into existence since under the terms of the Act at least six Directors including the Chairman and the Managing Director must be appointed for it to do so. I am however glad to be able to announce that Lord Halsbury [Fellow] now Research Manager and Works Manager of Decca Record Co. Ltd. has accepted my invitation to become the Managing Director of the Corporation as soon as it can be set up. In order to assist me in handling the many problems involved I have in the meantime appointed Lord Halsbury as Adviser to the Board of Trade on matters connected with the Corporation.This appointment will date from 1 June and will continue until the Corporation is formally established. [It has since been announced that Sir Percy Mills K.B.E. has accepted the Chairmanship of the Corporation and that five other directors have been appointed:-Professor P. M. S. Blackett F.R.S. Sir John Duncanson Sir Edward Hodgson K.B.E. Mr. W. E. P. Johnson A.F.C. and Sir Edward de Stein. The Corporation came into formal existence on 28 June.] Patents and Designs Bill.-During the Report Stage of this Bill (30 May) an amendment was made designed to permit the payment of compensation where inventions were sterilised under the secrecy clauses of the Bill. There would be a statutory obligation on the competent authority to consider an ex gratia payment in such cases.Plant Disease (Fertilisers).-On 12 May Mr. Collins asked the Minister of Agriculture if he will appoint a committee to inquire into the causes of increase in plant disease the possible connection with the greater use of artificial fertilisers and the comparative results achieved by the Indore and similar methods depending on the biological basis of soil fertility. THE MINISTER (Mr. T. Williams) No Sir I am advised OF AGRICULTURE that there is no evidence that the increasing use of so-called artificial manures has had the effect that is suggested. I would add that scientific opinion is unanimous that the so-called artificial fertilisers should be supplemented by the addition to the soil of organic materials such as dung and compost or by the ploughing-in of grass and clover swards.Productivity.-On 13 May during the Adjournment debate Mr. Albu referred to the need for raising the standard of production engineering in this country and suggested that more production technologists should be turned out and that we should press on with the recommendations made in the Percy and Barlow reports for an adequate system of Technological Colleges. Mr. W. Shepherd mentioned the need for more leadership in industry particu- larly at a relatively low level. Mr. Eric Fletcher said that one of the most urgent tasks before the country to-day was the application of scientific research to the practical problems of industry. He also drew attention to the passages in the First Report of the Committee on Industrial Produc- tivity as to the possibility of increasing our agricultural output by the better use of grassland.r 378 1 SECRETARY In the course of his reply,. THE PARLIAMENTARY TO THE MINISTRYOF LABOUR(Mr. Ness Edwards) said that anyone working in a nationalised industry to-day had an opportunity of getting a scholarship to go into the best technical colleges and universities in order to train for leadership in industry. Science Degrees Scottish Universities.-On 31 May in reply to a question SECRETARY by Mr. M. Macpherson THE FINANCIAL TO THE TREASURY (Mr. Glenvil Hall) gave the following figures:- FIRSTDEGREESAWARDED IN THE SCOTTISH IN PURESCIENCE UNIVERSITIES I Academic Years ~~~ __I_~ Institutions 1937-38 1938-39 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 I I ~~ Aberdeen University ..18 10 31 27 45 Edinburgh University .. 41 30 56 57 80 *Glasgow University. . .. 116 111 95 123 162 St. Andrews University including Dundee University College .. 55 43 71 87 109 ~--Totals .. .. 230 194 253 294 396 *The Degrees awarded to students of the Glasgow Royal Technical College are included in these figures. STUDENTS UNIVERSITIES FULL-TIME IN THE SCOTTISH WHO BEGANA COURSE LEADINGTO A FIRSTDEGREEIN PURESCIENCE 1 Academic Years Institutions 1946-47 1947-48 Aberdeen University .. .. .. .. 63 63 70 Edinburgh University .. .. .. .. 111 120 148 *Glasgow University .. .. .. .. 222 213 286 St. Andrews University including Dundee University College .. .. .. .. 71 123 117 519 621 * Includes full-time students at the Glasgow Royal Technical College. Technical and Scientific Man-power.-On 26th May in reply to a question by Mr. Boyd-Carpenter THE MINISTER OF LABOUR (Mr. Isaacs) The number of appointments filled through the technical and scientific register during the 12 months ended 9 May 1949 was 2,505. Technical Information Services.-On 12 May Mr. Dumpleton asked the Lord President of the Council to what extent the Intelligence Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has been strengthened as recommended by the Panel on Technical Information Services of the Committee on Industrial Productivity. [ 379 1 THELORDPRESIDENTTHE COUNCIL(Mr.H. Morrison) The staff of OF the Intelligence Division has been steadily built up since the war and now numbers 50. The estimates now before Parliament provide for increasing the staff to 59. It is my intention to strengthen it further as recommended by the Panel on Technical Information Services. Technology.-On 12 May in reply to questions by Mr. Philips Price and Mr. Morley THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION (Mr. Tomlinson) The regional and national organisation of advisory councils recommended by the Report of the Percy Committee has been set up and the National Advisory Council is at present considering the various questions raised by recent Reports. In particular it is examining the problem of the status of technical colleges and the qualifications to be awarded to students from them.Until I have received the advice of the Council I am unable to reach any decision in this matter. In the meantime other important recommendations in the Reports such as those relating to the development of national colleges and awards to students are being carried out as circumstances permit. UN ESC0.-The general position of UNESCO was debated briefly in the House of Commons on the Adjournment on 29 April. Mr. Crawley put forward a number of considerations. He suggested that UNESCO had been the target of much irresponsible and unjust criticism. In fact however quite a lot of useful work had been done during the past three years. There had been the surveys to find out what books and educational facilities remained in war-damaged countries and steps had been taken to repair these losses to a considerable extent.With regard to long-term work there had been some useful conferences but he doubted whether it was a proper function of UNESCO to go directly into the field of education. In the field of science Mr. Crawley suggested that UNESCO had done valuable work by arranging for the exchange of information the standardisa- tion of scientific terms and making available scientific literature. He hoped however there would be no overlapping with other organisations such as the Food and Agriculture Organisation. Replying to the debate THE PARLIAMENTARY SECRETARY TO THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION (Mr. Hardman) agreed that in the scientific field UNESCO had done extremely good work.Nearly 1,000 scientists had been permitted to travel annually from all countries to meetings which they would not other- wise have been able to attend. There had also been useful publication of international scientific bulletins and contributions to the upkeep and func- tioning of international laboratories etc. He thought it was of tremendous value that experts in the sciences and the arts and teachers should get together and be able to discuss their particular problems. It was essential to break down the barriers which separated one country from another. BOOK REVIEWS British Chemical Nomenclature. A. D. Mitchell. Pp. viii + 156. (London Edward Arnold & Co. 1948.) 21s. net. Chemists have always been fond of using trivial names to denote their compounds and there is a marked tendency in some chemical literature to perpetuate-and even extend-those trivialities which have probably been born as “laboratory slang.” This is very regrettable indeed one might say inadmissible in the journals published by the various scientific societies.[ 380 I I refer to such “hybrids” as tosyl (for toluenesulphonyl) pipsyl (for p-iodophenylsulphonyl) mesyl (for methanesulphonyl) menaphthyl (for naphthylmethyl) menaphthone (for methylnaphthaquinone) and trityl (for triphenylmethyl). When to use and when not to use such names is clearly indicated in Dr. Mitchell’s timely and extremely valuable book. Part I of British Chemical Nomenclature is a brief account of the general principles of nomenclature and Part I1 describes in about 25 pp.their application to inorganic chemistry; particular reference is made to the rules formulated by the International Union of Chemistry (I.U.C.). Part 111 comprises the remainder of the book and is concerned solely with organic nomenclature. In this connection a general and historical introduction is followed by an account of various conventions; then follows a discussion of various types and groups of compounds. Here again the I.U.C. rules are mentioned and also Patterson and Capell’s “RingIndex” (by which Dr. Mitchell obviously sets great store!). This section also contains some extremely useful tables of the radicals commonly used in organic chemistry simpler heterocyclic ring systems and the trivial and systematic names of various groups of compounds (e.g.purines hydroxyanthraquinones naphthylamine- and naphthol-sulphonic acids fatty acids amino-acids) . It is only natural that the greater part of the book should be devoted to organic chemistry with its multiplicity of ring systems and chains of different atoms but the reader must not conclude that the equally vexed question of inorganic nomenclature is thereby neglected. It is apparent from most articles on chemical topics that “conventions” used in nomenclature are not generally understood by the majority of chemists. Much useful guidance is in this book. If writers of papers are in doubt as to what is a trivial name or when a name is anomalous they would do well to consult the appropriate section; unequivocal answers will not always be forthcoming but sufficient information will be there for guidance.Furthermore Dr. Mitchell’s comments on differing notations (e.g. British and American) form a valuable part of the book. When a new edition is called for the reviewer hopes that the author will extend his comments so that they become recommendations! It would be convenient-in fact it is really essential-to have recommendations on for example the numbering of all the atoms in a ring system and also on the wider usage of the “oxa-aza” convention. The book is very well produced and free from misprints (one on p. 64 is fortunately clarified by the accompanying text). It is perhaps too much to hope that all the 11,000 and odd members of the Institute will purchase this book; yet all engaged in the writing and teaching of chemistry whether organic or inorganic should possess a copy.H. BURTON. The Chemistry of Penicillin. Editorial Board H. T. Clarke J. R. Johnson Sir Robert Robinson. Pp. 1094. (Princeton University Press; London Geoffrey Cumberlege Oxford University Press 1949.) L9 9s. net. This monumental volume contains virtually all that was learned of the various penicillins their occurrence isolation assay characterisation and degradation during the collaborative investigation by industrial and academic laboratories in Great Britain and America from 1942 to 1947; included also are the results of attempted syntheses of the penicillins and their degradation products embracing extensive exploration in several hitherto little-known fields of heterocyclic chemistry and comprehensive accounts of the contribu- tions of X-ray crystallography infra-red spectrometry and other physical methods.This monograph presents the considered results of some 700 reports of which it is the final medium of publication; except for a small volume of results from laboratories which worked independently-much of their work duplicating that in this monograph-and for a few recent contributions practically all our chemical knowledge relating to penicillins and attempts to synthesise them is to be found within the covers of this volume the scope of which is thus wider than its title might suggest. The individual chapters have been compiled from the original reports by British or American authors selected for their special experience in their respective fields; as might be expected their widely differing styles approaches and subject matter have resulted not unhappily in the descriptive sections of the chapters being markedly heterogeneous in form.Some authors have contented themselves with brief factual statements others have given much fuller accounts while preserving a direct relation to the original reports and occasionally authors have written most scholarly critical essays which are not so immediately related to the sources of information used. Each chapter contains full experimental details of the work described the presentation of which is substantially uniform throughout and strongly reminiscent of the Journal of the American Chemical Society.Superficial examination of this volume might well suggest criticism; it might be asked for example what justification there is for considering the chemistry of the different penicillins in different chapters (the discussion on benzylpenicillin indeed extends over several) why a key degradation product penicillamine is not dealt with until Chapter XVI or why apparently extraneous chemistry is included at all. Though there are a few features which are regrettable (e.g. the comparative weakness of the subject index and the lack of a formula index) it must be remembered that the purpose of this monograph is not to present a critical and artificially orderly review of the subject for the general reader but to publish a stupendous bulk of material which would be less conveniently available if dispersed among the usual scientific journals.The object of the Editors has been in fact to make the presentation reflect as far as possible the influence of the individual contributions on the general trend and effort of penicillin work; to have attempted with the detail required and with the converging and diverging contributions of some 40 laboratories to present accounts of a more conventional kind showing for example the emergence of penicillin structures as a result of steady stepwise degradation of complex molecules to simpler ones would have resulted in inextricable confusion. The complexity of this story is due not merely to the unique nature of the penicillin structure and its transformations but also to the fact that the chemical background of unfamiliar heterocyclic systems had perforce to be elaborated as it was required; chemists generally will be grateful for the mode of presentation adopted.This is a volume which apart from minor blemishes calls for superlative praise. Most durably and worthily produced absolutely indispensable as a constituent of chemical literature an entirely praiseworthy outcome of the prodigious if now inconspicuous labours of the Editors it is above all a vivid reflection of and a magnificent tribute to a memorable international effort to solve a problem of outstanding moment to humanity at large. A. H. COOK. Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry.Alfred W. Stewart and Hugh Graham. Seventh Edition. Vol. 11 pp. ix + 447; Vol. 111 pp. xi + 387. (London Longmans Green and Co. Ltd. 1948.) Vol. I 35s. net; Vol. 11 38s. net. No introduction is needed to this well known work which in successive editions over the past forty years has reviewed the main developments of organic chemistry. It is now sixteen years since the previous edition first appeared and Dr. Graham a colleague of the late Professor Stewart for many c 382 3 years has undertaken the heavy task of revision. This has resulted in considerable expansion of many sections of the older edition and the addition of several entirely new chapters. The old Volume I which is now mainly of historical interest has not been reprinted and the old Volume I1 has been expanded to Volumes I1 and 111 which include inter alia sections on carbo- hydrates pectic substances and alginic acid (new) terpenes alkaloids antho- cyanins depsides and tannins lignans (new) in Vol.11 and bile acids sterols vitamins hormones cardiac aglycones porphyrins (new) azaporphyrins (new) high polymers (new) deutero-compounds (new) abnormal valency stereochemistry (new) in Vol. 111. The range of subject matter is thus extremely wide and with one or two unexpected omissions e.g. penicillin and nucleic acid chemistry covers on the constitution and synthetic side at least most of the work likely to be dealt with in honours degree courses. Most of the new and indeed many of the older chapters-e.g. carbo-hydrates vitamins hormones the diphenyl problem-are excellent readable accounts but doubts may be expressed regarding the relevance of the title of the work to many sections.Thus Chapter XI11 of Vol. I1 on the natural synthesis of vital products deals mainly with the views of Collie and of Robinson about the period 1907-1917 and is unchanged from at least the 1927 edition. Stimulating as these views were thirty years ago they hardly come in the category of recent advances. Similar objections can be made to the first chapter of Vol. I1 and the final three chapters of Vol. 111 all of which could be discarded with advantage. To a lesser degree other chapters are not so up-to-date as would be inferred from the preface and appear to have had little revision since the sixth edition of 1936.A number of given structures accepted at that time are now known to be incorrect (copaene cadinene strychnine) and further it is no longer usual to write glucose with all the hydroxyl groups on the same side (Vol. 11 pp. 41 and 42). The work appears to be reasonably free from errors of detail; a careful examination brings to light only about a dozen mistakes in the great mass of formulae and an occasional confusion in the use of the terms quaternary and tertiary carbon atoms. The style as always with Stewart’s books has that lucid quality which makes for pleasant and easy reading but if this work is to regain the position it once held among students it must undergo ruthless pruning and further revision. Some slight reduction in cost would also assist the process.T. MALKIN. Crystals and X-rays. Kathleen Lonsdale. Pp. 199. (London G. Bell & Sons Ltd. 1949.) 21s. net. This book “is designed to interest those who do not now use X-ray crystallography but who might well do so; and to instruct those who do use X-ray crystallographic methods without altogether understanding the tool that has been put in their hands” and the publishers more specifically describe the first class of readers as industrial administrative and technical staffs. If the author succeeds in interesting industrial administrators it will not be as a result of the conscious design of the book-only a very enlightened industrial- ist for example will be convinced by a design which in a chapter on the importance of the study of crystals allocates more space to resonance than to analytical chemistry-but because an infectious enthusiasm for the subject shines through nearly every page.Mrs. Lonsdale modestly hopes that readers will pass on to more comprehensive books but although some excellent larger works are available none is likely to excel the one under review for conciseness combined with accuracy nor for sustained interest; moreover I think most experienced X-ray crystallographers would agree that a full I 383 1 appreciation of the subject can be obtained only by practical experience and personal contact. Mrs. Lonsdale pays tribute to the inspiring leadership of Sir William Bragg the effect of which is visible in several flourishing schools of X-ray crystallography in this country; it is to be hoped that administrators whose interest is engaged by her book will not rest content with adding one or two monographs to their libraries but will appreciate the vital importance of personal contacts between their research workers and those of the academic institutions engaged in this field.Non-specialists are likely to be influenced more by the spirit of this book engendering a desire to get to know more about the work of a class of scientists whose leaders can write with such skill and enthusiasm than by the detailed contents. Mrs. Lonsdale has achieved a remarkable feat of condensation in less than zoo pages; almost every topic of importance is mentioned and only rarely has brevity of treatment been accompanied by any lapse from the strictest accuracy but full comprehension of such a condensed account can naturally be achieved only by considerable effort.Teachers will see through- out the book paragraphs or even single sentences (e.g. “stereographic projec- tion of the essential planes provides a neat way of representing the 32 crystal classes”) summarising topics which as they know from experience most newcomers to the subject assimilate only after some discussion and an hour or so of hard thinking. In the handling of some subjects too teachers may think that the sequence of presentation is not that most suited to the beginner. This book is therefore likely to be of most value in detail to post-graduate workers both academic and industrial; no better advice could be given to the many such who are in danger of not seeing the wood for the trees of their own limited research topics than to study this book and assure themselves that they have a full understanding of the whole of it.In a book of such small compass it was perhaps a mistake to entitle the last chapter “The Importance of the Study of Crystals” and to endeavour in it to say something about a dozen major subjects in chemistry mineralogy metallurgy and biology. Chemists will probably regard this as the least satisfactory chapter; they will feel that the book as a whole bears ample witness to the importance of the subject and that the last chapter might well have been confined to one or at most two applications which appealed to the author treated in more detail.(Without increasing the size of the book this chapter could well be enlarged at the expense of an earlier section on generation of X-rays). As it stands it gives an impression in marked contrast to the rest of the book and particularly to the preceding chapter on extra-structural studies of having been written largely with a sense of duty. Mrs. Lonsdale’s writing is not only accurate but pleasant to read and it would be ungenerous to draw attention to the few errors (none of which is serious) in a wholly admirable book; but an author who can adorn a section on parallel perspective drawings with such a phrase as “looking down from a little above and slightly to the right like a benevolent Conservative government” will perhaps admit to nodding when she wrote “the elements themselves of course crystallise in quite a surprising variety of ways” (my italics).The book is remarkably free from misprints and provided with many well chosen illustrations ; many of the text diagrams however would be improved considerably by being printed on better paper. E. G. Cox. Methods of Quantitative Micro-Analysis. Collected and edited by R. F. Milton and W. A. Waters. Pp. viii + 599. Figs. 169. (London Edward Arnold and Co. 1948.) 60s. net. The aim of the Editors of this book has been to present a carefully-chosen collection of the more generally useful microtechniques which have been 384 1 thoroughly tested from the practical point of view. Because of the wide and rapidly increasing field of apparatus and technique available nowadays to the analytical chemist who must deal with small quantities of material such selection is necessary if the information is to be presented in a single volume of reasonable size.As far as possible the contributors have endeavoured to deal with the sources of error and manipulative difficulties in detail while presenting more straightforward material as briefly as is consistent with clarity. Following a general introduction Part I deals with gravimetric apparatus and general microchemical technique. The balance and the technique in- volved in its use are covered thoroughly and in a way which will readily be followed by workers who are applying microchemical methods for the first time.The special characteristics of filtration and drying operations on the small scale are described and illustrated while other methods of separation are not ignored. Finally notes are given on the use of eight of the more important organic precipitants and the section is rounded off by a table summarising suitable gravimetric procedures for the determination of 22 metals. Part 11 concerned with organic microanalysis deals with elementary analysis the determination of metals in organic compounds the determination of molecular weights and of selected organic groups. A table giving references to a wide selection of methods for the determination of organic groups is included. In Part 111 volumetric analysis an introductory section summarises useful information on the wide range of modern indicators available.A considerable selection of volumetric apparatus is described in some detail and a short section stresses some important points of technique. The remainder of this part details some 35 volumetric methods inorganic and organic illustrating many varied applications. A table summarises a further selection of methods 35 in number which can be used for the determination of inorganic ions. Part IV comprising almost one-third of the book deals in the widest sense with colorimetric analysis-nephelometry and fluorimetry receiving brief mention. Principles sources of error techniques and a range of avail- able apparatus both visual and photoelectric are all discussed. Rather more than half the section is devoted to the description in considerable detail of individual procedures for numerous inorganic ions and organic compounds.Tables give references to further estimations. Electrochemical methods are dealt with in Part V the range of methods discussed covering potentiometry polarography and amperometry electro- deposition and conductometric analysis. Brief reference is also made to coulometric analysis and electrophoretic techniques. Each of the topics dealt with in detail includes a discussion of principles apparatus and repre- sentative applications followed by tables giving references to further pro- cedures. In Part VI gasometric methods are divided into two broad categories firstly those methods which have been developed by chemists often by reduction in scale of classical procedures for analytical purposes; in the other class those methods which developed first by biochemists or physiologists for specialised problems may nevertheless be employed by the analytical chemist.Once again full descriptions of representative apparatus and techniques and of individual applications are given. The general plan of the book is excellent and something of this nature has been badly needed. It is well produced and very competently illustrated. All practising and aspiring microchemists will find it most valuable. The [ 385 1 main criticisms which the reviewer has are two. In the first place the whole tenor of the book encourages the impression that microanalysis is the analysis of milligram samples rather than a series of techniques applicable over a wide range which includes both milligram and centigram procedures.This suggestion may not and certainly should not have been intended but it is nevertheless frequently implicit. Secondly the references throughout the text if more comprehensive would have made the work even more valuable as a book of reference. It is of course possible that the contributors have confined themselves only to those methods with which they were familiar and which they could therefore recommend. If the choice must indeed lie between critical and catholic then this is laudable. But perhaps some method could have been found of including the further references even with the clear indication that they were the result of casting a wide net.In this connection too an index of authors would have been useful. The subject index is divided into five sections which do not correspond with the main sections of the book. This makes it somewhat complex in use at times and presents no outstanding advantage over a purely alphabetical arrangement. CECILL. WILSON. The Preparation Properties Chemical Behaviour and Identification of Organic Chlorine Compounds. By E. H. Huntress. Pp. xxv + 1,443. (New York John Wiley and Sons Inc.; London Chapman and Hall Ltd. 1948.) L8 5s. od. net. The present volume of 1,443 pages is the third publication of this type which the author who is Professor of Organic Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has presented to his wondering and slightly stunned colleagues.His first work was entitled A Brief Introduction to the Use of Beilstein’s Handbuch der Organischen Chemie. This was followed by Indenti-fication of Pure Organic Compounds Tables of Data . . . Compounds of Carbon with Hydrogen or with Hydrogen and Oxygen produced in collaboration with the late Professor Mulliken. The author is therefore a recognised authority on chemical literature. In the years prior to 1939 it was to Central Europe that we looked for monumental complications and critisms of “the industrious Germans” were sometimes expressed by those who while profiting by the labours of the compilers felt that they themselves at any rate could never undertake such work. In recent years it would appear that many in the United States have succumbed to the fatal attraction of this type of literary work to judge from the number of books of this kind which have recently come to our notice.The author refers to the valuable assistance given by his three secretaries but does not appear to have had any other collaborators. This only increases our wonder at the surely devastating amount of hard labour involved in the preparation of this stupendous production. Like the other works to which we have referred this handbook will prove most useful and timesaving. It presents in an accessible though owing to the unavoidable condensation somewhat unattractive form the most recent information in this particular field. The author points out that over 25 per cent. of the compounds described have been prepared so recently that they do not appear in the Fourth Edition of Beilstein’s Handbuch or in its supplements.In the case of the remainder references to the appropriate volume and page of Beilstein are given. The author emphasises however that the book is entirely independent of Beilstein. He has moreover been able to include references to papers published as Iate as 1947. The scheme under which the compounds are listed is described in an introductory chapter. Without going into details it may be mentioned that the arrangement of the compounds is based on m.p. in the case of solids and 1 386 1 on b.p. and density in the case of liquids. Every compound has been assigned a “location number.” The significance of this “arbitrary” location number is discussed in the introduction.Its use greatly simplifies cross references. The first half-dozen solids listed are pentachloroacetone m.p. 2.1” 2 5-dichlorotoluene m.p. 5* 9-chlorotoluene m.p 7.So 1,l-dichloropropanol m.p. 8” o-chlorophenol m.p. 8.5”,and di-/3-chloroethyl carbonate m.p. 8.5”. These are however only cited under “Solids” and references are given to the section on Liquids where they are dealt with in detail. The eighth compound is cinnamyl chloride m.p. 8-9”. Consideration of this occupies three pages. Possible confusion in nomenclature with cinnamoyl chloride is mentioned its tendency to undergo anionotropic change during reaction is emphasised and numerous methods of preparation and reactions are briefly indicated with the appropriate references.This treatment is followed for all compounds through- out the book densities and refractive indices being recorded. The arrange- ment of references to patents and their abstracts has received much attention. There are five indexes based on empirical formula percentage of chlorine molecular weight chemical type and alphabetical name. In every case the location number is cited. In conclusion it should be stated that in the preface the author emphasises an unusual feature of the book-what may be called “negative entries.” “Definite knowledge that a particular reaction has not been reported or that an individual compound does not appear in the systematic literature is often of real value. The term ‘unreported’ as used in this book signifies that the compound in question cannot be found by systematic use of the usual index sources.” FREDERICK CHALLENGER.Introduction to Statistical Mechanics. G. S. Rushbrooke. Pp. xiii + 334. (London Oxford University Press 1949.) 21s. net. Historically the development of Statistical Mechanics has followed three main lines of progress. The first of these is the most fundamental in that it involves the theoretical relationship between thermodynamic variables such as temperature and entropy and the corresponding statistical concepts of distribution modulus and probability. In view of the basic importance of thermodynamics for describing phenomena these correlations with statistics are of philosophical as well as of metrical interest.Two other interdependent lines of development can be summed up as the progressive formulation of more powerful and more elegant mathematical techniques for the construction of partition functions and the formulation of “working models” of various physico-chemical systems which combine as far as possible mathematical rigour with physical insight. An introduction to statistical mechanics would not normally deal very extensively with the basic foundations of the subject. The relative importance given to the more mathematical or the more practical aspects of statistical calculations depends on the author’s objectives. Dr. Rushbrooke’s book is stated to be intended primarily for the physical chemist. Its main purpose is to deal in an introductory way with the methods and techniques of statistical mechanics rather than to provide a summary of all of even the simplest results which follow when these techniques are applied in specific problems.Although the correspondence between observational measurements and particular models is discussed in some instances the prac- tical aim of interpreting experimental measurements is pursued only inci- dentally. The book can be recommended as an introduction to the more mathematical aspect of statistical mechanics. It records clear patient and stimulating teaching methods. A valuable description is given of the three main [ 387 1 procedures of statistical calculations. This development of the subject should be particularly useful for those who intend to go on to read more extensive texts and original papers.Examples are included to exercise the student in the mathematical methods discussed in the text. A feature whose treatment seems somewhat artificial in an elementary text of this kind involves the so-called “classical phase space”; “classical” methods are included in the text for the sake of mathematical illustration but their discussion is not at all thorough. The exclusion from this book of statistical mechanics based on quantum statistics was probably made on the grounds that other mathematical techniques are more useful in the rangeof phenomena of interest to the physical chemist. However some readers might find the derivation of classical statistics as a limit to Einstein-Bose or Fermi-Dirac statistics physically more satisfactory than the treatment given in Dr.Rushbrook’s text. It may be questioned whether every “serious physical chemist” will in fact have the time to proceed to more advanced texts. Particularly for physical chemists with an experimental bias there still appears to be need for an elementary treatment of statistical mechanics in which the mathematical techniques are described with clarity and economy and which deals more systematically with the art of constructing models useful in the interpretation of physico-chemical measurements. But Dr. Rushbrooke and the Oxford University Press are to be congratulated on this valuable contribution towards the problem of making statistical mechanics more readily accessible.In the field selected by the author the book is likely to commend itself to a wide range of readers. A. R. UBBELOHDE. A New Notation and Enumeration System for Organic Compounds. By G. Malcolm Dyson. 2nd Edition. Pp. ix + 138. (London Longmans Green & Co. Ltd. 1949.) 10s. 6d. net. This book is described in the author’s preface as “a definitive proposal for an international system for delineating and enumerating organic structures”; later on it is stated that the system it describes is to be submitted to the International Union of Chemistry for approval and may be used in compiling a new “Lexicon of Organic Compounds.” For these reasons alone apart from its great intrinsic interest it calls for close study by all organic chemists who are interested in the future of their subject.Most organic chemists in this country will have met Dr. Dyson’s notation system in the abbreviated form in which it was presented at a lecture in 1946 (Royal Institute of Chemistry Monograph 1946) and many will have studied it more closely in the first edition (1947) of the present work. The second edition is a complete revision of the first and is for all practical purposes a new work; the many changes have rendered the earlier tentative expositions obsolete and to some extent even misleading. Technically the book is well printed and very free from typo- graphical errors; it is unfortunate that a book so likely to receive heavy use is not more stoutly bound. The first two chapters present in a convincing manner the necessity for some system of notation and enumeration which can be accepted internation- ally as a basis for all future indexing and collating of data on organic com- pounds.The third chapter outlines the new system; it is intended to be an elementary introduction to the subject for beginners and as such the reviewer found it disappointing. It seems doubtful if anyone completely new to the system would follow it properly on the basis of this chapter alone; something better is needed for the next edition. Chapters IV to VII give a complete and definitive account of the new system with all the rules required for the ciphering of any possible organic compound. The general principles of the 1946-7 system are unchanged but several important amendments [ 388 1 improvements and extensions have been introduced.In particular the nota- tion of ring systems has been entirely changed with the happy result that many of the special symbols which added to the arbitrariness of the original scheme have been eliminated; another very welcome addition is a method for ciphering high polymers. Chapter VIII is concerned with the spoken language of the Dyson system and outlines proposals for converting the ciphers into speakable form; this new spoken language is not a beautiful one but is no uglier than that currently used in Beilstein for example. In the final chapter the use of the new notation with punched cards and mechanical devices in recording and sorting chemical information is briefly discussed.This book is the grammar of a new language which all organic chemists may find themselves compelled to learn Before this happens it is essential that its claim should be carefully and publicly compared with those of any possible competitor. The reviewer knows of only one such-the system due to Gordon Kendall and Davison (RoyaE Institute of Chemistry Monograph 1948)-and feels it his duty to make some comments on the relative merits of the two systems as they appear to one who has no special knowledge of either and who has never found the learning of a foreign language an easy or congenial task. Such an average chemist must accept the claims of the authors of both systems that they are unambiguous and universally applicable. Granted this the reviewer must confess that he finds the Dyson system much the more difficult; “working from the book” in both instances he finds it easy to work the Gordon-Kendall-Davison system but has no confidence in his ability to use the Dyson system.The reason for this is to be found in the many rules which govern the Dyson system as compared with the few which govern the other. It may be that the convenience of the indexer and his machines has been allowed to complicate the Dyson system to the disadvantage of the eventual user of the index; if this is so it should be remembered that the ordinary user’s interests are of paramount importance in such matters and steps should be taken to bring about as much simplification as possible. The Royal Institute of Chemistry performed a very great service to organic chemistry when it first introduced both these systems to the chemical public.It now has a further opportunity to be of service by arranging a public debate between the exponents of the two systems at which the British chemical public could express its views on the matter; such a debate could not fail to be of great assistance to the Committee of the International Union of Chemistry which has shortly to decide on the language of the organic chemistry of the future. Whatever the outcome organic chemistry must ever be indebted to Dr. Dyson for having been the first to show that it is possible to evolve a workable system for the unique notation and enumeration of organic com- pounds. H. N. RYDON. BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED BUT NOT REVIEWED Atomic Energy Year Book.Ed. John Tutin. Pp. xx + 237. (London TempIe Press Ltd. 1949.) 21s. net. “Analar” Standards for Laboratory Chemicals. Fourth Edition (Revised and Enlarged). Pp. xviii + 302. (London The British Drug Houses Ltd. and Hopkin and Williams Ltd. 1949.) Tables of Scattering Functions for Spherical Particles. Pp. xiii + 119. (FVashington United States Government Printing Office 1948.) 45 cents. The Petroleum Handbook. Third Edition. Compiled by members of the Staff of the Royal Dutch-Shell Group. (London The Shell Petroleiim Co. Ltd. 1948.) First Report of the Committee on Industrial Productivity. Cmd. 7665. Pp. 31. (London H.M. Stationery Office 1949.) 6d. net. [ 389 1 THE REGISTER New Fellows (X) Bremner John George Mac- (P) Hesselberger William Max kay B.A.B.Sc. D.Phi1. Ernst Dr. Phil. (Munich) (Oxon.) A.I.M. Associates Elected to the Fellowship Beater Bernard Edwin B.A. (S.A.). (0)Bennett John Garner B.Sc. Ph.D. (Liv.). (P) Bracken Arthur B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.). (K) Brownlie Isaac Allan B.Sc. Ph.D. (Glas.) A.R.T.C. (M) Casson Frank David B.Sc. (Lond.). (Q) Cooke Thomas Henry B.Sc. (Birm.). Davies Norman Robert B.Sc. (Lond.). (X) Dutton William Leslie. (0)Earlam William Trevor BSc. Ph.D. (Liv.). (P) Evans Ronald Major B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.) D.I.C. (P) Feather Richard Campbell M.A. (Oxon.) Dip.Bact. B.Sc. (Lond.),M.I.Chem.E.F.I.I.A. (S) Galleymore Harry Reginald M.A. (Cantab.) A.M.I. Chem. E. (P) Garside James Eric M.Sc. Tech. (Manc.) Ph.D. (Lond.). (G) Gibson Mitchell B.Sc. (Leeds). (D) Harding John David Der- mott. {T) Jackson Eric Robert Buck- ley M.Sc. Ph.D. (Manc.), A.M.1.Chem.E. (P) Jamieson Morris M.A. (Glas.) B.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. (P) Kerr Horace M.Inst.Gas E. (K) Knox Robert. (F) Lipman Cyril B.Sc. Ph.D. (Dunelm.). Martin Sidney Launcelot Hiam M.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. D.I.C. (P) Morton Ian Douglas M.Sc. (N.Z.) Ph.D. (Cantab.). (P) Riley Dennis Parker M.A. B.Sc. Ph.D. (Oxon.) Ph.D. (Cantab.). (P) Robson Thomas David B.Sc. (Glas.) Ph.D. (St. An-drews) M.1nst.F.(P) Seal Eli M.Sc. (Wales). (P) Sharp Louis Kenneth B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.) Ph.C. (K) Simpson George Kirkwood B.Sc. Ph.D. (Glas.). (P) Smith Frank Edward. (P) Swedler Charles Henry A.M.I.Chem.E. M.1nst.F. Tenniswood Charles Robert Sydney M.Sc. (Dunelm.). (Q) Thompson Leonard M.Sc. Tech. (Manc.) F.T.I. (P) Webber Harold Frank Philip B.Sc. (Lond.). Whalley William Clarence Roy M.Sc. (Lond.) A.R.C.S. D.I.C. (D) Whelan Patrick Francis M.Sc. (N.U.I.). (0)Wilde William Kenneth M.Sc. (Wales). (0)Wood James Herbert. (D) Woodcock David M.Sc. Ph.D. (Dunelm.). (0)Woodhead Maurice B.Sc. Ph.D. (Leeds) Dip.Ed. (Lond.). 390 1 New Associates (P) Bailey Alan Vincent B.Sc.Eng. (Lond.). (Q) Bancroft Eric. (A) Boyd George Scott A.H.- M7.C. (P) Broadbridge Donald Fred- erick. (B) Carson Miss Isabel B.Sc. (Q.U.B.). Chappell Peter Lyndsey M.Sc. (N.Z.). (Q) Chari Kothapalle Sreenivasa B.Sc. (Madras) Ph.D. (Manc.). (0)Clements Peter Graham B.A. (Cantab.). (P) Dark William Alan B.Sc. (S.A.). (U) Datta Dilip Kumar M.Sc. (Calcutta). (0)Davies Frederick Bernard B.Sc. (Manc.). Durie Robert Arthur B.Sc. (Sydney). (H) Fletcher William Edmund B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.). (P) Grew Edward Leon B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.). (Q) Housley Alfred B.Sc. (Manc.). (C) Humphreys Gwilyn Thomas Jones B.Sc.(Wales). Ingles Owen Graeme B.A. M.Sc. (Tasmania). (S) Inskip George B.Sc. (Dunelm.). (X) Jones David Gwyn B.Sc. Ph.D. (Lond.) D.I.C. Kreft Gerhard B.Sc. (Cape Town). (X) Lahiry Nripendra Lal B.Sc. (Calcutta) M. Sc. (Dacca). (P) Mehta Daras Nessenvanji, M.Sc. (Bombay) M.Sc.Tech. (Manc.). Meltzer Daniel B.Sc. (Cape Town). (0)Morrell Miss Joan Elizabeth B.Sc. (Liv.). Nayudamma Yelavarthy B.Sc. (B.H.U.) M.S. (Lehigh). Padmanabhan Salpradan B.A. (Madras) (B.H.U.). (P) Portchmouth Arthur lips A.M.Inst.Gas E. (J) Pryde Alan Millam W.C. M.Sc. Phil-A.H.-Raj agopalan Ramachandra Ayyar B.Sc. (Rangoon) Ph.D. (Bombay). (Q) Robertson Patrick Sinclair B.Sc.(Edin.). Roy Pankaj Kumar M.Sc. (Calcutta). Strasser Peter Hermann Alois M.Sc. (Melbourne) A.A.C.I. (C) Taylor Mrs. Dorothy Joan B.Sc. (Birm.1. (X) Watson ' George Arthur A.R.C.S. (H) Wilson Royce Robert. (C) Wood Barrie B.Sc. (Birm.). (P) Woods Sydney Derek B.A. (Oxon.). Re-elected Associates (C) Atkinson John Barnes B.Sc. (Liv.). (P) Bloom Edward B.Sc. (Lond.). (0)Chamberlain George Hum-frey Neville B.Sc. (Lond.) Ph.D. (Cantab.). (G) Coupe Geoffrey. [ 391 (Q) Crosse Daniel Gray B.Sc. (Glas.). (N) Dowson Norman Francis B.Sc. (Lond.). (L) Gaunt Joseph Frank B.Sc. (Leeds). Kuntzen Harold Eric New Students (0) Alexander Peter Andrew.(0)Mattbews Alfred. (P) Attaway Peter John. (X) Meek William Stephen. (N) Brearton Denis Stanislas. (P) Newnham John Leathern (P) Buttler Frank George. Matthew. (E) Byles Charles Humphrey Gil- (Q) Ogden Malcolm Donald. bert. (P) O’Shaughnessy Miss Edith. (P) Clark Douglas John William. (P) Pain Roger Harry. (P) Coxon Philip. (P) Penney Edsel Raymond. (0) Davies Peter Richard. (K) Philip Maxwell Charles. (C) Fry David Philip. (V) Phillips Clifford Kenneth. (V) Gibbs Peter Harrington. (P) Putnam Ernest William. (N) Hartley Raymond Anthony. (P) Raum Alaric Louis Jeffrey. (P) Hayden Kenneth David. (P) Roxbrough John Leonard.(C) Hooper John Frederick. (P) Ryan Ernest John. (Q) Hulme Alan Frederick. (K) Shepherd Thomas. (0) Ireland James Leslie. (D) Smith Derek John. (C) James Frederick William. (N) Smith Dennis Longley. (M) Kirby Leonard. (E) Smith Stanley Taylor. (X) Laird Harold. (P) Stone Walter Roger. (P) Layzell Robert John. (P) Sumpter Geoffrey. (D) Lewis Miss Judith Margaret. (P) Towers Leslie George. (N) Lill John Arthur. (P) Trevor Henry George. (C) Lole Eric Albert. (0)Twomey Bartholomew John. (H) Lyner Fielding. (P) Ward Roy James. (P) Mason Leslie Frederick (W) Wickings John Arthur. Alfred. (Q) Wilson Peter Malvern. (D) Massey William Haydn. (M) Witty Alan Ronald. Change of Name Sylvia Minahan B.Sc.Associate to Laverton-on re-marriage. Creighton Shane Malet Duggan B.Sc. A.R.C.S. Associate to Creighton Shane Malet-by deed poll. DEATHS Fellow Herbert William Bolam B.Sc. (Edin) Ph.D. (Leipzig). Rhys Pendrill Charles T.D. M.D. (Berne) L.M.S.S.A. Vincent Edwards. Edgar Henry Rider Salmon. Herbert Frederick Stephenson A. R.C.S. Associates William Alan Cash. Amiya Kumar Ghose B.Sc. (Calcutta) M.Sc. (Lucknow) Dr.-Ing. (Dresden). Frank Edward Whitmore B.Sc. Ph.D. (Birm.). [ 392 1 COMING EVENTS The following list has been compiled from the latest information available. The Institute cannot hold itself responsible for its accuracy or for changes that may be made of which it may receive no notification.1949 August 29 FARADAY SOCIETY:Discussion on “Lipo-Proteins.” At the Department of Pharmacology The Medical School The University Birmingham. 31 August-7 September FOR THE ADVANCEMENT SCIENCE Annual BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF Meeting at Newcastle upon Tyne. September 16-17 SOCIETY OF LEATHER TRADES CHEMISTS Annual Meetings at the University of Leeds. 17 THEINSTITUTE (Birmingham and Midlands and Bristol District Sections) Visit to the Royal Forest Factory of Messrs. H. W. Carter & Co. Ltd. Coleford Glos. 22 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) “The Chemist and Rubber Cables.” Mr. B. B. Evans at the Technical Institute Darnley Road Gravesend at 7.30 p.m. 22-24 SOCIETY Symposium. OF DYERSAND COLOURISTS 23 BIOCHEMICAL SOCIETY:Meeting at Leeds.28-30 SOCIETY INDUSTRY OF CHEMICAL (Food Group) Symposium on “Amino Acids and Protein Hydrolysates,” opened by Professor E. C. Dodds M.V.O. F.R.S. at 6 p.m. on 28 September in the Senate House University of London W.C.l. October 3 THEINSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section jointly with the Society of Chemical Industry London Section) “Paper and Pulp Manufacture as a Chemical Industry.” Dr. J. Grant at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Keppel Street London W.C.l at 6.30 p.m. 5 SOCIETYOF CHEMICAL (London Section) and BRITISH As-INDUSTRY SOCIATION OF CHEMISTS(London Section) “Research on Iron and Steel Production Plant-The Application of Chemical Engineering Principles to Industry.” Dr.A. H. Leckie at the Wellcome Research Institution 183 Euston Road London N.W.1 at 7 p.m. 6 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) “Modern Methods of Soap Manufacture.’’ Mr. A. H. Charlton J.P. at the South-East Essex Technical College Longbridge Road Dagenham at 7 p.m. 7 THE INSTITUTE (Sheffield South Yorkshire and North Midlands Section jointly with the Physical Methods Group of the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists and the University of Sheffield Chemical Society) Papers on “Polarographic An;Flysis.” Messrs. G. H. Osborne L. Airey A. A. Smales and W. Furness in the Chemistry Lecture Theatre The University Western Bank Sheffield at 6.30 p.m. c 393 I October 12 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) “Quanti-tative Common-Sense and the Chemist.” Dr.E. C. Wood in the Small Hall Community Centre Slough at 7.15 p.m. 13 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) “The Biochemistry of Egg-Shell Formation.” Professor C. Tyler at Acton Technical College High Street Acton London W.3 at 7 p.m. 17 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section jointly with the Society of Chemical Industry London Section) “Plastics and Corrosion.” Dr. H. Barron at the County Technical College Dartford at 7.30 p.m. 19 THE INSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) “Rockets and Chemistry.” Dr. J. G. A. Griffiths. Film “Rocket Flight.” At the Wellcome Research Institution 183 Euston Road London N.W.1 at 6.30 p.m.Special General Meeting (see p. ii) at 5.30 p.m. Lecture 21 THEINSTITUTE on “The Development of Chemical Processes,” by Dr. F. Roffey at 6 p.m. (see p. ii) at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Keppel Street London W.C. 1. 22 BIOCHEMICAL SOCIETY Meeting at King’s College Strand London w.c.2. 28 THEINSTITUTE (London and South-Eastern Counties Section) “Chemo-therapy and Essential Trace-Metals.” Professor A. Albert at the University Chemistry Laboratory Pembroke Street Cambridge at 8.15 p.m. ANNOU NCE MENTS EXAMINATIONS-see p. ii. INSTITUTE LECTURE-see p. ii. RESIDENTIAL CLUBS FOR THE ELDERLY As already reported in the Editorial in JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 1949 11 83 the Institute through its newly constituted Residential Clubs Fund has joined with a number of other professional bodies in the “Crossways Trust” for providing residential accommodation for elderly members their wives or their widows (and possibly other dependent relatives) in clubs where they may enjoy the amenities of a hotel at a substantially lower charge (i3 12s.6d. per week) than normally prevails at present. The first club under the Crossways scheme has now been established at West Worthing Sussex and two of the three places in it allotted to the Institute’s Residential Clubs Fund have been filled. Elderly members and/or their elderly dependents who wish to be considered for the remaining place in this first club should notify the Secretary of the Institute forthwith giving particulars about themselves for reference in confidence to the Residential Clubs Fund Committee.WARNING NOTICE It is brought to the attention of members of the Institute that a Mrs. Winifred Roche Ann Scott Russell was convicted at the Woolwich Police Court on 10 March 1949 of obtaining money by false pretences and was sentenced to a term of imprisonment. It is believed that this lady claims to be related to a distinguished deceased Fellow of the Institute. Members are reminded that the Benevolent Fund of c 394 1 the Institute is open to assist genuine cases of distress among dependents of deceased members and they are advised to refer any requests for assistance to the Secretary of the Institute.IMPORTANT EVENTS IN 1949 AND 1950 Faraday Society Discussion on Lipo-Proteins.-A Discussion on Lipo-Proteins will be held in the Department of Pharmacology The Medical School The University Birmingham from mid-day 29 August to 4 p.m. 31 August 1949. Professor E. K. Rideal M.B.E. F.R.S. will give a General Introduction and the discussions will be divided into three Sections (1) Physics and Chemistry of Lipo-Protein Association; (2) Lipo-Proteins in the Blood; (3) Lipo-Proteins in relation to Cell Structure and Metabolism. Full particulars and forms of application may be obtained from the Assistant Secretary The Faraday Society 6 Gray’s Inn Square Gray’s Inn London W.C. 1. Early application is desirable. British Association for the Advancement of Science.-The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held this year at Newcastle upon Tyne from 31 August to 7 September under the presidency of Sir John Russell O.B.E.F.R.S. The president of Section B (Chemistry) is Sir Alfred Egerton F.R.S. who has selected as the subject of his presidential address “Influence of studies of combustion on the progress of chemistry.” Subjects of symposia or discussions to be held by Section B include The propagation of flame; the nitrogen cycle in nature; fluorine the element and some of its newer compounds; the combustion of carbon; chemistry and the food supply. Among the visitors from overseas who are expected to contribute papers are Professor J. H. Quastel F.R.S. (Montreal) and Professor Dr.A. I. Virtanen (Helsinki) both in connection with the symposium on the nitrogen cycle in nature. Particulars of the meeting may be obtained from the Secretary British Association Burlington House Piccadilly London W.1. International Scientific Film Association Congress.-The Third Inter-national Scientific Film Congress will be held in Brussels from 30 September to 5 October 1949. In conjunction with the Congress there will be a Scientific Film Festival. Enquiries should be addressed to the Scientific Film Associa- tion of Great Britain 4 Great Russell Street London W.C.1. The 22nd International Congress of Industrial Chemistry organised by the SociCte de Chimie Industrielle in conjunction with Spanish chemical industries will be held at Barcelona from 23 to 30 October 1949.The Congress will comprise 25 Sections and there will be works visits and excursions. Full particulars may be obtained from the Secretariat SociCte de Chimie Industrielle 28 rue Saint-Dominique Paris (VIIO) . Second Oil Shale and Cannel Coal Conference.-The Second Conference on Oil Shale and Cannel Coal will take place in Glasgow during the week beginning 3 July 1950. At the same time the James Young Centenary will be celebrated by a Young Memorial Lecture. The technical sessions of the Conference will be in three sections A-Geology and Mining; B-Retorting Refining and Uses of By-products; C-Economics and Statistics. There will also be an all-day visit to a shale mine and shale oil refinery. Registration forms (which should be returned not later than 1 September 1949) and further particulars may be obtained from the Secretary The Institute of Petroleum 26 Portland Place London W.1. r 395 1 The Fourth World Power Conference will be held in London from 10 to 15 July 1950. Study-tours will probably be arranged for the following week. The theme of the Conference will be “World Energy Resources and the Production of Power.” Division I will deal with Energy Resources and Power Developments Division I1 with Preparation of Fuels and Division I11 with Production of Power. Sir Harold Hartley K.C.V.O. C.B.E. F.R.S. has accepted the Chairman- ship of the Conference. The office of the British National Committee is at 201-2 Grand Buildings Trafalgar Square London W.C.2.SCIENTIFIC COURSES AND CONFERENCES The Society of Dyers and Co1ourists.-A Symposium on “Photochemistry in Relation to Textiles” will be held at Harrogate from 22 to 24 September 1949. The Symposium is open to non-members of the Society. Full particu- lars may be obtained from the General Secretary Society of Dyers and Colourists 32-34 Piccadilly Bradford Yorkshire. Society of Chemical Industry Food Group Symposium on Amino Acids and Protein Hydro1ysates.-The Symposium will be held in the William Beveridge Hall the Senate House University of London W.C.1 on 28-30 September 1949. Following an opening address by Professor E. C. Dodds M.V.O. F.R.S. at 6 p.m. on 28 September papers will be presented at sessions beginning at 10.30 a.m. and 6 p.m.on 29th September and at 10.30 a.m. 2.30 and 6 p.m. on 30 September. Applications for registration (fee 10s.) should be made as soon as possible to “Amino Acids Symposium,” Society of Chemical Industry 56 Victoria Street London S.W.1. Post-graduate Summer School in X-ray Crystallography at the University of Leeds.-A post-graduate course in X-ray crystallography will be held in the Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry University of Leeds from 29 August to 10 September inclusive. The lecturers will be Professor E. G. Cox Dr. G. W. Brindley Dr. N. H. Hartshorne Dr. G. A. Jeffrey and Mrs. M. R. Truter. Courses in Microchemistry at Battersea Polytech nic.-Post-graduate ectures and practical courses in Microchemistry will be held under the super- vision of Dr.P. F. Holt during the 1949-50 session as follows:- Autumn Term (26 September to 16 December 1949) Inorganic Qualitative Analysis. Spring Term (9 January to 31 March 1950) Organic Microchemical Methods. Summer Term (24 April to 14 July 1950) Quantitative Organic and Inorganic Analysis. Fee 10s. per Term. Further particulars and enrolment forms may be obtained from the Head of the Chemistry Department Battersea Polytechnic London S.W. 11. Courses at Chelsea Polytechnic.-The following courses are announced:- (1) Biochemistry.-Four groups of five lectures on Biochemistry will be given by Dr. E. M. Crook and Dr. F. L. Warren during the Autumn and Spring Terms on Monday evenings beginning 3 October. The lectures are designed for students who have a knowledge of chemistry to degree standard and wish to acquire a knowledge of general biochemistry.Fee for the whole course 30s.; for each part 7s. 6d. [ 396 I (2) The Chemistry and Technology of Fats.-A series of nine post- graduate lectures on “The Laboratory and Commercial Methods of Separat- ing Fats and Fatty Acids” will be given during the Autumn Term on Friday evenings beginning 14 October. The course has been planned and arranged to meet the demands of post-graduate students research workers industrial chemists and others interested in the subject. Fee for the course 15s. (3) The Chemistry and Microscopy of Food Drugs and Water.-A special course of lectures and practical work based on the syllabus for the Fellowship of the Royal Institute of Chemistry Branch E will be given for 1st year students on Tuesdays and Thursdays during two complete sessions beginning 27 September.Responsible Lecturer Mr. R. G. Minor; Lecturer in Materia Medica Mr. E. S. Mayer; Lecturer in Bacteri- ology Mr. A. W. G. Chetham; Assistant Lecturers and Demonstrators Mr. A. J. M. Bailey and Mr. V7. R. Rankin. Course Fee for each Session L3 3s.; Laboratory Fee 5s.; Membership IS. Further particulars of the above Courses may be obtained from the Principal Chelsea Polytechnic Manresa Road London S.W.3. Courses in Milk Processing and Control at Chelsea Polytechnic.-A course of study for the examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute in Milk Processing and Control will be re-commenced on Monday 26 September 1949.The Final Course Section B will be covered in two sessions’ attendance of two evenings a week Microbiological Control Mondays 6.50 to 8.30 p.m. Chemical Control Fridays 6.30 to 8.30 p.m. Further particulars may be obtained from the Principal Chelsea Poly- technic Manresa Road London S.W.3. Courses of Lectures at Acton Technical College.-A course of twelve lectures on “Certain Aspects of the Modern Chemistry of Oils and Fats” will be given during the Autumn Term on Fridays at 7.30 p.m. 1. Five lectures on Analysis of Fats and Fat-containing Materials by Dr. K. A. Williams Dr. J. H. Hamence and Mr. C. Whalley (23 September to 21 October). 2. Two lectures on Synthetic Fatty Acids and Synthetic Fats by Mr.P. N. Williams (28 October and 4 November). Two lectures on Drying Oils by Dr. L. A. O’Neill (11 and 18 November). 3. Three lectures on Some Aspects of the Biochemistry of Fats by Dr. F. L. Warren (25 November to 9 December). A two-year course on “The Chemistry and Technology of Plastics,” intended for students who have attained at least the Higher National Certifi- cate in Chemistry Chemistry of Plastic Materials on Thursdays 6.30-9.30 p.m. beginning on Thursday 22 September 1949; Technology of Plastic Materials on Fridays 2-5 p.m. Further particulars and registration forms may be obtained from the Principal Acton Technical College High Street Acton London W.3. Post-graduate Courses at Birmingham Central Technical College.-(1) Twelve lectures on “Physical Methods for determining the Size and Shape of Macromolecules in Solution,” by Dr.G. A. Gilbert on Friday evenings beginning 7 October. r 397 3 (2) Ten lectures on “Fundamentals and -4pplications of Heat Trans- mission,” by Dr. S. J. Green Dr. R. Long and Mr. R. Scott on Wednesday evenings beginning 12 October. (3) Post-graduate course in “Chemical Works Organisation,” on Monday Thursday and Friday evenings throughout the Session. Further particulars and forms of application for admission to the Courses may be obtained from the Registrar Central Technical College Suffolk Street Birmingham 1. Course in Brick Manufacture at the Imperial College of Science and Technology.-A short course of 16 lectures in “Brick Manufacture,” designed for technical men in industry will be held in the Royal School of Mines South Kensington from 26 to 30 September.Fee for the course L4. Further particulars may be obtained from the Deputy Registrar City and Guilds College Exhibition Road London S.W.7. MEDALS AND PRIZES The Meldola Medal.-This medal is the gift of the Society of Maccabaeans and is normally awarded annually. The next award will be made early in 1950 to the chemist who being a British subject and under 30 years of age at 3 1 December 1949 shows the most promise as indicated by his or her published chemical work brought to the notice of the Council of the Royal Institute of Chemistry before 31 December 1949. No restrictions are placed upon the kind of chemical work or the place in which it is conducted.The merits of the work may be brought to the notice of the Council either by persons who desire to recommend the candidate or by the candidate himself by letter addressed to “The President Royal Institute of Chemistry 30 Russell Square London W.C.1,” the envelope being marked “Meldola Medal.” Beil by Memorial Awards.-From the interest derived from the invested capital of the Sir George Beilby Memorial Fund at intervals to be determined by the administrators representing the Royal Institute of Chemistry the Society of Chemical Industry and the Institute of Metals awards are made to British investigators in science to mark appreciation of records of distinguished work. Preference is given to investigations relating to the special interests of Sir George Beilby including problems connected with fuel economy chemical engineering and metallurgy and awards are made not on the result of any competition but in recognition of continuous work of exceptional merit bearing evidence of distinct advancement in science and practice.In general awards are not applicable to workers of established repute but are granted as an encouragement to younger men who have done original independent work of exceptional merit over a period of years. Consideration will be given to the making of an award or awards from the Fund early in 1950 and the administrators-the Presidents Honorary Treasurers and Secretaries of the three participating institutions-will there-fore be glad to have their attention drawn to outstanding work of the nature indicated not later than 3 I December 1949.All communications on this subject should be addressed to the Convener Sir George Beilby Memorial Fund Royal Institute of Chemistry 30 Russell Square London W.C.l. Sir Edward Frankland Medal and Prize I949.-Registered Students are informed that the Council will be prepared to consider the award in February 1950 of a Medal and Prize (LJO 10s.) for the best essay not exceeding 3000 [ 398 1 words contributed by a Registered Student of not more than 22 years of age at the time of forwarding the essay. The essay may deal with any subject having a bearing on chemistry or chemical work provided that it does not deal with any purely chemical technical or historical subject.The object of the essay is to induce Students to develop a sense of professional public s@it and to devote thought to questions of professional interest and to the position of chemists in the life of the community. Essays will be valued partly for literary style and technique but mainly for the thoughts and ideas contained therein. (See the comments of one of the Assessors for the 1945 competition JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1946 111 136.) Each essay must be sent to the Honorary Secretary of the Local Section in the area of which the competitor resides (see list of Local Sections at the end of the Journal) not later than 3 I December 1949 and must be accom- panied by a signed declaration that it is the independent work of the contributor.The Committee of each Local Section will be asked to select from those received not more than three essays considered to be worthy of the award. The selected essays will be referred to Assessors appointed by the Council on whose report the Council will decide whether and to whom an award shall be made. The award will not be made more than once to any individual competitor. The Medal and Prize will be presented at the next Annual General Meeting or at a meeting of the Local Section to which the successful cpmpetitor is attached. The Newton Chambers Prize Essay Competition I949.-1n 1945 Messrs. Newton Chambers & Co. Ltd, offered to the South Yorkshire Section (now the Sheffield South Yorkshire and North Midlands Section) of the Institute a sum of LlOO per annum for seven years for the award of an annual prize for contributions to the subject of Chemistry and Industrial Welfare.The object of the award is to encourage young chemists to make greater use of their knowledge of chemistry and their facilities for experimental work to enhance the existing knowledge of Industrial Welfare. AppIications to compete for the Prize for 1949 are invited under the following conditions:- 1. The 1949 competition is open to every Fellow Associate or Registered Student of the Institute who had not reached his 36th birthday by I January 1949. 2. The 1949 Award is offered for an essay paper or papers published or unpublished embodying the candidate’s own observations or experi- mental work on some aspects of the application of chemistry to the promotion of Industrial Welfare.A critical examination of existing knowledge is admissible to the competition providing that the conclu- sions reached constitute an addition to the knowledge of the subject. 3. Each candidate must transmit to the Hon. Secretary Sheffield South Yorkshire and North Midlands Section Royal Institute of Chemistry (G. Murfitt F.R.I.C. William Jessop & Sons Ltd. Brightside Works Sheffield) to reach him on or before 31 December 1949 (a)A formal letter of application to enter the competition stating his name address date of birth and status (Fellow Associate or Registered Student) in the Institute; (b)two copies of each essay or paper submitted together with a brief statement in duplicate indicating in what respect the essay or paper advances knowledge of the application of chemistry to the promotion of Industrial Welfare; and (c) a declaration by the candidate that the work is his own or in the case of joint papers a statement signed by the candidate and his collaborators as to the extent to which the results and conclusions are the work of the candidate.I 399 1 4. The decision of the Committee of the Sheffield South Yorkshire and North Midlands Section on any matter connected with the award of the prize is final. The Committee may at its discretion divide the Prize between two or more candidates or may withhold the award if no entry of sufficient merit is received. 5. The Committee may require a candidate to attend for interview in connection with his application.6. The Committee reserves the right to publish the successful essay or paper (if not already published) in whatever form it thinks desirable. MISCELLANEOUS Dr. Dorothy Jordan-Lloyd Memorial Fund.-A Fund is being established under this title to provide for a Travelling Fellowship to enable scientists engaged in the study of subjects underlying leather technology to spend a year at Universities in the British Commonwealth or the United States. Dr. Jordan-Lloyd was a prominent member of the Institute and was a Vice- President at the time of her death. Members who would like to pay a tribute to her memory by subscribing to the Fund should send contributions to the office of the Fund Leather Trade House Barter Street London W.C.l making cheques payable to the British Leather Manufacturers’ Research Association and crossed “Dr.Jordan-Lloyd Memorial Fund.” Chemical Society Library.-From 16 July to 30 September inclusive the Library will be open from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. daily except during the first fortnight in August when it will be closed for revision and cleaning. ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDUM In the Report of the Council for 1948 (JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, 1949 SUPPLEMENT, p. 23) acknowledgment was made of help given in connection with the Examination for the Associateship held at Bangalore in March 1948. In addition to Dr. G. J. Fowler Professor H. S. Jois and Messrs. G. Narayan and S. Siddappa should have been mentioned.Journal and Proceedings 1949 111 It is regretted that in the list of Representatives of the Institute on Other Bodies (page 239) the following entry was inadvertently omitted:- The Scientific Film Association Appraisals Committee F. L. ALLEN; Sciences Committee D. M. FREELAND. It is also regretted that the name of A. D. Mitchell D.Sc. (Lond.) Assistant Examiner was omitted from the list of Members of the Board of Examiners. Page 301 para. 4 line 4. For 0.6357 g. Cu read 0.06357g. Cu. GENERAL NOTICES (For notices relating to matters of immediate importance see “Announcements” on pp. ii and 394.) Notice to Associates.-Regulations and forms of application for the Fellowship can be obtained from the Registrar. Appointments Register.-An Appointments Register is maintained by the Institute through which Fellows Associates and some senior registered students can be informed of vacancies.Facilities are afforded by this Register free to authorities and firms requiring the services of qualified chemists. Prospective employers and Fellows and Associates who desire to make use of this service should communicate with the Registrar. Lib raries.-The comprehensive Library of the Chemical Society Burlington House Piccadilly W.l to the maintenance of which the Institute makes substantial contributions is available to Fellows Associates and Registered Students wishing to consult or borrow books from 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. on weekdays (Satudays 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.). Books can also be borrowed by post.Books may be borrowed from the Science Library Science Museum South Kensington S.W.7 on production of requisitions signed by the Registrar or the Secretary of the Institute. The use of the Goldsmiths’ Library of the University of London is also permitted to Fellows and Associates on application being made through the Office of the Institute. The Library of the Institute is open to Fellows Associates and Registered Students from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. on week-days (not including Saturdays). Lantern Slides for Lecturers.-A list of slides of portraits of great chemists and other scientists throughout the ages can be obtained on application to the Secretary. As the slides are frequently in demand members are requested to notify their requirements at least 14 days before the date on which the slides are to be used.Joint Subscription Arrangements.-Fellows Associates and Registered Students who wish to participate in the arrangements whereby they can maintain on favourable terms their membership of the Chemical Society and the Society of Chemical Industry and also if desired of the Faraday Society or the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists with sub-stantial privileges as to publications (see special article JOURNAL AND PRO-CEEDINGS, 1946 Part IV P. 148) can obtain further particulars and necessary forms from the Conjoint Chemical Office 9 and 10 Savile Row London W. I. Benevolent Fund.-Contributions for 1949 may be sent to the Honorary Treasurer 30 Russell Square London W.C.I. Forms for Deeds of Covenant may be obtained from the Secretary. Covers for the Journal.-Members who desire covers (2s. each) for binding the JOURNAL in annual volumes should notify the Secretary AND PROCEEDINGS of their requirements. Covers for the years 1939 to 1948 inclusive are available. Changes of Address.-Fellows Associates and Registered Students who wish to notify changes of address are requested to give so far aspossible their permanent addresses for registration. When writing from an address different from that previously given they are requested to state if the new address is to be used in future and whether the change affects the Appointments Register. All requests for changes should be addressed to the Registrar and not to the Honorary Secretaries of Local Sections.In order to facilitate identification Fellows Associates and Registered Students are asked to give their full initials on communications addressed to the Institute. In the prevailing circumstances they are also asked not invariably to expect formal acknowledgments of communications addressed to the Institute unless replies are necessary. I 401 I PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS LECTURES AND REPORTS. “Ludwig Mond F.R.S. 1839-1909.” F. G. Donnan C.B.E. DSc. F.R.I.C. F.R.S. (1939.) 2s. net. *“Magnesite.” A. W. Comber F.R.I.C. Assoc. Inst. M.M. (1939.) 2s. net *“Precious Metals.” H. Gordon Dale F.R.I.C. (1941.) 2s. net. *“Notes on Water Treatment.” Russell G. Pelly F.R.I.C. (1942.) 2s. net.“Leather.” D. Jordan-Lloyd M.A. D.Sc. F.R.I.C. (1943.) 2s. 6d. net. “Cement and Concrete.” F. M. Lea O.B.E. D.Sc. F.R.I.C. (1945.) 2s. 6d. net. §“Chemistry and Clothing.” D. A. Clibbens. (1945.) 2s. net. “Industrial Non-Ferrous Alloys.” Harold Moore C.B.E. D.Sc. F.R.I.C. (1945.) 2s. 6d. net. “Microchemistry and its Applications.” Ronald Belcher F.R.I.C. (1946.) 4s. 6d. net. “Soil Metabolism.” J. H. Quastel D.Sc. Ph.D. A.R.C.S. F.R.I.C. F.R.S. 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Symposium on “Coal Petroleum and their Newer Derivatives.” (1948.) 7s. 6d. net. $“Through Chemistry-Adornment.” C. J. T. Cronshaw B.Sc. D.Sc. F.R.I.C. M.I.Chem.E. F.T.I. (194?;) 3s. net. “Percy Faraday Frankland. First P. F. Frankland Memorial Lecture. L. H. Lampitt D.Sc. M.I.Chem.E. F.R.I.C. (1949.) 3s. net. “Anaesthetics.” H. B. Nisbet Ph.D. D.Sc. A.H.-W.C. F.R.I.C. F.R.S.E. (1949.) 3s. net. Report of a Conference on “The Origins and Prevention of Laboratory Accidents.” (1949.) 5s. 6d. net. OF FELLOWS REGISTER AND ASSOCIATES,1948. 10s. net. FOR OF STUDENTS Gratis. REGULATIONSTHE ADMISSION ASSOCIATESAND FELLOWS. JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS. Six Parts annually. (Available to Members only.) * Streatfeild Memorial Lectures.t Gluckstein Memorial Lecture. 8 Dalton Lectures. Tatlock Memorial Lecture. ** Meldola Medal Lecture. [ 402 J